I've already spoken about, standing

waves.
but, for each mode it's, it's, it's
referred to frequently as a standing
wave.
And there's a relationship, between the,
wave number, the frequency and the speed
of sound, and that's expressed here.
And remember, the frequency which we
defined earlier, the natural frequency
this is the expression for the natural
frequency.
So all I've done is substituted for f's
of n here in the expression.
And if we do that and solve for the wave
length, we get an expression for the wave
length that's defined as 2L divided by N.
And so notice if you remember on the
diagram in the previous slide, the, the,
the fundamental mode of the, of the
string, looked basically like this.
And so, the wave, the full wavelength
actually will continue on outside the
boundary of the string.
And you can see that here in the
expression.
So when n equals l the wavelength is
twice the length of the string which is
defined here.
Okay?
And so we get the, the, the appropriate
wavelength for n equal 1, n equal 2, n
equal 3 through the expression here.
so that's, that's the wavelength we've
previously sketched.
it's also worth noting that, that, in the
case of the string here, that f2.
The, second natural frequency, is equal
to 2 times the first.
And the third natural frequency is equal
to 3 times the first, etcetera.
and these are called overtones because
they're integral multiples, of the
fundamental.
And this is [INAUDIBLE] useful for
stringed instruments, like guitars.
where the notes can be changed.
I'm going to talk a little bit about the
guitar strings in particular.
I've, I've sketched out the the frets for
a typical neck of a guitar here.
And, you know, what we've shown here is
basically where one might place your
fingers on the strings.
To to create a chord.
And, of course, these are the frets
associated with the guitar.
And we can change the length of the
string, the tension stays fixed, the
mass-per-unit length stays fixed.

But we can change the tension, I'm sorry,

the length of the string.
And when we do that it's going to change
the frequency.
And I can demonstrate that as well.
>> So, given that this is a course in
audio music engineering, it seems
important to bring the the discussion on
the engineering side back to the musical
side.
And we've been talking about strings
under a fixed level of tension.
And if you remember the speed of sound
was related to the tension in the string
and the mass per unit length.
And of course, you know, on an instrument
like the guitar or other instruments the
diameters of the strings are typically
different.
And that obviously changes the mass per
unit length.
turns out, you know, for the guitar I've
got this in a standard tuning, so the
first and sixth string are both tuned to
E.
but if you remember, if we change the
length of the string, then the frequency
changes in inverse proportion.
So if we were to decrease the length of
the string, we're effectively going to
increase the the frequency associated
with the resonance of the string itself.
So, for example, here's the first string
open [SOUND] and then I can apply my
finger on the fret board [SOUND].
And you immediately hear the change in
the pitch, and of course that's the key
[SOUND] to a tuned instrument is that
[SOUND] we actually have the ability to
change the frequency [SOUND] fret board.
And you know in music we call that our
guitar chords, and so we, that's what
turns the theory of strings into music.
[MUSIC] Just one last comment on the
changing the length of the strings.
We obviously have bar chords but, you
know, there is a, a device that we use
called the capo, that we can apply to the
The neck of the guitar.
And basically, change the, length of all
the strings at the same time.
So that's a quick way for us to, change
the overall frequency of all the strings
uniformly.
>> There's a really nice, website,
that's constructed by, Professor Dan
Russell.
at Penn State and he teaches in the
Graduate Acoustics program.
But if you follow the link to the web

site on your own there are many different

animations that are displayed there.
I'm going to focus a few because he
covers the natural modes of a fixed-fixed
string as you can see here on the screen.
And if you you know all of the equations
that he represents here are consistent
with what we talked about already.
But I thought you might like to see an
animation of the modes.
So this is N equal 1, N equal 2, N equal
3, N equal 4.
And you can see the standing waves that
this is the motion of those each of those
modes as they vibrate.
Now the key point I wanted to make
earlier was is that the total response of
the string at any given time is the
summation of the response of all of these
individual modes together.
So you can see here vi, the vibration of
a fixed string that is plucked at a
distance 1 third of its length.
And so the black line here is the total
response of the string frozen in, in one
instant of time.
what you see here, is the first mode, the
second mode, the third and the fourth
modes.
And basically if you were to sum the
response of all of these modes together.
You begin to see this general motion or
behavior.
So one forumlates the sum of the response
of the individual modes to actually
construct the actual picture of the
reponse of the string itself.
So this is a really good webpage I would
encourage you to to look at it through
there are a number of different areas of
to to study the response characterisitcs.