4

Short-Circuit Calculations

4.1Symmetrical Components
Symmetrical components are the traditional method used to calculate short-circuit currents and voltages for AC power systems. Dr. C. L.
Fortescue developed this method while investigating problems of singlephase railway systems in 1918. Symmetrical components allow the use of
single-phase loop or node equations to develop short-circuit currents
and voltages on single-phase, two-phase, or three-phase systems. The big
advantage of symmetrical components is the elimination of the need to
include transformer turns ratios and winding connections in calculations.
(Transformer data is used to develop base values and to incorporate phase
shifts into calculations.)
Three-phase loop or node equations can be used to calculate short-circuit
values on simple power systems (one machine, one line, one transformer).
However, for the typical power system, loop and node equations become
unwieldy, even with todays computing capability, because transformer
turns ratios and transformer winding connections need to be included
when traditional loop (Kirchoffs Laws) and node (Nortons Laws) calculations are used for circuit analysis.
When unusual power system configurations, such as a single-phase
transformer connected line-to-line on the primary and line-to-ground on
the secondary, are addressed, it is a good idea to use symmetrical components to calculate short-circuit values and loop or node equations to verify
the results.
The fundamental principles of symmetrical components are as follows:

1. Single-phase methods can be used to solve problems on threephase systems.

2. Sequence networks have been developed to calculate voltages and
currents. These networks are designated the positive sequence
network, the negative sequence network, and the zero sequence
network.
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3. Each sequence has its own line conductors, transformer equivalent circuits, generator equivalent circuits, etc.
4. Each sequence is independent of the other sequences (for balanced fault conditions).
5. Per unit quantities are used in calculations.
6. Single phase-to-ground faults are calculated as A to ground
faults.
7. Phase-to-phase faults are calculated as B to C faults.
8. Currents are calculated at the fault bus. Current dividers are used
to calculate currents at other points in each sequence network.
9. Voltages are calculated at the fault bus. Voltage dividers are used
to calculate voltages at other points in each sequence network.
10. Positive sequence voltage is maximum at a generator and minimum at a fault bus.
11. Negative and zero sequence voltages are maximum at a fault bus
and zero at their respective reference buses.
12. Phase voltage (or current) can be calculated if sequence voltage (or
current) is known.
13. Sequence voltage (or current) can be calculated if phase voltage
(or current) is known.

Theories, rules, equivalent circuits, methods to calculate squence impedances, etc., have been developed to allow easy application of symmetrical
components. A brief introduction to symmetrical components follows.
A single-line diagram of a simple system that consists of two generators, two transformers, and one transmission line is shown in Figure 4.1.
This simple system will be used to demonstrate the use of symmetrical
components.
Various generator impedances are provided by the manufacturer in
percent at rated generator voltage and MVA. For short-circuit analysis, use
of the following impedance values should be considered. Xd (generator
subtransient reactance) is the generator impedance at the instant a threephase fault occurs on the terminals of a generator. Xd (generator transient
reactance) is the generator impedance a few cycles after a three-phase fault
occurs on the terminals of a generator. Xd (generator synchronous reactance) is the generator impedance after a three-phase fault persists on the
terminals of a generator. Xd is used as the generator impedance in most
calculations. Xd, Xd, and other generator impedances may be used when
developing specific calculations to analyze generator parameters, circuit
breaker-interrupting capability, stuck circuit-breaker conditions, etc.
Transformer impedances are provided by the manufacturer in percent
at rated transformer voltage and MVA. Although transformer impedance
varies with tap position, the nominal transformer impedance, nominal
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Generator 1
320 MVA, 23 KV
Xd = 18.5%
Xd = 52.3%
Xd = 104%

Bus 1

Bus 2
Z1L = 1.7 + j 19.0

Generator 2
410 MVA, 13.8 KV
Xd = 20.2%
Xd = 56.4%
Xd = 108%

Z0L = 15.1 + j 62.8

Transformer 1
300 MVA, 23230 KV
X = 12.35%
23 KV:
230 KV: Y-Grd

Transformer 2
400 MVA, 13.8230 KV
X= 13.21%
13.8 KV:
230 KV: Y-Grd

Xd = Generator Subtransient Reactance

Xd = Generator Transient Reactance
Xd = Generator Synchronous Reactance
Figure4.1
One-line diagram showing transformer connections and component impedances.

primary voltage, and nominal secondary voltage are used in calculations.

Actual transformer impedance at actual tap values may be used when
analyzing specific events. Transformer connections need to be included as
essential system data.
Transmission line impedance is calculated by the company that designs
the line as impedance varies with conductor type, spacing, height, phase
relationship, length, etc.

4.2Positive Sequence Networks

Positive sequence networks are in all respects identical to the usual singleline diagram for three-phase networks. The resistances and reactances are
the values used in traditional equivalent circuits. Each machine (generator or motor) must be considered to be a voltage (power) source. Figure4.2
is the positive sequence network for the system shown in Figure 4.1.
Impedances will be normalized and added later. The positive sequence
Z1 Gen 1
RB1

Bus 1

Z1 Trans 1

Bus 2

Z1 Line

Z1 Trans 2

Figure4.2
Positive sequence network for the system shown in Figure4.1.

2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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reference bus, RB1, the common point to which one terminal of all power
sources in the positive sequence are connected, is needed for network
analysis.

4.3Negative Sequence Networks

Negative sequence networks are similar to positive sequence networks in
that the number of branches is the same, but negative sequence networks
do not contain voltage sources because machines (generators or motors)
generate only positive sequence voltages. The other difference between
negative sequence networks and positive sequence networks is that different machine impedances may be used in each sequence. Figure 4.3
shows the negative sequence network for the system shown in Figure4.1.
Impedances will be normalized and added later. The negative sequence
reference bus, RB2, the common point that corresponds to RB1, is needed
for network analysis.
In most short-circuit calculations, the negative sequence impedance is
assumed to be the same as the positive sequence impedance. Generally
different impedances are used when generator response to short-circuit
conditions or circuit breaker-interrupting capabilities are being evaluated
at generating stations.
Z2 Gen 1
RB2

Bus 1

Z2 Trans 1

Bus 2

Z2 Line

Z2 Gen 2

Z2 Trans 2

RB2

Figure4.3
Negative sequence network for the system shown in Figure4.1.

4.4Zero Sequence Networks

Zero sequence networks, like negative sequence networks, do not contain
voltage sources because machines (generators or motors) generate only
positive sequence voltages. Impedances in zero sequence networks may
be radically different from those of the positive and negative sequence
networks. Zero sequence line impedances are obtained by imagining the
three conductors connected together at the point of fault with the ground
forming the return conductor. Generator impedances depend on the type
of connection, delta or wye, and if wye, whether the generator is solidly
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Bus 2

Z0 Gen 1
RB0

RB0

Z0 Trans 1

Z0 Line

Z0 Trans 2

Z0 Gen 2

RB0

RB0

Figure4.4
Zero sequence network for the system shown in Figure4.1.

grounded, resistance grounded, reactance grounded, or ungrounded.

Transformer impedances depend on the type of connection for each winding, delta or wye, and if wye, whether the transformer is solidly grounded,
resistance grounded, reactance grounded, or ungrounded. Adjacent overhead transmission lines influence the zero sequence impedance of each
other. This influence is referred to as mutual impedance. Figure4.4 shows
the zero sequence network for the system shown in Figure4.1. Impedances
will be normalized and added later. The zero sequence reference bus,
RB0, the common point that corresponds to RB1, is needed for network
analysis.
One of the most important things to remember is that coils in two windings of a transformer must be able to conduct zero sequence current in
order for the transformer to be shown as a current path in zero sequence
networks. If transformer windings are connected delta-wye grounded,
then the transformer is shown as a three-terminal transformer in the zero
sequence (see transformer representations in Figure 4.3). The terminals
connected to the delta winding are located at the same location as in the
positive sequence, but the delta is shown as an open circuit. The terminals
connected to the wye-grounded winding are located at the same location
as in the positive sequence. The third terminal is connected to the zero
sequence reference bus. If the transformer is a three-winding transformer
connected wye-grounded, wye-grounded, delta, then the transformer is
shown as a four-terminal transformer in the zero sequence.
Checking transformer winding connections, and properly accounting
for them in zero sequence networks, is a necessary requirement when calculating phase-to-ground fault current and voltage. The connection to the
zero sequence reference bus changes the impedance of the zero sequence
network and complicates circuit analysis.

4.5Operators
Symmetrical components utilize a unit vector, designated a, to transform phase quantities to sequence quantities and to transform sequence
quantities to phase quantities.
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Properties of the a vector are

a0 = 1 @ 0
a1 = 1 @ 120 = .5 + j.866
a2 = 1 @ 240 = .5 j.866
a3 = 1 @ 360 = a
a2 a = 1 @ 240 1 @ 120 = j3 = 3 @ 90
a a2 = 1 @ 120 1 @ 240 = j3 =3 @ 90
1 + a + a2 = 1 + 1 @ 120 + 1 @ 240 = 0
Power system voltages and currents are represented as the sum of
sequence values:
Ea = Ea1 + Ea2 + Eao
Eb = Eb1 + Eb2 + Ebo
Ec = Ec1 + Ec2 + Eco

Ia = Ia1 + Ia2 + Iao

Ib = Ib1 + Ib2 + Ibo
Ic = Ic1 + Ic2 + Ico

Sequence values can be derived from phase voltages and current:

Ea1 = 1/3 (Ea + aEb + a2Ec)
Ea2 = 1/3 (Ea + a2Eb + aEc)
Ea0 = 1/3 (Ea + Eb + Ec)

Ia1 = 1/3 (Ia + aIb + a2Ic)

Ia2 = 1/3 (Ia + a2Ib + aIc)
Ia0 = 1/3 (Ia + Ib + Ic)

Positive sequence voltages and currents are represented by vectors that

have equal amplitudes and are displaced 120 degrees relative to each other
as shown in Figure4.5.
Ec1

Ea1 = Ea1

Eb1 = a2Ea1 = Ea1 @ 240

Ea1

Ec1 = aEa1 = Ea1 @ 120

Eb1
Figure4.5
Positive sequence voltage vectors.

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Negative sequence voltages and currents are represented by vectors

that have equal amplitudes and are displaced 120 degrees relative to each
other as shown in Figure4.6. The rotation of positive sequence voltages
and currents is A-B-C while the rotation of negative sequence voltages and
currents the rotation is A-C-B.
Eb2

Ea2 = Ea2

Ea2

Eb2 = aEa2= Ea2 @ 120

Ec2 = a2Ea2= Ea2 @ 240

Ec2

Figure4.6
Negative sequence voltage vectors.

Zero sequence voltages and currents are represented by vectors that

have equal amplitudes that are in phase with each other as shown in
Figure4.7.
Ea0 = Ea0
Eb0 = Ea0
Ec0 = Ea0
Ea0
Ea0
Ec0
Figure4.7
Zero sequence voltage vectors.

4.6Sequence Diagram ConnectionsThree-Phase Faults

For three-phase faults the system remains balanced and only positive
sequence quantities exist. Therefore the positive sequence network shown
in Figure4.2 would be used to calculate three-phase short-circuit currents
and voltages. The connections needed to complete the current loop would
be a current path (shown dashed) from the fault location (X) to the positive
sequence reference bus. This is illustrated in Figure4.8 for a fault at Bus 1.

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RB1

Z1 Gen 1

Bus 2

Bus 1

Z1 Trans 1

I1

Z1 Line

Z1 Gen 2

RB1

Z1 Trans 2

Figure4.8
Positive sequence network for a three-phase fault at Bus 1.

RB1

Z1 Gen 1

Bus 2

Bus 1

Z1 Trans 1

Z1 Line

I1

Z1 Gen 2

RB1

X Z1 Trans 2

Figure4.9
Positive sequence network for a three-phase fault at Bus 2.

In order to calculate three-phase faults at other locations, a connection

between other fault locations and positive sequence reference bus, RB1, is
required. This is illustrated in Figure4.9 for a fault at Bus 2.
Faults need to be calculated assuming all components are in service,
some components are out of service, one end of a network line has tripped
before the other end, and any other conditions that would be expected
to occur during normal system operation, during maintenance activities,
and during storms.

4.7Sequence Diagram ConnectionsPhase-to-Phase Faults

For phase-to-phase faults, both the positive sequence and the negative
sequence networks need to be considered. The connections needed to
complete the current loop are a connection from the reference bus of the
positive sequence to the reference bus of the negative sequence and a connection from the fault bus of the positive sequence to the fault bus of the
negative sequence. This is illustrated in Figure 4.10 for a fault at Bus 1.
A line (with short dashes) is used to represent the connection between
the common positive sequence reference bus, RB1, and the common negative sequence reference bus, RB2. Connections between common reference buses in each sequence network are not shown in order to reduce the
complexity of the diagram. A line (with long dashes) is used to represent
the connection between the positive sequence fault bus and the negative
sequence fault bus.
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Bus 1

RB1

Z1 Trans 1 X

Z2 Gen 1
RB2

Bus 1
X

Z2 Trans 1

RB1
I1

Z1 Line

Z1 Trans 2

Bus 2
I2
Z2 Line

Z2 Gen 2

Z2 Trans 2

RB2

Figure4.10
Positive and negative sequence networks for a phase-to-phase fault at Bus 1.

4.8Sequence Diagram ConnectionsSingle

Phase-to-Ground Faults
For single phase-to-ground faults, the positive sequence, the negative
sequence, and the zero sequence networks need to be considered. The connections needed to complete the current loop are a connection from the fault
bus of the positive sequence to the reference bus of the negative sequence,
a connection from the fault bus of the negative sequence to the reference
bus of the zero sequence, and a connection from the fault bus of the zero
sequence to the reference bus of the positive sequence. This is illustrated
in Figure4.11 for a fault at Bus 1. Lines (with short dashes) are used to represent connections between common positive sequence reference bus, RB1,
between common negative sequence reference bus, RB2, and between common zero sequence reference bus, RB2. Lines (with long dashes) are used to
represent the connections between the positive sequence fault bus and the
negative sequence reference bus; between the negative sequence fault bus
and the zero sequence reference bus; and between the zero sequence fault
bus and the positive sequence reference bus.

4.9Per-Unit Quantities
When developing power system calculations, per-unit quantities are used
because per-unit quantities are simpler to use than amperes, ohms, and
volts. (Percent quantities are per-unit quantities multiplied by 100.) This is
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Z1 Gen 1
RB1

Z1 Trans 1 X

Z2 Gen 1
RB2

RB0

Bus 2
I1

Z1 Line

Bus 1

Z2 Trans 1 X

I2

Z2 Line

Z0 Trans 1 X

Z1 Gen 2
RB1

Z1 Trans 2

Bus 2

Bus 1

Z0 Gen 1
RB0

Bus 1

Z2 Gen 2
RB2

Z2 Trans 2

Bus 2

I0

Z0 Line

Z0 Trans 2

Z0 Gen 2
RB0
RB0

Figure4.11
Positive, negative, and zero sequence networks for a phase-to-ground fault at Bus 1.

due to the fact that per-unit quantities can be manipulated for transformer
turns ratios or connections after circuit analysis has been completed.
Therefore, all impedances, currents, and voltages are converted to perunit quantities using the following rules.

1. An MVA base is chosenusually 1 MVA, 10 MVA, or 100 MVA.

2 A reference voltage is chosen. Usually, this is a nominal system
voltage such as 230 KV.
3. All other voltages are related to the reference voltage by transformer nominal turns ratios.
4. With the selected MVA and reference voltage, base current and
base impedances are calculated at any point in the system.
Base MVA 100

Base Current =

(Base Voltage (KV))

Base Impedance =

2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3 Base Voltage (KV)

Base MVA

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Short-Circuit Calculations

5. Per unit impedances are corrected for differences in MVA as

follows:
pu ( new) = pu (given )

MVA (new)
MVA (given)

6. Per unit impedances are corrected for differences in voltage as

follows:
pu (new) = pu (given)

KV 2 (given )
KV 2 ( new)

For a 100-MVA, 230-KV system, base quantities are

Base MVA = 100 MVA (given)
Base Voltage = 230 KV (given)
Base Current = 100 MVA 1000 (3 230 KV) = 251 amps
Base Impedance = (230 KV)2 100 MVA = 529 ohms
For a 10-MVA, 12.47-KV system, base quantities are
Base MVA = 10 MVA (given)
Base Voltage = 12.47 KV (given)
Base Current = 10 MVA 1000 (3 12.47 KV) = 463 amps
Base Impedance = (12.47 KV)2 10 MVA = 15.55 ohms

4.10Sample Calculations
Using the information presented in Figure 4.1, short-circuit currents
will be calculated through the use of symmetrical components and per
unit impedances.
The base MVA will be 100 MVA (100 MVA is closer to the generator and
transformer MVA ratings in Figure4.1 than is 10 MVA) and base voltages
will be 230 KV for the transmission system, 23 KV for Generator 1, and
13.8 KV for Generator 2.
One of the first steps is to place all impedances on a common, 100 MVA
base. For transformers and generators, this is accomplished by normalizing published values:

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Gen 1: j.185 pu 100 MVA 320 MVA = j.058 pu

Trans 1: j.1235 pu 100 MVA 300 MVA = j.041 pu
Gen 2: j.202 pu 100 MVA 410 MVA = j.049 pu
Trans 2: j.1321 pu 100 MVA 400 MVA = j.033 pu
To convert transmission line ohmic impedances to per unit impedances,
transmission line ohms are divided by the base impedance of the transmission system (529 ).
Therefore, the transmission line impedances become

Z1 = (1.7 + j19) 529 = .003 + j.036 pu

Z0 = (15.1 + j62.8) 529 = .028 + j.119 pu

4.11Sample CalculationsThree-Phase Faults

To calculate a three-phase fault at Bus 1, per unit quantities are added to
the positive sequence network shown in Figure4.8. This yields the equivalent circuit shown in Figure4.12.
Fault currents are calculated at the assumed fault location, and then
from each source, as follows:
I 3 = I1 =

100 MVA 1000

3 230 KV Z1

{
= 251 {.099 90 .118 88.5}

I 3 = 251 j.058 + j.041 .003 + j.036 + j.033 + j.049

I3

I 3 = 251 .054 89.3

I 3 = 4 , 661 amps 89.3
I 3 Gen 1 source = 2, 535 amps 90 = 10.10 pu 90
I 3 Gen 2 source = 2, 126 amps 88.5 = 8.47 pu 88.5
System voltages, phase to neutral, can be calculated using per unit, percent, or ohmic impedances. Phase-to-phase voltages are calculated after
phase-to-neutral voltages have been determined. In this calculation, the
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RB1

Z1 Gen 1
j.058

Bus 1

Bus 2

I1
Z1 Line
Z1 Trans 1
X
.003 + j.036
j.041

Z1 Gen 2
j.049

RB1

Z1 Trans 2
j.033

Figure4.12
Positive sequence network for a three-phase fault at Bus 1.

per-unit method will be used to calculate A-N voltage. (Voltage is calculated assuming generator internal voltage is 1.00 pu. Voltage drop, I Z, is
calculated for each element.)
Generator 1 terminal voltage = 1.00 pu 10.10 pu 90 j.058 =
0.414 pu = 5.5 KV ( N), 9.5 KV (e c)
Bus 1 voltage = 1.00 pu 10.10 pu 90 (j.058 + j.041) = 0 pu
Generator 2 terminal voltage = 1.00 pu 8.47 pu 88.5 j.049 =
0.585 pu 1.0 = 4.66 KV ( N), 8.07 ( )
Bus 2 voltage = 1.00 pu 8.47 pu 88.5 (j.049 + j.033) = 0.306 pu
3.3 = 40.6 KV ( N), 70.3 KV ( )
For three-phase faults, phase current and voltage are balanced; therefore, voltage and current magnitudes apply to all three phases.

4.12Sample CalculationsPhase-to-Phase Faults

Phase-to-phase faults are unbalanced; therefore, current and voltage must
be calculated on a per phase basis. To calculate a phase-to-phase fault at
Bus 1, per unit quantities are added to the positive and negative sequence
networks shown in Figure4.10. This yields the equivalent circuit shown
in Figure4.13.
Fault currents are calculated as follows:

Ia1 =

100 MVA 1000

3 230 KV (Z1 + Z 2 )

Ia1 = 251 {2 0.054 89.3}

Ia1 = 2330 amps 89.3, (9.28 pu)
Ia2_= Ia1 = 2330 amps 89.3, (9.28 pu)
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Z1 Gen 1
j.058

RB1

Bus 1

Z1 Trans 1 X
j.041

Z2 Gen 1
j.058
RB2

Bus 1
X

Bus 2
I1

RB1

Z1 Trans 2
j.033

Z1 Line
.003 + j.036

Bus 2
I2

Z2 Trans 1
j.041

Z1 Gen 2
j.049

Z2 Line
.003 + j.036

Z2 Gen 2
j.049

Z2 Trans 2
j.033

RB2

Figure4.13
Positive and negative sequence networks for a phase-to-phase fault at Bus 1.

Ia = Ia1 + Ia2 + Ia0 = Ia1 + Ia1 = 0

Ib = Ib1 + Ib2 + Ib0 = a2Ia1 + aIa2 = (a2 a) Ia1 = 4037 amps 0.7
Ic = 4037 amps 0.7
Ia1 Gen 1 source = 1267 amps 90, (5.05 pu)
Ia1 Gen 2 source = 1063 amps 88.5, (4.24 pu)
Ia2 Gen 1 source = 1267 amps 90, (5.05 pu)
Ia2 Gen 2 source = 1063 amps 88.5, (4.24 pu)
I Gen 1 source = 2196 amps
I Gen 2 source = 1841 amps
Note that phase-to-phase fault current is 0.866 of the three-phase fault
current and that Ic = Ib.
When calculating phase voltages for phase-to-phase faults, positive
sequence and negative sequence voltages must be calculated at each point
of interest.
Positive Sequence Voltage (Ea1 = Egen I1Z1)
Bus 1 voltage = 1.00 pu 5.05 pu 90 (j.058 + j.041) = 0.50 pu
Negative Sequence Voltage (Ea2 = I2Z2)
Bus 1 voltage = (5.05 pu 90) (j.058 + j.041) = 0.50 pu
Phase Voltages, Bus 1
A-N voltage = Ea1 + Ea2 = 0.5 + 0.5 = 1.00 pu = 132.8 KV
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71

B-N voltage = a2Ea1 + aEa2 = 0.5 pu = 66.4 KV

C-N voltage = aEa1 + a2Ea2 = 0.5 pu = 66.4 KV
The preceding calculation shows that A-phase voltage is normal, A-phase
current is zero, B-phase voltage equals C-phase voltage, and B-phase current is equal and opposite to C-phase current.

4.13Sample CalculationsSingle Phase-to-Ground Faults

Phase-to-ground faults are unbalanced; therefore, current and voltage
must be calculated on a per phase basis. To calculate a single phase-toground fault at Bus 1, per unit quantities are added to the positive, negative, and zero sequence networks shown in Figure 4.11. This yields the
equivalent circuit shown in Figure4.14.

Ia1 = Ia 2 = Ia0 =

100 MVA
3 230 KV (Z1 + Z 2 + Z 0 )

Ia1 = 251 { 0.054 89.3 + 0.054 89.3 + (j.041 0.028 + j.119 + j.033)}
Ia1 = 251 {0.054 89.3 + 0.054 89.3 + 0.03287.8}
Ia1 = 251 0.114089
Ia1 = 1790 amps 89 Ia2 = 1790 amps 89 Ia0 = 1790 amps 89
Ia1 = 7.13 pu 89
Ig = Ia1 + Ia2 + Ia0 = 3 1790 amps 89 = 5372 amps 89
3I0 Gen 1 source = 5372 amps 89 0.155 79.6 0.193 81.7 =
4258 amps 91.7
3I0 Gen 2 source = 5372 amps 89 0.041 90 0.193 81.7 =
1129 amps 80.7
Note that for three-phase faults, the division of current is 55% from
Generator 1 source and 45% from Generator 2 source, but for single phaseto-ground faults, the division of current is 79% from Generator 1 source
and 21% from Generator 2 source.
When calculating phase voltages for phase-to-ground faults, positive
sequence, negative sequence, and zero voltages must be calculated as is
shown for Bus 1.
Positive Sequence Voltage (Ea1 = Egen I1Z1)
Bus 1 voltage = 1.00 pu 7.13 pu 89 0.054 89.3 = 0.616 pu 0.2
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Bus 2

Z1 Gen 1
j.058
RB1

Z1 Trans 1 X
j.041

Z2 Trans 1 X
j.041

RB0

I2

Z0 Trans 1 X
j.041

RB1

Z1 Trans 2
j.033

Bus 2

Z2 Line
.003 + j.036

Bus 1

Z0 Gen 1
RB0

Z1 Line
.003 + j.036

Bus 1

Z2 Gen 1
j.058
RB2

I1

Z1 Gen 2
j.049

Z2 Gen 2
j.049
RB2

Z2 Trans 2
j.033
Bus 2

I0

Z0 Line
.028 + j.119

Z0 Trans 2
j.033

Z0 Gen 2
RB0
RB0

Figure4.14
Positive, negative, and zero sequence networks for a phase-to-ground fault at Bus 1.

Negative Sequence Voltage (Ea2 = I2Z2)

Bus 1 voltage = (7.13 pu 89) 0.054 89.3 = 0.384 pu 0.35
Zero Sequence Voltage (Ea0 = I0Z0)
Bus 1 voltage = (7.13 pu 89) 0.03287.8 = 0.232 pu 1.2
Phase Voltages, Bus 1
A-N voltage = Ea1 + Ea2 + E a2 = 0.616 pu 0.2 0.384 pu 0.35
0.232 pu 1.2 = 0.0
To illustrate the impact of system conditions on zero sequence currents, phase-to-ground faults are calculated at Bus 1 with Generator 1 and
Transformer 1 out of service, as shown in Figure4.15, and at Bus 1 with
Generator 1 out of service, as shown in Figure4.16. Figure4.15 represents
the condition where the generator and transformer are switched as a single unit.
Ia1 = Ia 2 = Ia0 =

100 MVA 1000

3 230 KV (Z1 + Z 2 + Z 0 )

Ia1 = 251 { .003 + j.118 + .003 + j.118 + .028 + j.152}

Ia1 = 644 amps 85 Ia2 = 644 amps 85 Ia0 = 644 amps 85
Ig = Ia1 + Ia2 + Ia0 = 3 644 amps 85 = 1934 amps 85
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Bus 2

I1

Z1 Line
.003 + j.036

Bus 1

Z2 Line
.003 + j.036

Bus 1

RB1

Z1 Trans 2
j.033

Bus 2

I2

Z1 Gen 2
j.049

Z2 Gen 2
j.049
RB2

Z2 Trans 2
j.033
Bus 2

I0

Z0 Line
.028 + j.119

Z0 Trans 2
j.033

Z0 Gen 2

RB0

RB0

Figure4.15
Positive, negative, and zero sequence networks for a single phase-to-ground fault at Bus 1
with generator 1 and transformer 1 off-line.

The result is that the phase-to-ground short-circuit current decreased

to 36% of the All in phase-to-ground short-circuit current. However, the
fault current flow from Bus 2 to Bus 1 increased by 71%. This type of fault
current variation is to be expected when phase-to-ground fault currents
are reviewed for varying system configurations.
Figure4.16 represents the condition where the transformer remains in
service when the generator is taken off line.
Ia1 = Ia 2 = Ia0 =

100 MVA 1000

3 230 KV (Z1 + Z 2 + Z 0 )

Ia1 = 251 { .003 + j.118 + .003 + j.118 + [.028 + j.152 j.041 ]}

Ia1 = 935 amps 88.5 Ia2 = 935 amps 88.5 Ia0 = 935 amps 88.5
Ig = Ia1 + Ia2 + Ia0 = 3 935 amps 88.5 = 2804 amps 88.5
3I0 Gen 1 source = 2804 amps 88.5 0.155 79.6 0.193 81.7 =
2222 amps 90.6
3I0 Gen 2 source = 2804 amps 88.5 0.041 90 0.193 81.7 =
589 amps 80.2
2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Protective Relay Principles

Bus 2
Z1 Trans 1
X
j.041

I1

Z1 Line
.003 + j.036

Bus 1

Z2 Trans 1
X
j.041

Z2 Line
.003 + j.036

Bus 1

RB0

Z0 Trans 1 X
j.041

RB1

Z1 Trans 2
j.033

Bus 2

I2

Z1 Gen 2
j.049

Z2 Gen 2
j.049

Z2 Trans 2
j.033

RB2

Bus 2

I0

Z0 Line
.028 + j.119

Z0 Trans 2
j.033

Z0 Gen 2

RB0

RB0

Figure4.16
Positive, negative, and zero sequence networks for a single phase-to-ground fault at Bus 1
with generator 1 off-line.

The result is that the phase-to-ground short-circuit current decreased

to 52% of the All in phase-to-ground short-circuit current. This is a
demonstration of ground bank action created by delta-wye grounded
transformers.

4.14Sample CalculationsMutual Coupling

To demonstrate the effect of mutual coupling of transmission lines,
a second line, built on the same structures as the first line, is shown in
Figure4.17. The 230-KV line impedances are as shown in the figure. Z1L-S
represents the positive sequence impedance of each transmission line.
Z0L-S represents the zero sequence self impedance of each transmission
line. Z0L-M represents the zero sequence mutual impedance of the combined transmission lines.
Two single phase-to-ground faults will be calculated: first, a fault at
Bus 1 with all lines in service, and then a line-end fault near Bus 2 with
the circuit breaker open at Bus 2.
The positive sequence network for a fault at Bus 1 is shown in Figure4.18.
The positive sequence impedance of this network for a fault at Bus 1 is
2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

75

Short-Circuit Calculations

Bus 2

Bus 1
Generator 1
320 MVA, 23 KV
Xd = 18.5%

Generator 2
410 MVA, 13.8 KV
Xd = 20.2%

Z1L = 1.7 + j 19.0

Z0LS = 15.1 + j 62.8
Z0LM = 12.7 + j 38.2

Transformer 2
400 MVA, 13.8230 KV
X= 13.21%
13.8 KV:
230 KV: Y-Grd

Transformer 1
300 MVA, 23230 KV
X = 12.35%
23 KV:
230 KV: Y-Grd

Figure4.17
One-line diagram showing transformer connections and component impedances, second
transmission line on same structures as first transmission line.
Bus 1
RB1

Z1 Line
.003 + j.036

Bus 2
Z1 Gen 2
j.049

Z1 Gen 1
j.058
Z1 Trans 1
j.041

I1

Z1 Line
.003 + j.036

RB1

Z1 Trans 2
j.033

Figure4.18
Positive sequence network for a three-phase fault at Bus 1.
Bus 1

Bus 2

Z0L-S Z0L-M
Z0L-S Z0L-M

Z0L-M

Figure4.19
Zero sequence equivalent for two parallel transmission lines, all circuit breakers closed.

Z1eq = 0.050 89.6, which is slightly less than the positive sequence impedance for the network with one line (Z1eq = 0.054 89.5).
The zero sequence representation of two parallel, mutually coupled
transmission lines, for through faults, such as a fault at Bus 1 with all
circuit breakers closed, is shown in Figure4.19 and the zero sequence network for this fault is shown in Figure4.20.
The zero sequence impedance of this network for a fault at Bus 1 is
Z0eq = 0.031 87.3, which is almost the same as the zero sequence impedance for the network with one line (Z0eq = 0.032 87.8). Taken together, the
change in positive and zero sequence impedance will have little effect on
2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

76

Protective Relay Principles

Bus 1

Z0L-S Z0L-M
.026 + j.047

Bus 2

Z0 Gen 1
RB0

RB0

Z0 Gen 2
Z0 Trans 1
j.041
Z0L-S Z0L-M
.026 + j.047

Z0L-M
.024 + j.072

Z0 Trans 2
j.033

RB0

RB0

Figure4.20
Zero sequence network for the system shown in Figure4.17 with per-unit impedances.

the total fault current. However, the current through each line will change
significantly.
Ia1 = Ia 2 = Ia0 =

100 MVA 1000

3 230 KV (Z1 + Z 2 + Z 0 )

Ia1 = 251 { 0.050 89.6 + 0.050 89.6 + 0.03187.3}

Ia1 = 251 0.13189
Ia1 = 1919 amps 89 Ia2 = 1919 amps 89 Ia0 = 1010 amps 89
Ig = Ia1 + Ia2 + Ia0 = 3 1919 amps 89 = 5755 amps 89
3I0 Gen 1 source = 5755 amps 89 0.131 78.6 0.172 81.3 =
4401 amps 91.7
3I0 Gen 2 source = 5755 amps 89 0.041 90 0.172 81.7 =
1375 amps 80.3
3I0 Each Line = 688 amps 80.3
With one line in service, the zero sequence current through the line to
the fault at Bus 1 was 1129 amps. When the second line was installed, the
zero sequence current through each line was only 60% of that value.
The zero sequence representation of two parallel, mutually coupled
transmission lines for a line-end fault near Bus 2 with the circuit breakers
open at Bus 2 (Figure 4.21) is shown in Figure4.22 and the zero sequence
network for this fault is shown in Figure4.23.
The positive sequence impedance to this line-end fault is Z1eq = 0.068
88.4, the zero sequence impedance is Z0eq = 0.094 84.2.
Ia1 = Ia 2 = Ia0 =

100 MVA 1000

3 230 KV (Z1 + Z 2 + Z 0 )

Ia1 = 251 { 0.068 88.4 + 0.068 88.4 + 0.09484.2}

Ia1 = 251 0.23086.7
Ia1 = 1092 amps 86.7 Ia2 = 1092 amps 86.7 Ia0 = 1092 amps
86.7
Ig = Ia1 + Ia2 + Ia0 = 3 1092 amps 86.7 = 3277 amps 86.7
2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Short-Circuit Calculations

Bus 2

Bus 1
Generator 1
320 MVA, 23 KV
Xd = 18.5%

Generator 2
410 MVA, 13.8 KV
Xd = 20.2%

Z1L = 1.7 + j 19.0

Z0L-S = 15.1 + j 62.8
Z0L-M = 12.7 + j 38.2
X
Open

Transformer 1
300 MVA, 23230 KV
X= 12.35%

Line End
Fault

Transformer 2
400 MVA, 13.8230 KV
X = 13.21%

Figure4.21
One-line diagram showing line-end fault with circuit breaker open at Bus 2.

Bus 2

Z0L-S Z0L-M

Bus 1
Z0L-M

Z0L-S Z0L-S

M
X

Figure4.22
Zero sequence equivalent for two parallel transmission lines, line-end fault, one circuit
breaker open.

Bus 1

Z0L-S Z0L-M
.026 + j.047 Bus 2

Z0 Gen 1
RB0

RB0

Z0 Gen 2
Z0 Trans 1
j.041

Z0L-M
.024 + j.072

Z0L-S Z0L-M
.026 + j.047

Z0 Trans 2
j.033

RB0

RB0

Figure4.23
Zero sequence network for the system shown in Figure 4.21 with per-unit impedances,
circuit breaker at Bus 2 open.

3I0 Gen 1 source = 3277 amps 86.7 0.080 87.1 0.195 81.7 =
1243 amps 81.3
3I0 Gen 2 source = 3277 amps 86.7 0.116 78.0 0.195 81.7 =
1.945 amps 90.4
The preceding calculations illustrate that the magnitude and division
of zero sequence current needs to be carefully considered as mutual coupling and ground banks combined with other system parameters complicate analysis of fault conditions.
2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC