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ACI JOURNAL

TECHNICAL PAPER

Title no. 77-18

Shearwall Design Philosophy


ACI Committee 442/445 Symposium Paper

Earthquake-Resisting Shearwalls - New Zealand Design


Trends

by Thomas Paulay
'Design considerations for earthquake-resisting shearwalls with a
particular emphasis on desirable energy dissipation properties are
reviewed. After a brief description of different structural responses
to seismic motions and the derivation of ensuing actions, criteria
for the intended ductile flexural behavior of shearwalls are examined. In somewhat greater detail failure modes in shear and the
means of controlling excessive seismic shear deformations, considered to be particularly detrimental to stability in stiffness and
energy dissipation, are discussed. Detailing requirements for the reinforcement of coupling beams and the boundary zones of ductile
shearwalls, considered in New Zealand to be desirable, are reported.
Keywords: deformation; diagonal tension; ductility; earthquake resistant
structures; earthquakes; failure mechanisms; reinforced concrete; shear properties; shearwalls; structural analysis; structural design.

quake-imposed displacements can be assured. This


may involve very large excursions beyond yield. Such
structures must therefore be ductile. To insure the desired energy dissipation, the designer's primary aim
will be to minimize inevitable degradation in both
stiffness and strength.
Flexural yielding of ductile walls
An obvious source of hysteretic damping is the
yielding of the principal flexural reinforcement. Yielding in cantilever walls can usually be restricted to the
base of the wall, as shown in Fig. lb. Therefore such
areas deserve special attention for detailing. Concrete,
being a relatively brittle material that shows rapid
strength degradation, in both compression and shear,
when subj ected to repeated inelastic strains and multidirectional cracking, should not normally be considered as a significant source of energy dissipation. To
insure the desired ductility, the major part of the internal forces in the potential plastic region of a shearwall should therefore be allocated to reinforcement.
The desired response of a ductile shearwall structure
manifests itself in well-rounded load-displacement hysteresis loops, such as shown in Fig. 2 or in Curve 2 in
Fig. 3.

The primary requirement for an earthquake-resisting shearwall structure is that it should insure survival
during the largest ground shaking that can be expected in the locality. The damage suffered may be
beyond repair. Because of its inherent large stiffness,
a shearwall should protect components of a building
against all but superficial damage during more frequent seismic disturbances of smaller intensity. It is in
this latter role that shearwalls have a particular appeal
in earthquake-resisting construction.
This paper presents briefly only those aspects of design that are considered to be essential when the criterion of structural survival is to be met. Particular emphasis is given to the effects of shear on the inelastic
response of shearwall structures.

Control of shear distortions


While shear-resisting mechanisms in reinforced concrete, which are associated with diagonal tension and

ENERGY DISSIPATING MECHANISMS


It is generally accepted that for most situations
energy dissipation by hysteretic damping is a viable
means by which structural survival of large earth-

Presented at the ACI Annual Convention, Milwaukee, Wis., Mar. 23,


1979, and reviewed under Institute publication policies. Copyright 1980,
American Concrete Institute. All rights reserved, including the making of
copies unless permission is obtained from the copyright proprietors. Pertinent
discussion will be published in the March-April 1981 ACI JouRNAL if received
by Dec. I, 1980.

144

ACI JOURNAL I May-June 1980

sponse. In New Zealand a linear increase of the seismic design base shear by up to 60 percent is being
considered when the aspect ratio of a wall h.. II,. reduces from two to one. However, the increased lateral
load resistance of a low-rise shearwall does not eliminate the necessity to detail the structure for ductility.
Most such walls will respond in the low range of fundamental periods, typically 0.3 to 0.5 sec, and hence
will be subjected to much larger ductility demands
than long period structures. Moreover, the consequences of ductility demand, in terms of damage and
strength degradation, are more severe in such structures because a larger number of inelastic load reversals must be expected during an earthquake of given
duration.

Thomas Pau/ay, FACI, is professor of civil engineering at the University of


Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand. Currently he is a member of Joint
ACI-ASCE Committee 445, Shear and Torsion and ACI Committee 442, Response of Buildings to Lateral Forces. He is also a member of the Concrete
Design Committee of the New Zealand Standards Association.

which rely on the traditional truss mechanism (Fig.


1c), can be made relatively ductile during monotonic
loading, they are generally unsuitable for inelastic
cyclic shear loading. Shear resistance after inelastic
shear displacements can be attained only when the
subsequent imposed displacement is larger than the
largest previously encountered displacement. Inelastic
tensile strains in stirrup reinforcement can never be recovered and hence in such cases the width of diagonal
cracks also increases with progressive cyclic loading.
Curves 3 and 4 in Fig. 3 show typical load displacement responses for one quadrant of a displacement cycle. These have been affected by significant shear displacements. In comparison, Curves I
and 2 show the idealized elastic-plastic and the optimal response of a reinforced concrete member. To
minimize the "pinching" of hysteresis loops, designers
should endeavor to suppress inelastic shear distortions. In conventionally reinforced walls the detrimental effect of shear increases with the magnitude of
the shear stress, the reduction of axial compression on
the wall section and the reduction of the height to
length ratio (h..,/1..,) of the wall.

Elastically responding walls


Some low-rise shearwalls, typically with an aspect
ratio of less than one, may be designed for the full expected elastic inertia forces. This may not involve an
excessive demand for reinforcement. In such cases no
special precautions for detailing to give ductility will
be required.
Wall behavior controlled by foundations
All shearwalls, isolated or coupled, are cantilever
structures. Therefore the critical region chosen is normally at the base of the wall. If energy dissipation has
been assigned to plastic hinges of ductile shearwalls
then the foundations must also be capable of sustaining the associated overturning moment. Therefore the
designer must know the intensity of the actions which
can be "squeezed out" of the superstructure during
the largest expected inelastic deformation.
Alternatively the designer may choose the foundation structure to be the major source of energy dissipation. Because repair is difficult, this solution will
seldom be found to be a viable one. Elastically responding shearwall structures must also have foundations of matching capacity.
Increased attention is being paid in New Zealand to
base isolation techniques, whereby the period of vibration of certain shearwalls is being increased to insure that a shift from a higher to a lower intensity in
the response spectrum results. 3 Consideration of due-

Walls with limited ductility


In shearwalls with low height h.., to length I.. ratio,
it is more difficult to develop the required energy dissipation. The reason for this is that even with a small
amount of vertical (flexural) reinforcement large shear
stresses will be generated. The inevitable reduction in
energy dissipation must be recognized and hence for
such structures, which often occur in low-rise buildings, less reliance must be placed on hysteretic damping. In particular, inelastic displacements associated
with sliding shear across the critical base section, as
shown in Fig. le, can significantly reduce the energy
dissipation with progressing cyclic loading of squat
shearwalls. 2 This means that walls with limited ductility must be designed to resist larger fractions of the
forces that would be generated during an elastic re-

(a)

Fig. 1 -

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

Loading and possible consequent failure modes of a cantilever shearwall

ACI JOURNAL-/ May-June 1980

145

1<1p 1n

tility for shearwalls is also obviated if energy dissipation takes place in specially designed rocking
foundations.

(I<Nm!

4000

; 3000
~

,Wa/1/Juck/~s

'.(
'----0

r-no;

r-2001

!200!

-10.0

!250I!mm!

10.0
Encl D~fltocf1on (,nsJ

ooo

Fig. 2 - Load-displacement response to cyclic reversed loading of a ductile shearwall structure'

Fig. 3 - Load-displacement response for (Line 1)


idealized, (Line 2) optimal, and (Lines 3, 4) repeated
shear-affected conditions in reinforced concrete members
Assumed
moment
variation

Nominal
minimum

Base moment at ideal strength

Fig. 4 - Bending moment for lateral static load and


recommended moment envelope for a cantilever shearwall
146

DERIVATION OF STRUCTURAL ACTIONS


Most building codes specify equivalent lateral static
loads that are considered to provide acceptable
strength levels for structures of different categories,
i.e., those that are ductile, or have limited ductility or
are expected to respond within the elastic range. In
most cases the evaluation of consequent internal actions, such as moments, shear and axial forces, from
an elastic analysis is simple. In shearwalls that are designed to dissipate energy in the flexural mode, load
redistribution between components can be considered
advantageously. For example, a moment redistribution from one cantilever to another, not exceeding 30 percent reduction in the elastically assigned
load, should be acceptable in recognition of the inelastic response and inherent ductility of the structure.
It must be recognized that it is impossible to devise
an equivalent static load for a structure, even as
simple as a cantilever, that will give a satisfactory envelope simultaneously for moments and shear forces
that may be generated during its dynamic response.
To allow for dynamic effects, while retaining the simplicity of the static analysis, two modifications to it
are warranted.
l. Once the base moment for a code loading Meade
has been provided for, the overstrength of the base
section M. should be evaluated. In this the probable
strength of the reinforcement, which may have entered the strain hardening range, as detailed on the
drawings, is to be considered. The flexural reinforcement may then be curtailed in accordance with
a linear envelope rather than the original bending moment envelope as shown in Fig. 4. This may be expected to insure that significant yielding will occur
only at the base of the wall. The potential plastic
hinge zone, where special detailing of the reinforcement is necessary, may be assumed to extend
above the critical section at the base of the wall to a
distance equal to the length of the wall I.,. Vertical
flexural bars to be curtailed must extend at least by
development length beyond the section at which, according to the linear moment envelope, they are no
longer required to contribute to flexural resistance. It
should also be noted that the maximum moment value
of the envelope at the base must be taken as the flexural strength provided by the reinforcement, as shown
on the drawings, rather than the moment derived
from the specified lateral loading on the wall. When
these criteria are satisfied, detailing for ductility will
not be required in other parts of the wall. Moreover,
a less conservative approach to the design for shear
resistance may be used in areas outside the potential
plastic hinge zone. The cost in using additional vertical flexural reinforcement outside the potential plastic
hinge zone, in accordance with the moment envelope
shown in Fig. 4, is usually more than compensated for
ACI JOURNAL I May-June 1980

by the savings in the use of transverse shear reinforcement.


2. The design shear force for a cantilever wall may
be obtained from
Vwau = wAa Vcade
(1)
where Vcode = shear force derived from the code specified static load, ~o = MoiMcod the flexural overstrength factor, and w. = dynamic shear magnification. The increase of shear forces, particularly due to
higher mode dynamic responses of long-period walls,
is allowed for with the use of w., the value of which
has been estimated5 as follows:
For walls up to 5 stories
w = O.lN

+ 0.9

(2a)

For walls 6 stories and taller


(2b)
w = 0.033N + 1.3 < 1.8
where N is the number of the stories. The design
shear forces Vwau need not exceed the value that is obtained when fully elastic response of the structure to
the design earthquake is assumed.
PHILOSOPHY OF CAPACITY DESIGN
To insure that energy dissipation will occur primarily in ductile regions as intended, a hierarchy in the
formation of failure mechanisms must be established.
In shearwalls this means that the shear forces associated with the development flexural overcapacity Mo
must be evaluated 2 and then the shear strength of the
wall must be made at least equal to this demand.
Thereby sufficient precautions may be considered to
have been taken to suppress a shear failure during an
earthquake of the largest expected intensity.
When design actions for a particular section are derived from capacity design procedures, representing an
upper bound approach for seismic response, the use
of a strength reduction ~ is considered to be unnecessary. It is postulated that reliance on nominal strength
of a section, as derived from first principles and from
specified material strengths, should be sufficient to insure the desired hierarchy in the development of
energy-dissipating mechanisms throughout the structure.
DUCTILE FLEXURAL BEHAVIOR
Curvature ductility
The importance of flexural yielding and hence ductility with respect to the inelastic dynamic response of
the structure has already been emphasized. A convenient measure by which the designer can easily gage
the potential for flexural ductility is a comparison of
curvatures at the critical section at various stages of
behavior. Fig. 5 shows for example a rectangular wall
section and particular strain patterns that correspond
with various loadings. It is evident that the development of the theoretical flexural strength of such a
wall, associated by the strain distribution of dashed
Line 1, will be preceded by very considerable yield deformations. (In Fig. 5 assumed characteristic strain
values are typically Ec = 0.003 for concrete and Ey =
0.0015 for steel.) The available curvature ductility is
ACI JOURNAL I May-June 1980

Ec
Eu

Strain Distnbution

Fig. 5 - Rectangular wall section subjected to flexure


and axial load

..

...... .

'

Eu

Ec

Strain Distnbutions

Fig. 6 - Flanged wall sections subjected to flexure


thus ample and may not be required to be fully developed during an earthquake. Should the wall be required to carry significant axial compression, the neutral axis of the section at the development of full
strength will shift from Position I to Position 2, as indicated by the Distances c, and c2 in Fig. 5. The associated curvature is now seen to be much smaller. If
the same curvature is to be attained as in the case of
pure flexure, a very significant increase of concrete
compression strains (beyond Ec = 0.003) is involved,
as is shown by Line 2' in Fig. 5. This can be achieved
only by confinement of that part of the compression
zone of the wall section where expected compression
strains will be excessive.
Flanged wall sections
The configuration of the wall section has equally
important effects on the curvature that is developed at
the attainment of the flexural strength of the section.
As wall Section A in Fig. 6 shows, very large curvature is associated with the flexural capacity of a channel-shaped wall section, shown by the dashed line,
when the "web" is in compression. The hinge forma-

147

tion at the base of this cantilever wall during a large


inelastic pulse may require less curvature, shown by
the full line in Fig. 6. The loss of flexural capacity associated with such reduced curvature is normally negligible. Wall Section B will exhibit considerably less
ductility at the development of its flexural strength, as
is shown by the broken line in Fig. 6. If a curvature
equal to that required in Wall A is to be attained also
in Wall B, an increase of compression strains at the
tips of "flanges" of the section is necessary. It is evident that in such a case also confinement of the compression zone will be required, even though the axial
compression on Wall B of Fig. 6 may be very small.
Stability of sections
When part of a thin wall section is subjected to
large compression strains, clearly the danger of premature failure by instability of the section arises. This
is the case when a large neutral axis depth is required
in the plastic hinge zone of a wall section, as shown
by Line 2' in Fig. 5. The problem is compounded
when cyclic inelastic deformations occur. Suggestions
for forming compact wall sections have been made. 6
Experimental studies are required, however, to identify all problematic issues of section instability in
earthquake-resisting shearwalls.
Confinement of wall sections
Aspects of the confinement of column sections, to
enhance both the compression strain capacity and
compression strength of the concrete core, have been
reported. 2 No studies of similar extent, relevant to
shearwalls, were available in New Zealand as of 1979.
The confinement of the entire wall section of a
compression dominated wall section, as is done in columns, would appear to be unnecessary. It has been
suggested, 7 however, that when the compression zone
is large, as shown by Strain Patterns 2 and 2' in Fig.
5 and in Wall B of Fig. 6, at least the critical half of
the theoretical compression zone be confined. These
suggested areas are shown by cross-hatching in Fig. 5
and 6. Accordingly it is recommended that confining
reinforcement, consisting of rectangular or polygonal
hoops and supplementary ties, surrounding the longitudinal bars in the region to be confined, should be
used so that:

A,. = 0.3s.h" (

~:: - 1) ;~ (0.5

+ 0.9

1~)

(3a)

(3b)

whichever is greater, where the ratio ell.., need not be


taken more than 0.8.
In the above equations:
A,, = total effective area of hoops and supplementary cross ties in direction under consideration within spacing s,, mm 2
148

A *

vertical center to center spacmg 01 nuuv


sets, mm
gross area of the outer half of wall section
which is subjected to compression strains,

mm 2
area of concrete core in the outer half of
section which is subjected to compression
strains, measured to outside of peripheral
hoop legs, mm 2
specified compressive strength of concrete,
MPa
fy.
specified yield strength of hoop or supplementary cross tie steel, MPa
h"
dimension of concrete core of section measured perpendicular to the direction of the
hoop bars, mm
The terms c and lw are defined in Fig. 5.
SHEAR STRENGTH
The detrimental influence that shear forces might
have on the ductile response of walls has been referred to. For this reason it is emphasized that designers should make every effort to suppress shear failures
and to control shear distortions. Once this is achieved
the optimum hysteretic response of a reinforced concrete shearwall may be assured with relative ease.
Shear failure modes
Diagonal tension is the common mode of shear failure. The control of this, with the use of web reinforcement which forms a truss mechanism, as
shown in Fig. 1c, is well established. In shearwalls this
involves horizontal web reinforcement. When the
nominal shear stresses are very high, necessitating
large amounts of shear (stirrup) reinforcement, diagonal compression failure of the web may occur. More
frequently this may be the case in flanged walls which
have thin webs. During reversed cyclic loading the
compression strength of the web is considerably reduced by intersecting diagonal cracks. During earthquakes near horizontal failure planes may develop in
plastic hinge zones along interconnecting cracks and
these may lead to a sliding shear failure. Horizontal
construction joints 2 may also present a potential
weakness in this respect. (See Fig. 1d and 1e.)
Control of diagonal tension failure
The contribution of horizontal web reinforcement
to shear resistance is well established. The contribution of mechanisms other than the traditional "truss"
is less clearly understood. For convenience the actions
of these mechanisms are collectively referred to as the
contribution of the concrete, Vc. Shear forces may be
transferred across a potential diagonal failure plane
(a) by aggregate interlock action across crack interfaces,
(b) by the uncracked flexural compression zone of
the wall, and
ACI JOURNAL I May-June 1980

(c) by the dowel action of all longitudinal reinforcing bars. 2


It is evident that all three of these mechanisms, referred to as Vc, will drastically degrade in an area
where reversed cyclic loading, involving yielding of
the flexural reinforcement, can occur. Consequently it
appears advisable that in the absence of significant axial compression in potential plastic hinge regions, the
entire design shear force should be resisted by web reinforcement.
The inclination of the compression field of the truss
mechanism has been traditionally assumed to be 45
deg. However, it has been demonstrated that this
angle will depend on the ratio of the longitudinal to
transverse reinforcement. 8 The apparent contribution
of the concrete to shear strength Vc in webs of
flanged beams is largely due to the more efficient
functioning of the diagonal compression field at an
angle less than 45 deg.
In regions of a shearwall not affected by flexural
yielding, the influence of reversed cyclic earthquake
loading upon shear strength is not significant. This
means that outside potential plastic hinge zones the
design procedure for shear should be the same as for
gravity loading.
When dependable axial compression is present, the
penetration of large flexural cracks into the body of a
shearwall is limited. Therefore a significant fraction
of the shear force may be transferred across the larger
flexural compression zone of the wall section without
the aid of web reinforcement. In New Zealand the relevant recommendations of "Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete (ACI 318-77)" are
being considered and somewhat modified for such situations. 7 In walls, in which the average compression
stress over the gross area A 8 due to the axial load N"
does not exceed 10 percent of the compressive
strength of the concrete fc', the contribution of the
concrete toward shear strength in the plastic hinge
zone is neglected. For larger compression stresses
NJA. the nominal shear strength of the concrete Vc is
made in the New Zealand Code proposals to approach
the value specified by ACI 318-77 as follows:

v.

(4)

where lw and bw are the length and the web thickness


of the wall section respectively. These proposals were
made because the ACI 318-77 provisions are based on
experimental evidence obtained from monotonic loading tests, simulating gravity load effects, rather than
on cyclic reversed load tests, that would show more
credibly simulated seismic performance.
Control of sliding shear
In plastic zones, where interconnected cracks may
develop over the full length of the wall section, as
seen in Fig. I e, sliding shear is the largest single cause
ACI JOURNAL I May-June 1980

for both stiffness and strength degradation. As might


be expected, sliding shear effects increase with nominal shear stresses, with the reduction of axial compression and the height to length ratio of the wall. In
beams, the sliding displacement associated with shear
stresses less than 0.3v'{j MPa* may be considered to
be acceptable. In New Zealand it is proposed 7 that
when reversed shear stresses, associated with the full
flexural capacity of the plastic hinge of beams exceed
0.3Vf'! MPa*, diagonal shear reinforcement, resisting a substantial fraction of the shear across the potential failure plane, should be used to control sliding.
The resistance against sliding shear displacement in
shearwalls is, however, considered to be greater than
it is in beams because:
1. Distributed vertical wall reinforcement provides
better crack control. (In beams such bars are usually
absent.) Thereby shear transfer by aggregate interlock
is improved.
2. The large number of vertical bars, evenly distributed over the length of the wall section, provide
by dowel action more effective sliding shear resistance
than do beam bars that bear against cover concrete.
Larger-diameter bars in boundary elements of shearwalls are also more effective in dowel shear transfer.
3. Vertical bars distributed over the wall section insure that at the development of flexural strength without axial load more bars will be subjected to tension
than to compression. Thereby the concrete in the
compression zone of a typical shearwall section will
always contribute to flexural strength. Therefore previously formed cracks in this zone will close so that
concrete compression stresses can be transferred and
hence interface shear transfer in the compression zone
becomes possible. Such shear transfer is often absent
in symmetrically reinforced beam sections.
4. Most shearwalls will carry some compression
forces due to gravity loads. These will enhance the
closure of the flexural compression zone that was subj ected to large tensile yield strains in the preceding
load cycle.
For the above reasons it is considered that nominal
shear stresses, larger than those relevant to plastic
hinge zones of beams, are appropriate in the design of
shearwalls. It should be noted that the contribution of
horizontal web reinforcement to sliding shear resistance is negligible. Effective control of sliding can be
conveniently achieved by the use of diagonal reinforcement. Whereas the very significant improvement in the hysteretic response of diagonally reinforced coupling beams has been identified, 2 similar
application to shearwalls is only being explored.
Some applications which are likely to result in greatly
improved control of sliding shear displacement in
shearwalls, and hence in a markedly improved response, are illustrated in Fig. 7. Particularly squat
shearwalls, in which the flexural capacity may often
be associated with large shear stresses, are likely to
*3.6

VT:

psi

149

(Flanges
-rl-r----,.-h

Fig. 7 -

----

Diagonally reinforced shearwalls

Fig. 9 -

Laterally loaded coupled shearwalls


f

'-----~'----'>1.' M~~~)
-,-----~----0
I

I
I

L----~-----

Ia) The Geometry of the RPinforcement

I Mu

'

h
(b}External Act;ons

tc I lntprnol For cps

Fig. 8 - Sliding shear failure at the base of a squat


shearwall

Fig. 10 -

benefit when a substantial fraction of the earthquake


shear is resisted by diagonal reinforcement.
Fig. 8 shows the base of a squat shearwall with a
length to height ratio of 2.0. It was reinforced to control diagonal tension in accordance with capacity design concepts. Consequently, predominantly flexural
response to reversed cyclic loading was expected.
Gradual deterioration of stiffness and energy dissipation capacity was observed, however, leading
eventually to a sliding shear failure along a well-defined plane at the base, as can be seen in Fig. 8. The
maximum applied shear stress attained during cycles
of loading was 0.5Vf7 MPa (6{T;' psi). It is evident
that conventional orthogonal reinforcement cannot
improve this behavior. It was observed, however, that
large displacement ductilities, up to 10, were obtained
and that these did not represent overly excessive displacements. This is because the yield displacement,
used in defining displacement ductility, is very small
for a squat shearwall.
Diagonal bars contribute equally to the flexural resistance by their ability to yield in tension and compression. The horizontal component of both the tension and compression bars, as shown in Fig. 7, should
be taken into account when their contribution to horizontal sliding shear is being evaluated. The computation involves first principles only. In a wall, with

dimensions identical to those shown in Fig. 8, considerable improvement in energy dissipation and stability
in maintaining maximum strength was observed when
diagonal bars in two directions were used, as shown in
Fig. 7a, to resist only 30 percent of the applied shear.
Diagonal bars with relatively large diameter and few
in numbers can be placed in between the orthogonal
wall reinforcement, approximately in the middle of
the wall thickness. They should be well anchored in
the foundations. Because splices are not normally involved there are no construction difficulties to be encountered when diagonal bars, as shown in Fig. 7, are
used.

150

A diagonally reinforced coupling beam

COUPLED SHEARWALLS
More widely distributed energy dissipation is a particular advantage offered when two or more walls are
coupled by ductile beams as shown in Fig. 9. For this
reason such structures can be designed for the same
intensity of lateral seismic loading as ductile frames of
identical mass. In the design of the walls the significant effect of the axial load, introduced by the coupling beams, is to be considered in addition to aspects
discussed in the preceding sections. With skillful
choice of stiffnesses and strength, a desirable hierarchy in the development of plastification during large
seismic excitations may be established. 2 The designer
ACI JOURNAL I May-June 1980

the beam becomes more slender, so that a distinct


plastic hinge can develop at each end.
As shearing stresses are not involved in the shear
transfer of such diagonally reinforced inelastic beams,
there appears to be no need to set a limit to the nominal shear stress that the designer should not exceed.

Fig. 11 - Transverse reinforcement in boundary


zones of potential plastic hinges of shearwalls

Fig. 12 - Buckling failure in a shearwall after several


cycles of inelastic reversed loading
can insure that yielding will occur first in the majority
of coupling beams (see Fig. 9), and that the major
part of the required energy is dissipated by the coupling systems. Thereby the walls are protected against
early damage and in the case of large earthquakes
against excessive ductility demand.
The coupling beams need to be very ductile while
considerable shear forces need be transferred by them.
To obviate the detrimental effect of shear, diagonal
reinforcement, as shown in Fig. 10, should be used
whenever

v.

0.1 -

VT:

(MPa)

(2)

where 1 is the clear span and h is the depth of the coupling beams and the term VY:' is expressed in MPa
units.* The shear should be computed from the maximum moments, shown as M. in Fig. 10, that could
be developed in the beam. This expression insures that
conventional stirrup reinforcement is only used when
the induced nominal shear stress is very low or when
ACI JOURNAL I May-June 1980

DETAILING REQUIREMENTS
Sound detailing of earthquake-resisting shearwalls is
likely to be more important than the accurate derivation of actions that might be induced. Boundary zones
of walls in particular, when these are subjected to
large compression strains, require the designer's attention. The purpose of detailing in these areas, such as
shown in Fig. 11, is to insure (a) the full structural interaction of the boundary elements, such as flanges,
with the web of the wall, (b) that the principal vertical
reinforcement does not buckle prematurely when exposed to Bauschinger effects, and (c) that a sufficient
area of the compressed concrete is satisfactorily confined against lateral expansion when the compression
strain in the extreme fiber is likely to exceed 0.003.
Fig. II shows a boundary element of a shearwall
section that has been provided for the twofold purpose of stabilizing the wall against lateral instability
and to allow easier accommodation of the large number of tension bars required. It is proposed in New
Zealand that in potential plastic hinge regions the
principal longitudinal bars be held in position against
buckling by transverse legs of ties, spaced not further
than 200 mm (8 in.) horizontally and 6 times the diameter of the bars vertically. 7 Such a leg should be capable of resisting II 16th of the yield force in the bar
or bars it restrains. When the concrete core is also required to be confined, as shown by the cross-shaded
area for Wall B in Fig. 6, usually larger size ties or
closer tie spacing will be required if Eq. (3a) or (3b) is
to be satisfied. The emphasis them must be on giving
rigid support to the principal vertical bars, which
when so held will confine the core concrete. 9
The shear (web) reinforcement must be sufficiently
closely spaced in plastic hinge regions to insure that
groups of principal vertical compression bars, effectively stabilized individually, do not buckle as a
group. Fig. 12 shows the buckling failure of the compression zone at the base of a shearwall that has been
subj ected to several cycles of reversed inelastic loading. The overall response of this structure, which was
excellent, is seen in Fig. 2, where the buckling failure
is shown by the broken part of the load-displacement
curve at the end of the 21st semicycle.
The requirements for transverse reinforcement to
resist shear, to support laterally compression bars
against buckling and, when required, to confine a
concrete core, are of course not additive, therefore a
given reinforcement can perform multiple functions.

v.

= 1.2

_!_ VT;: in psi units


h

151

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The views expressed are those of the author and they do not necessarily represent those of any professional society or organization
in New Zealand. However, the author wishes to acknowledge the
contribution of the New Zealand National Society for Earthquake
Engineering in fostering a continuing dialogue between all those engineers with an interest in the progress of seismic design.
In documenting various aspects of seismic design philosophy, reference was made primarily to work done in New Zealand. This
should not be taken to mean that little attention is being paid to developments elsewhere. In particular, through a steady and fruitful
exchange, the very significant research achievements of the Department of Civil Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, and
of the Research and Development Laboratories of the Portland Cement Association at Skokie, Ill., have had a strong influence on the
evolution of design procedures for earthquake-resisting concrete
structures in New Zealand.

REFERENCES
I. Paulay, T., and Spurr, D. D., "Simulated Seismic Loading on
Reinforced Concrete Frame-Shear Wall Structures," Preprints,
Sixth World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, New Delhi,
1977, pp. 221-226.
2. Park, Robert, and Paulay, Thomas, Reinforced Concrete
Structures, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1975, 769 pp.

152

3. Priestley, M. J. N.; Crosbie, R. L.; and Carr, A. J., "Seismic


Forces in Base-Isolated Masonry Structures," Bulletin, New Zealand National Society for Earthquake Engineering (Wellington), V.
10, No. 2, June 1977, pp. 55-68.
4. Priestley, M. J. N.; Evison, R. J.; and Carr, A. J., "Seismic
Response of Structures Free to Rock on their Foundations," Bulletin, New Zealand National Society for Earthquake Engineering
(Wellington), V. II, No. 3, Sept. 1978, pp. 141-150.
5. Blakeley, R. W. G.; Cooney, R. C.; and Megget, L. M.,
"Seismic Shear Loading at Flexural Capacity in Cantilever Wall
Structures," Bulletin, New Zealand National Society for Earthquake Engineering (Wellington), V. 8, No. 4, Dec. 1975, pp. 278290.

6. Paulay, T., "Some Design Considerations of Earthquake Resistant Reinforced Concrete Shear Walls," Proceedings, International Symposium on Earthquake Structural Engineering, St.
Louis, Aug. 1976, V. II, pp. 669-681.
7. "Draft New Zealand Standard Code of Practice for the Design
of Concrete Structures," DZ 3101, Standards Association of New
Zealand, Wellington, 1978.
8. Collins, Michael, "Towards a Rational Theory of RC Members in Shear," Proceedings, ASCE, V. 104, ST4, Apr. 1978, pp.
649-666.
9. Sheikh, S. A., and Uzumeri, S. M., "Properties of Concrete
Confined by Rectangular Ties," Bulletin d'lnformation, Comite
Euro-International du Beton, Paris, Apr. 1979, pp. 53-60.

ACI JOURNAL I May-June 1980

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