The Renaissance

This article is about the European Renaissance of the

14th17th centuries. For the earlier European Renaissance, see Renaissance of the 12th century. For other
uses, see Renaissance (disambiguation).
The Renaissance (UK /rnesns/, US /rnsns/)[1] is

sped the dissemination of ideas from the later 15th century, the changes of the Renaissance were not uniformly
experienced across Europe.
As a cultural movement, it encompassed innovative owering of Latin and vernacular literatures, beginning with
the 14th century resurgence of learning based on classical
sources, which contemporaries credited to Petrarch; the
development of linear perspective and other techniques
of rendering a more natural reality in painting; and, gradual but widespread educational reform.
In politics, the Renaissance contributed the development of the conventions of diplomacy, and in science
an increased reliance on observation. Although the
Renaissance saw revolutions in many intellectual pursuits, as well as social and political upheaval, it is perhaps best known for its artistic developments and the
contributions of such polymaths as Leonardo da Vinci
and Michelangelo, who inspired the term Renaissance
man.[2][3]
There is a consensus that the Renaissance began in
Florence, in the 14th century.[4] Various theories have
been proposed to account for its origins and characteristics, focusing on a variety of factors including the social and civic peculiarities of Florence at the time; its
political structure; the patronage of its dominant family,
the Medici;[5][6] and the migration of Greek scholars and
texts to Italy following the Fall of Constantinople at the
hands of the Ottoman Turks.[7][8][9] Other major centres
were northern Italian city-states such as Venice, Genoa,
Bologna, Milan and nally Rome during the Renaissance
Papacy.
The Renaissance has a long and complex historiography,
and, in line with general scepticism of discrete
periodizations, there has been much debate among historians reacting to the 19th-century glorication of the
Renaissance and individual culture heroes as Renaissance men, questioning the usefulness of Renaissance as
a term and as a historical delineation.[10] The art historian
Erwin Panofsky observed of this resistance to the concept
of Renaissance":

David, by Michelangelo (Accademia di Belle Arti di Firenze,

Florence) is a masterpiece of Renaissance and world art.

It is perhaps no accident that the factuality of the Italian Renaissance has been most
vigorously questioned by those who are not
obliged to take a professional interest in the
aesthetic aspects of civilizationhistorians of
economic and social developments, political
and religious situations, and, most particularly,
natural sciencebut only exceptionally by stu-

a period from the 14th to the 17th century, considered

the bridge between the Middle Ages and modern history.
It started as a cultural movement in Italy in the Late Medieval period and later spread to the rest of Europe. Some
good early examples were the development of perspective
in oil painting and the recycled knowledge of how to make
concrete. Although the invention of metal movable type
1

1
dents of literature and hardly ever by historians
of Art.[11]

OVERVIEW

ligion, and other aspects of intellectual inquiry. Renaissance scholars employed the humanist method in study,
and searched for realism and human emotion in art.[17]

Some have called into question whether the Renaissance

was a cultural advance from the Middle Ages, instead
seeing it as a period of pessimism and nostalgia for
classical antiquity,[12] while social and economic historians, especially of the longue dure, have instead focused on the continuity between the two eras[13] which
are linked, as Panofsky himself observed, by a thousand
ties.[14]

Renaissance humanists such as Poggio Bracciolini sought

out in Europes monastic libraries the Latin literary, historical, and oratorical texts of Antiquity, while the Fall of
Constantinople (1453) generated a wave of migr Greek
scholars bringing precious manuscripts in ancient Greek,
many of which had fallen into obscurity in the West. It
is in their new focus on literary and historical texts that
Renaissance scholars diered so markedly from the meThe word Renaissance, literally meaning Rebirth in dieval scholars of the Renaissance of the 12th century,
French, rst appears in English in the 1830s.[15] The who had focused on studying Greek and Arabic works
word occurs in Jules Michelet's 1855 work, Histoire de of natural sciences, philosophy and mathematics, rather
France. The word Renaissance has also been extended than on such cultural texts.
to other historical and cultural movements, such as the
Carolingian Renaissance and the Renaissance of the 12th
century.[16]

Overview

Portrait of a young woman (Simonetta Vespucci) by Sandro Botticelli

Leonardo da Vinci's Vitruvian Man shows clearly the eect writers of Antiquity had on Renaissance thinkers. Based on the
specications in Vitruvius' De architectura (1st century BC),
Leonardo tried to draw the perfectly proportioned man.

The Renaissance was a cultural movement that profoundly aected European intellectual life in the early
modern period. Beginning in Italy, and spreading to the
rest of Europe by the 16th century, its inuence was felt
in literature, philosophy, art, music, politics, science, re-

In the revival of neo-Platonism Renaissance humanists

did not reject Christianity; quite the contrary, many of
the Renaissances greatest works were devoted to it, and
the Church patronized many works of Renaissance art.
However, a subtle shift took place in the way that intellectuals approached religion that was reected in many other
areas of cultural life.[18] In addition, many Greek Christian works, including the Greek New Testament, were
brought back from Byzantium to Western Europe and engaged Western scholars for the rst time since late antiquity. This new engagement with Greek Christian works,
and particularly the return to the original Greek of the

2.1

Latin and Greek phases of Renaissance humanism

New Testament promoted by humanists Lorenzo Valla Many argue that the ideas that characterized the Renaisand Erasmus, would help pave the way for the Protestant sance had their origin in late 13th century Florence, in
Reformation.
particular with the writings of Dante Alighieri (1265
as
Well after the rst artistic return to classicism had been 1321) and Francesco Petrarca (13041374), as well[21]
the
paintings
of
Giotto
di
Bondone
(12671337).
exemplied in the sculpture of Nicola Pisano, Florentine painters led by Masaccio strove to portray the hu- Some writers date the Renaissance quite precisely; one
man form realistically, developing techniques to render proposed starting point is 1401, when the rival geniuses
perspective and light more naturally. Political philoso- Lorenzo Ghiberti and Filippo Brunelleschi competed for
the contract to build the bronze doors for the Baptistery
phers, most famously Niccol Machiavelli, sought to de[22]
scribe political life as it really was, that is to understand it of the Florence Cathedral (Ghiberti won). Others see
more general competition between artists and polymaths
rationally. A critical contribution to Italian Renaissance
humanism Giovanni Pico della Mirandola wrote the fa- such as Brunelleschi, Ghiberti, Donatello, and Masaccio
for artistic commissions as sparking the creativity of the
mous text De hominis dignitate (Oration on the Dignity of Man, 1486), which consists of a series of the- Renaissance. Yet it remains much debated why the Renaissance began in Italy, and why it began when it did.
ses on philosophy, natural thought, faith and magic defended against any opponent on the grounds of reason. In Accordingly, several theories have been put forward to
addition to studying classical Latin and Greek, Renais- explain its origins.
sance authors also began increasingly to use vernacular
languages; combined with the introduction of printing,
this would allow many more people access to books, especially the Bible.[19]
In all, the Renaissance could be viewed as an attempt
by intellectuals to study and improve the secular and
worldly, both through the revival of ideas from antiquity,
and through novel approaches to thought. Some scholars,
such as Rodney Stark,[20] play down the Renaissance in
favor of the earlier innovations of the Italian city-states
in the High Middle Ages, which married responsive government, Christianity and the birth of capitalism. This
analysis argues that, whereas the great European states
(France and Spain) were absolutist monarchies, and others were under direct Church control, the independent
city republics of Italy took over the principles of capitalism invented on monastic estates and set o a vast unprecedented commercial revolution which preceded and
nanced the Renaissance.

Origins

Florence, the center of Renaissance.

Main article: Italian Renaissance

During the Renaissance, money and art went hand in

hand. Artists depended totally on patrons while the patrons needed money to foster artistic talent. Wealth was
brought to Italy in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries by
expanding trade into Asia and Europe. Silver mining in
Tyrol increased the ow of money. Luxuries from the
Eastern world, brought home during the Crusades, increased the prosperity of Genoa and Venice.[23]
Jules Michelet dened the 16th-century Renaissance in
France as a period in Europes cultural history that represented a break from the Middle Ages, creating a modern
understanding of humanity and its place in the world.[24]

2.1 Latin and Greek phases of Renaissance humanism

In stark contrast to the High Middle Ages, when Latin
scholars focused almost entirely on studying Greek
and Arabic works of natural science, philosophy and
mathematics,[25] Renaissance scholars were most interested in recovering and studying Latin and Greek literary, historical, and oratorical texts. Broadly speaking,
this began in the 14th century with a Latin phase, when
Renaissance scholars such as Petrarch, Coluccio Salutati (13311406), Niccol de' Niccoli (13641437) and
Poggio Bracciolini (13801459 AD) scoured the libraries
of Europe in search of works by such Latin authors as
Cicero, Lucretius, Livy and Seneca.[26] By the early 15th
century, the bulk of such Latin literature had been recovered; the Greek phase of Renaissance humanism was now
under way, as Western European scholars turned to recovering ancient Greek literary, historical, oratorical and
theological texts.[27]
Unlike the case of those Latin texts, which had been preserved and studied in Western Europe since late antiquity, the study of ancient Greek texts was very limited in
medieval Western Europe. Ancient Greek works on science, maths and philosophy had been studied since the
High Middle Ages in Western Europe and in the medieval

ORIGINS

A political map of the Italian Peninsula circa 1494

Coluccio Salutati

Islamic world (normally in translation), but Greek literary, oratorical and historical works (such as Homer, the
Greek dramatists, Demosthenes and Thucydides and so
forth), were not studied in either the Latin or medieval Islamic worlds; in the Middle Ages these sorts of texts were
only studied by Byzantine scholars. One of the greatest
achievements of Renaissance scholars was to bring this
entire class of Greek cultural works back into Western
Europe for the rst time since late antiquity. This movement to reintegrate the regular study of Greek literary,
historical, oratorical and theological texts back into the
Western European curriculum is usually dated to Coluccio Salutatis invitation to the Byzantine diplomat and
scholar Manuel Chrysoloras (c.13551415) to Florence
to teach Greek.[28] This legacy was continued by a number of expatriate Greek scholars, from Basilios Bessarion
to Leo Allatius.

2.2

Social and political structures in Italy

the Republic of Florence and the Papal States at the center, the Milanese and the Genoese to the north and west
respectively, and the Venetians to the east. Fifteenthcentury Italy was one of the most urbanised areas in
Europe.[29] Many of its cities stood among the ruins of
ancient Roman buildings; it seems likely that the classical nature of the Renaissance was linked to its origin in
the Roman Empires heartland.[30]
Historian and political philosopher Quentin Skinner
points out that Otto of Freising (c. 11141158), a German bishop visiting north Italy during the 12th century,
noticed a widespread new form of political and social
organization, observing that Italy appeared to have exited from Feudalism so that its society was based on
merchants and commerce. Linked to this was antimonarchical thinking, represented in the famous early
Renaissance fresco cycle Allegory of Good and Bad Government in Siena by Ambrogio Lorenzetti (painted 1338
1340) whose strong message is about the virtues of fairness, justice, republicanism and good administration.
Holding both Church and Empire at bay, these city republics were devoted to notions of liberty. Skinner reports that there were many defences of liberty such as
Matteo Palmieri's (14061475) celebration of Florentine
genius not only in art, sculpture and architecture, but
the remarkable eorescence of moral, social and political philosophy that occurred in Florence at the same
time.[31]

The unique political structures of late Middle Ages Italy

have led some to theorize that its unusual social climate
allowed the emergence of a rare cultural eorescence.
Italy did not exist as a political entity in the early modern
period. Instead, it was divided into smaller city states and
territories: the Kingdom of Naples controlled the south, Even cities and states beyond central Italy, such as the

2.4

Cultural conditions in Florence

Republic of Florence at this time, were also notable

for their merchant Republics, especially the Republic of
Venice. Although in practice these were oligarchical,
and bore little resemblance to a modern democracy,
they did have democratic features and were responsive
states, with forms of participation in governance and belief in liberty.[32][33][34] The relative political freedom
they aorded was conducive to academic and artistic
advancement.[35] Likewise, the position of Italian cities
such as Venice as great trading centres made them intellectual crossroads. Merchants brought with them ideas
from far corners of the globe, particularly the Levant.
Venice was Europes gateway to trade with the East, and
a producer of ne glass, while Florence was a capital of
textiles. The wealth such business brought to Italy meant
large public and private artistic projects could be commissioned and individuals had more leisure time for study.[35]

2.3

Black Death/Plague

5
occurred specically in Italy in the 14th century. The
Black Death was a pandemic that aected all of Europe
in the ways described, not only Italy. The Renaissances
emergence in Italy was most likely the result of the complex interaction of the above factors.[10]
The plague was carried by eas on sailing vessels returning from the ports of Asia, spreading quickly due to lack
of proper sanitation: the population of England, then
about 4.2 million, lost 1.4 million people to the bubonic
plague. Florences population was nearly halved in the
year 1347. As a result of the decimation in the populace
the value of the working class increased, and commoners
came to enjoy more freedom. To answer the increased
need for labor, workers traveled in search of the most favorable position economically.[38]
The demographic decline due to the plague had some economic consequences: the prices of food dropped and land
values declined by 30 to 40% in most parts of Europe between 1350 and 1400.[39] Landholders faced a great loss
but for ordinary men and women, it was a windfall. The
survivors of the plague found not only that the prices of
food were cheaper but also found that lands were more
abundant, and that most of them inherited property from
their dead relatives.
The spread of disease was signicantly more rampant in
areas of poverty. Epidemics ravaged cities, particularly
children. Plagues were easily spread by lice, unsanitary
drinking water, armies, or by poor sanitation. Children
were hit the hardest because many diseases such as typhus
and syphilis target the immune system and left young children without a ghting chance. Children in city dwellings
were more aected by the spread of disease than the children of the wealthy.[40]
The Black Death caused greater upheaval to Florences
social and political structure than later epidemics. Despite a signicant number of deaths among members of
the ruling classes, the government of Florence continued to function during this period. Formal meetings of
elected representatives were suspended during the height
of the epidemic due to the chaotic conditions in the
city, but a small group of ocials was appointed to conduct the aairs of the city, which ensured continuity of
government.[41]

Plague 1497-1499

One theory that has been advanced is that the devastation

caused by the Black Death in Florence, which hit Europe
between 1348 and 1350, resulted in a shift in the world
view of people in 14th-century Italy. Italy was particularly badly hit by the plague, and it has been speculated
that the resulting familiarity with death caused thinkers
to dwell more on their lives on Earth, rather than on
spirituality and the afterlife.[36] It has also been argued
that the Black Death prompted a new wave of piety, manifested in the sponsorship of religious works of art.[37]
However, this does not fully explain why the Renaissance

2.4 Cultural conditions in Florence

It has long been a matter of debate why the Renaissance
began in Florence, and not elsewhere in Italy. Scholars
have noted several features unique to Florentine cultural
life which may have caused such a cultural movement.
Many have emphasized the role played by the Medici,
a banking family and later ducal ruling house, in patronizing and stimulating the arts. Lorenzo de' Medici
(14491492) was the catalyst for an enormous amount
of arts patronage, encouraging his countrymen to commission works from Florences leading artists, including

Lorenzo de' Medici, ruler of Florence and patron of arts

CHARACTERISTICS

Pico della Mirandola. He wrote the famous Oration on the

Dignity of Man, which has been called the Manifesto of the
Renaissance[45]

Leonardo da Vinci, Sandro Botticelli, and Michelangelo

Buonarroti.[5] Works by Neri di Bicci, Sandro Botticelli,
Leonardo da Vinci and Filippino Lippi had been commissioned additionally by the convent di San Donato agli that being the study of ve humanities: poetry, grammar,
Scopeti of the Augustinians order in Florence.[42]
history, moral philosophy and rhetoric. Although histoThe Renaissance was certainly underway before Lorenzo rians have sometimes struggled to dene humanism precame to power; indeed, before the Medici family itself cisely, most have settled on a middle of the road deniachieved hegemony in Florentine society. Some histori- tion... the movement to recover, interpret, and assimilate
learning and values of ancient
ans have postulated that Florence was the birthplace of the language, literature,
[46]
Greece
and
Rome.
Above
all, humanists asserted the
the Renaissance as a result of luck, i.e. because "Great
genius
of
man
...
the
unique
and
extraordinary ability of
[43]
Men" were born there by chance. Leonardo da Vinci,
[47]
the
human
mind.
Botticelli and Michelangelo were all born in Tuscany. Arguing that such chance seems improbable, other historians have contended that these Great Men were only able
to rise to prominence because of the prevailing cultural
conditions at the time.[44]

3
3.1

Characteristics
Humanism

Main article: Renaissance humanism

In some ways Humanism was not a philosophy but a
method of learning. In contrast to the medieval scholastic
mode, which focused on resolving contradictions between authors, humanists would study ancient texts in
the original, and appraise them through a combination
of reasoning and empirical evidence. Humanist education was based on the programme of 'Studia Humanitatis,

Humanist scholars shaped the intellectual landscape

throughout the early modern period. Political philosophers such as Niccol Machiavelli and Thomas More revived the ideas of Greek and Roman thinkers, and applied
them in critiques of contemporary government. Pico
della Mirandola wrote what is often considered the manifesto of the Renaissance, a vibrant defence of thinking,
the Oration on the Dignity of Man. Matteo Palmieri
(14061475), another humanist, is most known for his
work Della vita civile (On Civic Life"; printed 1528)
which advocated civic humanism, and his inuence in rening the Tuscan vernacular to the same level as Latin.
Palmieris written works drawn on Roman philosophers
and theorists, especially Cicero, who, like Palmieri, lived
an active public life as a citizen and ocial, as well as
a theorist and philosopher and also Quintilian. Perhaps
the most succinct expression of his perspective on humanism is in a 1465 poetic work La citt di vita, but
an earlier work Della vita civile (On Civic Life) is more
wide-ranging. Composed as a series of dialogues set in

3.2

Art

a country house in the Mugello countryside outside Florence during the plague of 1430, Palmieri expounds on
the qualities of the ideal citizen. The dialogues include
ideas about how children develop mentally and physically,
how citizens can conduct themselves morally, how citizens and states can ensure probity in public life, and an
important debate on the dierence between that which is
pragmatically useful and that which is honest.
The humanists believed that it is important to transcend
to the afterlife with a perfect mind and body. This transcending belief can be done with education. The purpose of humanism was to create a universal man whose
person combined intellectual and physical excellence and
who was capable of functioning honorably in virtually any
situation.[48] This ideology was referred to as the uomo
universale, an ancient Greco-Roman ideal. The education during Renaissance was mainly composed of ancient
literature and history. It was thought that the classics provided moral instruction and an intensive understanding of
human behavior.

7
tory at the close of the Middle Ages and the rise of the
Modern world. It represents a cultural rebirth from the
14th through the middle of the 17th centuries. Early Renaissance, mostly in Italy, bridges the art period during
the fteenth century, between the Middle Ages and the
High Renaissance in Italy. It is generally known that Renaissance matured in Northern Europe later, in the 16th
century.[49] One of the distinguishing features of Renaissance art was its development of highly realistic linear
perspective. Giotto di Bondone (12671337) is credited
with rst treating a painting as a window into space, but
it was not until the demonstrations of architect Filippo
Brunelleschi (13771446) and the subsequent writings of
Leon Battista Alberti (14041472) that perspective was
formalized as an artistic technique.[50]

The development of perspective was part of a wider

trend towards realism in the arts.[51] To that end, painters
also developed other techniques, studying light, shadow,
and, famously in the case of Leonardo da Vinci, human
anatomy. Underlying these changes in artistic method,
was a renewed desire to depict the beauty of nature, and
to unravel the axioms of aesthetics, with the works of
3.2 Art
Leonardo, Michelangelo and Raphael representing artistic pinnacles that were to be much imitated by other
Main articles: Renaissance art, Renaissance painting and artists.[52] Other notable artists include Sandro Botticelli,
Renaissance architecture
working for the Medici in Florence, Donatello another
The Renaissance marks the period of European his- Florentine and Titian in Venice, among others.
Concurrently, in the Netherlands, a particularly vibrant
artistic culture developed, the work of Hugo van der Goes
and Jan van Eyck having particular inuence on the development of painting in Italy, both technically with the
introduction of oil paint and canvas, and stylistically in
terms of naturalism in representation. (see Renaissance
in the Netherlands). Later, the work of Pieter Brueghel
the Elder would inspire artists to depict themes of everyday life.[53]
In architecture, Filippo Brunelleschi, the most inventive
and gifted designer of all time, was foremost in studying
the remains of ancient classical buildings, and with rediscovered knowledge from the 1st-century writer Vitruvius
and the ourishing discipline of mathematics, formulated
the Renaissance style which emulated and improved on
classical forms. Brunelleschis major feat of engineering
was the building of the dome of Florence Cathedral.[54]
The rst building to demonstrate this is claimed to be the
church of St. Andrew built by Alberti in Mantua. The
outstanding architectural work of the High Renaissance
was the rebuilding of St. Peters Basilica, combining the
skills of Bramante, Michelangelo, Raphael, Sangallo and
Maderno.

Michelangelo's tomb in the Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence

The Roman orders types of columns are used: Tuscan,

Doric, Ionic, Corinthian and Composite. These can either be structural, supporting an arcade or architrave,
or purely decorative, set against a wall in the form of
pilasters. During the Renaissance, architects aimed to
use columns, pilasters, and entablatures as an integrated

CHARACTERISTICS

system. One of the rst buildings to use pilasters as an

integrated system was in the Old Sacristy (14211440)
by Filippo Brunelleschi.[55]
Arches, semi-circular or (in the Mannerist style) segmental, are often used in arcades, supported on piers or
columns with capitals. There may be a section of entablature between the capital and the springing of the arch.
Alberti was one of the rst to use the arch on a monumental. Renaissance vaults do not have ribs. They are
semi-circular or segmental and on a square plan, unlike
the Gothic vault which is frequently rectangular.
The Renaissance artists were not pagans although they admired antiquity and they also kept some ideas and symbols of the medieval past. Nicola Pisano (c. 1220c.
1278) imitated classical forms by portraying scenes from
the Bible. The Annunciation by Nicola Pisano, from the
Baptistry at Pisa, demonstrates that classical models inuenced Italian art before the Renaissance took root as a
literary movement [56]

3.3

1543' Vesalius' studies inspired interest in human anatomy.

Science

Main articles: History of science in the Renaissance and

Renaissance technology
The rediscovery of ancient texts and the invention of

Portrait of Luca Pacioli, father of accounting, painted by Jacopo

de' Barbari, 1495, (Museo di Capodimonte).

printing democratized learning and allowed a faster propagation of ideas. In the rst period of Italian Renaissance,
Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon by Renaissance sculptor Leone
humanists favoured the study of humanities over natural
Leoni
philosophy or applied mathematics. And their reverence
for classical sources further enshrined the Aristotelian
and Ptolemaic views of the universe.
controlled experiments in water ow, medical dissection,
Even though, around 1450, the writings of Nicholas Cu- and systematic study of movement and aerodynamics; he
sanus were anticipating Copernicus' heliocentric world- devised principles of research method that led to Fritjof
[57]
view, it was made in a philosophical fashion. Science and Capra classifying him as father of modern science.
art were very much intermingled in the early Renaissance, In 1492 the discovery of the New World by Christopher
with polymath artists such as Leonardo da Vinci making Columbus challenged the classical world-view, as the
observational drawings of anatomy and nature. He set up works of Ptolemy (geography) and Galen (medicine)

3.5

Religion

were found not always to match everyday observations: 3.5 Religion

a suitable environment was created to question scientic
doctrine. As the Protestant Reformation and Counter- Main articles: Protestant Reformation and CounterReformation clashed, the Northern Renaissance showed Reformation
a decisive shift in focus from Aristotelean natural phi- The new ideals of humanism, although more secular in
losophy to chemistry and the biological sciences (botany,
anatomy, and medicine).[58] The willingness to question
previously held truths and search for new answers resulted
in a period of major scientic advancements.
In the end of the 15th century, Luca Pacioli published
the rst work on Bookkeeping, making him the founder
of accounting.[59]
Some have seen this as a "scientic revolution", heralding the beginning of the modern age.[60] Others as an
acceleration of a continuous process stretching from the
ancient world to the present day.[61] Regardless, there is
general agreement that the Renaissance saw signicant
changes in the way the universe was viewed and the methods sought to explain natural phenomena.[62] Traditionally held to have begun in 1543, when were rst printed
the books De humani corporis fabrica (On the Workings
of the Human Body) by Andreas Vesalius, which gave
a new condence to the role of dissection, observation,
and mechanistic view of anatomy,[62] and also De Revolutionibus, by Nicolaus Copernicus. The famous thesis of
Copernicuss book was that the Earth moved around the
Sun. Signicant scientic advances were made during
this time by Galileo Galilei, Tycho Brahe and Johannes Alexander VI, a Borgia Pope infamous for his corruption
Kepler.[63]
One important development was not any specic discovery, but rather the further development of the process for discovery, the scientic method.[62] It focused on
empirical evidence, the importance of mathematics, and
discarded Aristotelian science. Early and inuential proponents of these ideas included Copernicus and Galileo
and Francis Bacon.[64][65] The new scientic method led
to great contributions in the elds of astronomy, physics,
biology, and anatomy.[66][67]

3.4

Music

Main article: Renaissance music

From this changing society emerged a common, unifying musical language, in particular the polyphonic style of
the Franco-Flemish school. The development of printing
made distribution of music possible on a wide scale. Demand for music as entertainment and as an activity for
educated amateurs increased with the emergence of a
bourgeois class. Dissemination of chansons, motets, and
masses throughout Europe coincided with the unication
of polyphonic practice into the uid style which culminated in the second half of the sixteenth century in the
work of composers such as Palestrina, Lassus, Victoria
and William Byrd.

Adoration of the Magi and Solomon adored by the Queen of

Sheba from the Farnese Hours by Giulio Clovio marks the end of
the Italian Renaissance of illuminated manuscript together with
the Index Librorum Prohibitorum.

some aspects, developed against a Christian backdrop,

especially in the Northern Renaissance. Much, if not
most, of the new art was commissioned by or in dedication to the Church.[18] However, the Renaissance had
a profound eect on contemporary theology, particularly in the way people perceived the relationship between
man and God.[18] Many of the periods foremost theologians were followers of the humanist method, including

10

SPREAD

Erasmus, Zwingli, Thomas More, Martin Luther, and riod because he believed that Italy was no longer in a state
John Calvin.
of decline. Flavio Biondo used a similar framework in
The Renaissance began in times of religious turmoil. The Decades of History from the Deterioration of the Roman
late Middle Ages saw a period of political intrigue sur- Empire (14391453).
rounding the Papacy, culminating in the Western Schism,
in which three men simultaneously claimed to be true
Bishop of Rome.[68] While the schism was resolved by the
Council of Constance (1414), the 15th century saw a resulting reform movement known as Conciliarism, which
sought to limit the popes power. Although the papacy
eventually emerged supreme in ecclesiastical matters by
the Fifth Council of the Lateran (1511), it was dogged by
continued accusations of corruption, most famously in the
person of Pope Alexander VI, who was accused variously
of simony, nepotism and fathering four children (most of
whom were married o, presumably for the consolidation
of power) while a cardinal.[69]
Churchmen such as Erasmus and Luther proposed reform
to the Church, often based on humanist textual criticism
of the New Testament.[18] It was Luther who in October 1517 published the 95 Theses, challenging papal authority and criticizing its perceived corruption, particularly with regard to instances of sold indulgences.[note 1]
The 95 Theses led to the Reformation, a break with the
Roman Catholic Church that previously claimed hegemony in Western Europe. Humanism and the Renaissance therefore played a direct role in sparking the Reformation, as well as in many other contemporaneous religious debates and conicts.
In an era following the sack of Rome in 1527 and prevalent with uncertainties in the Catholic Church following
the Protestant Reformation, Pope Paul III came to the
papal throne (15341549), to whom Nicolaus Copernicus dedicated De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On
the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres) and who became the grandfather of Alessandro Farnese (cardinal),
who had paintings by Titian, Michelangelo, and Raphael,
and an important collection of drawings and who commissioned the masterpiece of Giulio Clovio, arguably the
last major illuminated manuscript, the Farnese Hours.

3.6

Self-awareness

Humanist historians argued that contemporary scholarship restored direct links to the classical period, thus bypassing the Medieval period, which they then named for
the rst time the "Middle Ages". The term rst appears
in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas (middle times).[72]
The term la rinascita (rebirth) rst appeared, however,
in its broad sense in Giorgio Vasari's Vite de' pi eccellenti architetti, pittori, et scultori Italiani (The Lives
of the Artists, 1550, revised 1568).[73][74] Vasari divides the age into three phases: the rst phase contains
Cimabue, Giotto, and Arnolfo di Cambio; the second
phase contains Masaccio, Brunelleschi, and Donatello;
the third centers on Leonardo da Vinci and culminates
with Michelangelo. It was not just the growing awareness of classical antiquity that drove this development,
according to Vasari, but also the growing desire to study
and imitate nature.[75]

4 Spread

Chteau de Chambord (15191547) is one of the most famous

examples of Renaissance architecture.

In the 15th century, the Renaissance spread with great

speed from its birthplace in Florence, rst to the rest of
By the 15th century, writers, artists, and architects in Italy, and soon to the rest of Europe. The invention of
Italy were well aware of the transformations that were the printing press by German printer Johannes Gutenberg
taking place and were using phrases such as, modi an- allowed the rapid transmission of these new ideas. As it
tichi (in the antique manner) or alle romana et alla an- spread, its ideas diversied and changed, being adapted to
tica (in the manner of the Romans and the ancients) to local culture. In the 20th century, scholars began to break
describe their work. In the 1330s Petrarch referred to the Renaissance into regional and national movements.
pre-Christian times as antiqua (ancient) and to the Christian period as nova (new).[70] From Petrarchs Italian perspective, this new period (which included his own time) 4.1 Northern Europe
was an age of national eclipse.[70] Leonardo Bruni was
the rst to use tripartite periodization in his History of Main article: Northern Renaissance
the Florentine People (1442).[71] Brunis rst two periods The Renaissance as it occurred in Northern Europe
were based on those of Petrarch, but he added a third pe- has been termed the Northern Renaissance. While

4.2

England

11

4.2 England
Main article: English Renaissance
In England, the sixteenth century marked the begin-

Pieter Bruegel's The Triumph of Death (c. 1562) reects the

social upheaval and terror that followed the plague which devastated medieval Europe.

Renaissance ideas were moving north from Italy, there

was a simultaneous southward spread of some areas of
innovation, particularly in music.[76] The music of the
15th century Burgundian School dened the beginning
of the Renaissance in that art and the polyphony of the
Netherlanders, as it moved with the musicians themselves
into Italy, formed the core of what was the rst true
international style in music since the standardization of
Gregorian Chant in the 9th century.[76] The culmination
of the Netherlandish school was in the music of the Italian
composer, Palestrina. At the end of the 16th century Italy
again became a center of musical innovation, with the development of the polychoral style of the Venetian School,
which spread northward into Germany around 1600.
The paintings of the Italian Renaissance diered from
those of the Northern Renaissance. Italian Renaissance artists were among the rst to paint secular scenes,
breaking away from the purely religious art of medieval
painters. At rst, Northern Renaissance artists remained
focused on religious subjects, such as the contemporary
religious upheaval portrayed by Albrecht Drer. Later
on, the works of Pieter Bruegel inuenced artists to
paint scenes of daily life rather than religious or classical themes. It was also during the Northern Renaissance
that Flemish brothers Hubert and Jan van Eyck perfected
the oil painting technique, which enabled artists to produce strong colors on a hard surface that could survive
for centuries.[77] A feature of the Northern Renaissance
was its use of the vernacular in place of Latin or Greek,
which allowed greater freedom of expression. This movement had started in Italy with the decisive inuence of
Dante Alighieri on the development of vernacular languages; in fact the focus on writing in Italian has neglected a major source of Florentine ideas expressed in
Latin.[78] The spread of the technology of the German
invention of movable type printing boosted the Renaissance, in Northern Europe as elsewhere; with Venice becoming a world center of printing.

What a piece of work is a man, how noble in reason, how innite

in faculties, in form and moving how express and admirable, in
action how like an angel, in apprehension how like a god!"
from William Shakespeare's Hamlet.

ning of the English Renaissance with the work of writers William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, Edmund
Spenser, Sir Thomas More, Francis Bacon, Sir Philip Sidney, John Milton, as well as great artists, architects (such
as Inigo Jones who introduced Italianate architecture to
England), and composers such as Thomas Tallis, John
Taverner, and William Byrd.

4.3 France
Main article: French Renaissance
The word Renaissance is borrowed from the French
language, where it means re-birth. It was rst used
and dened[16] by French historian Jules Michelet (1798
1874), in his 1855 work, Histoire de France (History of
France).[79] His work is at the origin of the use of the
French word Renaissance in other languages.
In 1495 the Italian Renaissance arrived in France, imported by King Charles VIII after his invasion of Italy.
A factor that promoted the spread of secularism was the
Churchs inability to oer assistance against the Black
Death. Francis I imported Italian art and artists, including Leonardo da Vinci, and built ornate palaces at great

12

SPREAD

expense. Writers such as Franois Rabelais, Pierre de

Ronsard, Joachim du Bellay and Michel de Montaigne,
painters such as Jean Clouet and musicians such as Jean
Mouton also borrowed from the spirit of the Renaissance.

medieval scholastic philosophy remained exclusively until the turn of the 16th century. Emperor Maximilian
I of Habsburg (Ruling 14931519) was the rst truly
Renaissance monarch of the Holy Roman Empire, later
In 1533, a fourteen-year-old Caterina de' Medici (1519 known as Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation
1589), born in Florence to Lorenzo II de' Medici and (Imperial Diet of Cologne, 1512).
Madeleine de la Tour d'Auvergne, married Henry, second son of King Francis I and Queen Claude. Though 4.5 Hungary
she became famous and infamous for her role in Frances
religious wars, she made a direct contribution in bringing After Italy, Hungary was the rst European country
arts, sciences and music (including the origins of ballet) where the renaissance appeared.[81] The Renaissance
to the French court from her native Florence.
style came directly from Italy during the Quattrocento to
Hungary rst in the Central European region, thanks to
the development of early Hungarian-Italian relationships
not only in dynastic connections, but also in cultural, humanistic and commercial relations growing in strength
from the 14th century. The relationship between Hungarian and Italian Gothic styles was a second reason
exaggerated breakthrough of walls is avoided, preferring
clean and light structures. Large-scale building schemes
provided ample and long term work for the artists, for example, the building of the Friss (New) Castle in Buda,
the castles of Visegrd, Tata and Vrpalota. In Sigismunds court there were patrons such as Pipo Spano, a
descendant of the Scolari family of Florence, who invited Manetto Ammanatini and Masolino da Pannicale
to Hungary.[82]

Main article: German Renaissance

The new Italian trend combined with existing national traditions to create a particular local Renaissance art. Acceptance of Renaissance art was furthered by the continuous arrival of humanist thought in the country. Many
young Hungarians studying at Italian universities came
closer to the Florentine humanist center, so a direct
connection with Florence evolved. The growing number of Italian traders moving to Hungary, specially to
Buda, helped this process. New thoughts were carried by the humanist prelates, among them Vitz Jnos,
archbishop of Esztergom, one of the founders of Hungarian humanism.[83] During the long reign of emperor
Sigismund of Luxemburg the Royal Castle of Buda became probably the largest Gothic palace of the late
Middle Ages. King Matthias Corvinus (r. 14581490)
rebuilt the palace in early Renaissance style and further
expanded it.[84][85]

In the second half of the 15th century, the spirit of the age
spread to Germany and the Low Countries, where the development of the printing press (ca. 1450) and early Renaissance artists such as the painters Jan van Eyck (1395
1441) and Hieronymus Bosch (14501516) and the composers Johannes Ockeghem (14101497), Jacob Obrecht
(14571505) and Josquin des Prez (14551521), predated the inuence from Italy. In the early Protestant
areas of the country humanism became closely linked
to the turmoil of the Protestant Reformation, and the
art and writing of the German Renaissance frequently
reected this dispute.[80] However, the gothic style and

After the marriage in 1476 of King Matthias to Beatrice

of Naples, Buda became one of the most important artistic centres of the Renaissance north of the Alps.[86] The
most important humanists living in Matthias court were
Antonio Bonni and the famous Hungarian poet Janus
Pannonius.[86] Andrs Hess set up a printing press in Buda
in 1472. Matthias Corvinuss library, the Bibliotheca
Corviniana, was Europes greatest collections of secular books: historical chronicles, philosophic and scientic works in the 15th century. His library was second only in size to the Vatican Library. (However, the
Vatican Library mainly contained Bibles and religious
materials.)[87]

Juleum in Helmstedt, Germany - the great auditorium of the former University, built in Weser Renaissance style

4.4

Germany

4.7

Poland

13

In 1489, Bartolomeo della Fonte of Florence wrote 4.7 Poland

that Lorenzo de' Medici founded his own Greek-Latin
library encouraged by the example of the Hungarian
king. Corvinuss library is part of UNESCO World Main article: Renaissance in Poland
Heritage.[88] Other important gures of Hungarian Re- An early Italian humanist who came to Poland in the
naissance: Blint Balassi (poet), Sebestyn Tindi Lantos
(poet), Blint Bakfark (composer and lutenist)

Pozna Town Hall rebuilt from the Gothic style by Giovanni

Batista di Quadro (15501555)
Erasmus of Rotterdam in 1523 as depicted by Hans Holbein the
Younger

4.6

Netherlands

Main articles: Renaissance in the Netherlands and Dutch

and Flemish Renaissance painting
Culture in the Netherlands at the end of the 15th century
was inuenced by the Italian Renaissance, through trade
via Bruges which made Flanders wealthy. Its nobles commissioned artists who became known across Europe.[89]
In science, the anatomist Andreas Vesalius led the way;
in cartography, Gerardus Mercator's map assisted explorers and navigators. In art, Dutch and Flemish Renaissance painting went from the strange work of Hieronymus
Bosch[90] to the everyday life of Pieter Brueghel the Elder.[89]

mid-15th century was Filippo Buonaccorsi. Many Italian

artists came to Poland with Bona Sforza of Milan, when
she married King Sigismund I the Old in 1518.[91] This
was supported by temporarily strengthened monarchies in
both areas, as well as by newly established universities.[92]
The Polish Renaissance lasted from the late 15th to the
late 16th century and is widely considered to have been
the Golden Age of Polish culture. Ruled by the Jagiellon
dynasty, the Kingdom of Poland (from 1569 known as the
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) actively participated
in the broad European Renaissance. The multi-national
Polish state experienced a substantial period of cultural
growth thanks in part to a century without major wars
aside from conicts in the sparsely populated eastern and
southern borderlands. The Reformation spread peacefully throughout the country (giving rise to the Polish
Brethren), while living conditions improved, cities grew,
and exports of agricultural products enriched the population, especially the nobility (szlachta) who gained dominance in the new political system of Golden Liberty. The
Polish Renaissance architecture has three periods of development.

14

4.8

SPREAD

Portugal

printing press.[93] After joining the Portuguese exploration of Brazil in 1500, Amerigo Vespucci coined the
term New World,[95] in his letters to Lorenzo di PierMain article: Portuguese Renaissance
Although Italian Renaissance had a modest impact in francesco de' Medici.
The intense international exchange produced several cosmopolitan humanist scholars: Francisco de Holanda,
Andr de Resende and Damio de Gis, a friend of Erasmus who wrote with rare independence on the reign of
King Manuel I; Diogo and Andr de Gouveia, who made
relevant teaching reforms via France. Foreign news and
products in the Portuguese factory in Antwerp attracted
the interest of Thomas More[96] and Drer to the wider
world.[97] There, prots and know-how helped nurture
the Dutch Renaissance and Golden Age, especially after the arrival of the wealthy cultured Jewish community
expelled from Portugal.

4.9 Russia

So Pedro Papa, 1530-1535, by Gro Vasco Fernandes. A

pinnacle piece from when the Portuguese Renaissance had considerable external inuence.

Portuguese arts, Portugal was inuential in broadening the European worldview,[93] stimulating humanist
inquiry. Renaissance arrived through the inuence of
wealthy Italian and Flemish merchants who invested in
the protable commerce overseas. As the pioneer headquarters of European exploration, Lisbon ourished in
the late 15th century, attracting experts who made several
breakthroughs in mathematics, astronomy and naval technology including Pedro Nunes, Joo de Castro, Abraham
Zacuto and Martin Behaim. Cartographers Pedro Reinel,
Lopo Homem, Estvo Gomes and Diogo Ribeiro made
crucial advances to help mapping the world. Apothecary
Tom Pires and physicians Garcia de Orta and Cristvo
da Costa collected and published works on plants and
medicines, soon translated by Flemish pioneer botanist
Carolus Clusius.
In architecture, the huge prots of the spice trade nanced a sumptuous composite style in the rst decades
of the 16th century, the Manueline, incorporating
maritime elements.[94] The main painters being Nuno
Gonalves, Gregrio Lopes and Vasco Fernandes. In music, Pedro de Escobar and Duarte Lobo, and four songbooks, including the Cancioneiro de Elvas. In literature, S de Miranda introduced Italian forms of verse,
Bernardim Ribeiro developed pastoral romance; Gil Vicente plays fused it with popular culture, reporting the
changing times, and Lus de Cames inscribed the Portuguese feats overseas in the epic poem Os Lusadas.
Travel literature specially ourished: Joo de Barros,
Castanheda, Antnio Galvo, Gaspar Correia, Duarte
Barbosa, Ferno Mendes Pinto, among others, described
new lands and were translated and spread with the new

Renaissance trends from Italy and Central Europe inuenced Russia in many ways, though this inuence was
rather limited due to the large distances between Russia
and the main European cultural centers, on one hand, and
the strong adherence of Russians to their Orthodox traditions and Byzantine legacy, on the other hand.
Prince Ivan III introduced Renaissance architecture to
Russia by inviting a number of architects from Italy, who
brought new construction techniques and some Renaissance style elements with them, while in general following the traditional designs of the Russian architecture. In 1475 the Bolognese architect Aristotele Fioravanti came to rebuild the Cathedral of the Dormition in
the Moscow Kremlin, damaged in an earthquake. Fioravanti was given the 12th-century Vladimir Cathedral
as a model, and produced a design combining traditional
Russian style with a Renaissance sense of spaciousness,
proportion and symmetry.

The Palace of Facets on the Cathedral Square of the Moscow

Kremlin.

In 1485 Ivan III commissioned the building of a royal

Terem Palace within the Kremlin, with Aloisio da Mi-

4.10

Spain

lano being the architect of the rst three oors. Aloisio da

Milano, as well as the other Italian architects, also greatly
contributed to the construction of the Kremlin walls and
towers. The small banqueting hall of the Russian Tsars,
called the Palace of Facets because of its facetted upper story, is the work of two Italians, Marco Ruo and
Pietro Solario, and shows a more Italian style. In 1505,
an Italian known in Russia as Aleviz Novyi or Aleviz
Fryazin arrived in Moscow. He may have been the
Venetian sculptor, Alevisio Lamberti da Montagne. He
built 12 churches for Ivan III, including the Cathedral
of the Archangel, a building remarkable for the successful blending of Russian tradition, Orthodox requirements
and Renaissance style. It is believed that the Cathedral of
the Metropolitan Peter in Vysokopetrovsky Monastery,
another work of Aleviz Novyi, later served as an inspiration for the so-called octagon-on-tetragon architectural
form in the Moscow Baroque of the late 17th century.

15
ropean Gothic architecture of the earlier period. The
Italians, with their advanced technology, may have inuenced the invention of the stone tented roof (the wooden
tents were known in Russia and Europe long before).
According to one hypothesis, an Italian architect called
Petrok Maly may have been an author of the Ascension
Church in Kolomenskoye, one of the earliest and most
prominent tented roof churches.[98]
By the 17th century the inuence of Renaissance painting
resulted in Russian icons becoming slightly more realistic,
while still following most of the old icon painting canons,
as seen in the works of Bogdan Saltanov, Simon Ushakov,
Gury Nikitin, Karp Zolotaryov and other Russian artists
of the era. Gradually the new type of secular portrait
painting appeared, called parsna (from persona person), which was transitional style between abstract iconographics and real paintings.
In the mid 16th-century Russians adopted printing from
Central Europe, with Ivan Fyodorov being the rst known
Russian printer. In the 17th century printing became
widespread, and woodcuts became especially popular.
That led to the development of a special form of folk art
known as lubok printing, which persisted in Russia well
into the 19th century.
A number of technologies from the European Renaissance period were adopted by Russia rather early, and
subsequently perfected to became a part of a strong domestic tradition. Mostly these were military technologies, such as cannon casting adopted by at least the 15th
century. The Tsar Cannon, which is the worlds largest
bombard by caliber, is a masterpiece of Russian cannon
making. It was cast in 1586 by Andrey Chokhov, and
is notable for its rich, decorative relief. Another technology, that according to one hypothesis originally was
brought from Europe by the Italians, resulted in the development of vodka, the national beverage of Russia. As
early as 1386 the Genoese ambassadors brought the rst
aqua vitae (the living water) to Moscow and presented it
to Grand Duke Dmitry Donskoy. The Genoese likely got
this beverage with the help of the alchemists of Provence,
who used an Arab-invented distillation apparatus to convert grape must into alcohol. A Moscovite monk called
Isidore used this technology to produce the rst original
Russian vodka c. 1430.[99]

4.10 Spain
Theotokos and The Child, the late 17th century Russian icon by
Karp Zolotaryov, with a notably realistic depiction of faces and
clothing.

Between the early 16th and the late 17th centuries, however, an original tradition of stone tented roof architecture had been developed in Russia. It was quite unique
and dierent from the contemporary Renaissance architecture elsewhere in Europe, though some researches call
that style 'Russian Gothic' and compare it with the Eu-

Main article: Spanish Renaissance

The Renaissance arrived in the Iberian peninsula through
the Mediterranean possessions of the Aragonese Crown
and the city of Valencia. Indeed, many of the early
Spanish Renaissance writers come from the Kingdom of
Aragon, including Ausis March and Joanot Martorell.
In the Kingdom of Castile, the early Renaissance was
heavily inuenced by the Italian humanism, starting with

16

HISTORIOGRAPHY

writers and poets starting with the Marquis of Santillana,

who introduced the new Italian poetry to Spain in the
early 15th century. Other writers, such as Jorge Manrique, Fernando de Rojas, Juan del Encina, Juan Boscn
Almogver and Garcilaso de la Vega, kept a close resemblance to the Italian canon. Miguel de Cervantes's
masterpiece Don Quixote is credited as the rst Western
novel. Renaissance humanism ourished in the early 16th
century, with inuential writers such as philosopher Juan
Luis Vives, grammarian Antonio de Nebrija or natural
historian Pedro de Mexa.
Later Spanish Renaissance tended towards religious
themes and mysticism, with poets such as fray Luis de
Len, Teresa of vila and John of the Cross, and treated
issues related to the exploration of the New World, with
chroniclers and writers such as Inca Garcilaso de la Vega
or Bartolom de las Casas, giving rise to a body of work,
now known as Spanish Renaissance literature. The late
Renaissance in Spain also saw the rise of artists such as
El Greco, and composers such as Toms Luis de Victoria
and Antonio de Cabezn.

4.11 Further countries

Renaissance in Croatia

A cover of the Lives of the Artists by Giorgio Vasari.

Renaissance in Scotland

5
5.1

Historiography
Conception

a vocal Republican, chose to see in its character.[10] A

French nationalist, Michelet also sought to claim the Renaissance as a French movement.[10]
The Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt (18181897) in
his The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (1860), by
contrast, dened the Renaissance as the period between
Giotto and Michelangelo in Italy, that is, the 14th to mid16th centuries. He saw in the Renaissance the emergence
of the modern spirit of individuality, which the Middle
Ages had stied.[101] His book was widely read and became inuential in the development of the modern interpretation of the Italian Renaissance.[102] However, Buckhardt has been accused of setting forth a linear Whiggish
view of history in seeing the Renaissance as the origin of
the modern world.[13]

The Italian artist and critic Giorgio Vasari (15111574)

rst used the term rinascita retrospectively in his book
The Lives of the Artists (published 1550). In the book
Vasari attempted to dene what he described as a break
with the barbarities of gothic art: the arts (he held) had
fallen into decay with the collapse of the Roman Empire and only the Tuscan artists, beginning with Cimabue
(12401301) and Giotto (12671337) began to reverse
this decline in the arts. Vasari saw antique art as central
to the rebirth of Italian art.[100]
More recently, some historians have been much less keen
However, only in the 19th century did the French word to dene the Renaissance as a historical age, or even as
Renaissance achieve popularity in describing the self- a coherent cultural movement. The historian Randolph
conscious cultural movement based on revival of Ro- Starn, of the University of California Berkeley, stated in
man models that began in the late-13th century. French 1998:
historian Jules Michelet (17981874) rst dened The
Renaissance[16] in his 1855 work, Histoire de France.
Rather than a period with denitive beginFor Michelet, the Renaissance was more a development in
nings and endings and consistent content in bescience than in art and culture. He asserted that it spanned
tween, the Renaissance can be (and occasionthe period from Columbus to Copernicus to Galileo; that
ally has been) seen as a movement of pracis, from the end of the 15th century to the middle of the
tices and ideas to which specic groups and
17th century.[79] Moreover, Michelet distinguished beidentiable persons variously responded in diftween what he called, the bizarre and monstrous quality
ferent times and places. It would be in this
of the Middle Ages and the democratic values that he, as
sense a network of diverse, sometimes con-

17
verging, sometimes conicting cultures, not a
single, time-bound culture.[13]

towards capitalism, resulting in a bourgeois class with

leisure time to devote to the arts.[105]

Johan Huizinga (18721945) acknowledged the existence of the Renaissance but questioned whether it was
5.2 Debates about progress
a positive change. In his book The Waning of the Middle
Ages, he argued that the Renaissance was a period of deSee also: Continuity thesis
cline from the High Middle Ages, destroying much that
There is debate about the extent to which the Re- was important.[12] The Latin language, for instance, had
evolved greatly from the classical period and was still a
living language used in the church and elsewhere. The
Renaissance obsession with classical purity halted its further evolution and saw Latin revert to its classical form.
Robert S. Lopez has contended that it was a period of
deep economic recession.[106] Meanwhile, George Sarton and Lynn Thorndike have both argued that scientic
progress was perhaps less original than has traditionally
been supposed.[107] Finally, Joan Kelly argued that the
Renaissance led to greater gender dichotomy, lessening
the agency women had had during the Middle Ages.[108]
Painting of the St. Bartholomews Day Massacre, an event in the
French Wars of Religion, by Franois Dubois

naissance improved on the culture of the Middle Ages.

Both Michelet and Burckhardt were keen to describe the
progress made in the Renaissance towards the modern
age. Burckhardt likened the change to a veil being removed from mans eyes, allowing him to see clearly.[43]
In the Middle Ages both sides of human
consciousness that which was turned within
as that which was turned without lay dreaming or half awake beneath a common veil. The
veil was woven of faith, illusion, and childish prepossession, through which the world and
history were seen clad in strange hues.[103]
Jacob Burckhardt, The Civilization of
the Renaissance in Italy

Some historians have begun to consider the word Renaissance to be unnecessarily loaded, implying an unambiguously positive rebirth from the supposedly more primitive "Dark Ages", the Middle Ages. Most historians now
prefer to use the term "early modern" for this period, a
more neutral designation that highlights the period as a
transitional one between the Middle Ages and the modern
era.[109] Others such as Roger Osborne have come to consider the Italian Renaissance as a repository of the myths
and ideals of western history in general, and instead of rebirth of ancient ideas as a period of great innovation.[110]

6 Other Renaissances
The term Renaissance has also been used to dene periods outside of the 15th and 16th centuries. Charles
H. Haskins (18701937), for example, made a case for
a Renaissance of the 12th century.[111] Other historians
have argued for a Carolingian Renaissance in the 8th
and 9th centuries, and still later for an Ottonian Renaissance in the 10th century.[112] Other periods of cultural
rebirth have also been termed renaissances, such as the
Bengal Renaissance, Tamil Renaissance, Nepal Bhasa renaissance, al-Nahda or the Harlem Renaissance.

On the other hand, many historians now point out that

most of the negative social factors popularly associated
with the medieval period poverty, warfare, religious and
political persecution, for example seem to have worsened in this era which saw the rise of Machiavellian politics, the Wars of Religion, the corrupt Borgia Popes, and
the intensied witch-hunts of the 16th century. Many 7 See also
people who lived during the Renaissance did not view it
as the "golden age" imagined by certain 19th-century au- Main article: Outline of the Renaissance
thors, but were concerned by these social maladies.[104]
Signicantly, though, the artists, writers, and patrons involved in the cultural movements in question believed
Italian Renaissance
they were living in a new era that was a clean break from
Weser Renaissance
the Middle Ages.[73] Some Marxist historians prefer to
describe the Renaissance in material terms, holding the
Gilded woodcarving
view that the changes in art, literature, and philosophy
List of Renaissance gures
were part of a general economic trend from feudalism

18

List of Renaissance structures

REFERENCES

Renaissance Humanism

[13] Starn, Randolph (1998). Renaissance Redux. The

American Historical Review 103 (1): 122124. JSTOR
2650779.

Medical Renaissance

[14] Panofsky 1969:6.

Age of Enlightenment

[15] The Oxford English Dictionary cites W Dyce and C H Wilsons Letter to Lord Meadowbank (1837): A style possessing many points of rude resemblance with the more
elegant and rened character of the art of the renaissance
in Italy. And the following year in Civil Engineer & Architects Journal: Not that we consider the style of the
Renaissance to be either pure or good per se. See Oxford
English Dictionary, Renaissance

Scientic Revolution
Western culture

8
8.1

References
Notes

[1] It is sometimes thought that the Church, as an institution, formally sold indulgences at the time. This, however,
was not the practice. Donations were often received, but
only mandated by individuals that were condemned. (See
Indulgence.)

8.2

Citations

[1] French pronunciation: [ns s], from French: Renaissance re-birth, Italian: Rinascimento [rinaimento],
from rinascere to be reborn Online Etymology Dictionary: Renaissance"". Etymonline.com. Retrieved July
31, 2009.
[2] BBC Science and Nature, Leonardo da Vinci Retrieved
May 12, 2007

[16] Murray, P. and Murray, L. (1963) The Art of the Renaissance. London: Thames & Hudson (World of Art), p. 9.
ISBN 978-0-500-20008-7
[17] Perry, M. Humanities in the Western Tradition, Ch. 13
[18] Open University, Looking at the Renaissance: Religious
Context in the Renaissance (Retrieved May 10, 2007)
[19] Open University, Looking at the Renaissance: Urban
economy and government (Retrieved May 15, 2007)
[20] Stark, Rodney, The Victory of Reason, Random House,
NY: 2005
[21] See below, under Sources.
[22] Walker, Paul Robert, The Feud that sparked the Renaissance: How Brunelleschi and Ghiberti Changed the Art
World (New York, Perennial-Harper Collins, 2003)

[4] Burke, P., The European Renaissance: Centre and Peripheries 1998)

[23] Severy, Merle; Thomas B Allen; Ross Bennett; Jules

B Billard; Russell Bourne; Edward Lanoutte; David F
Robinson; Verla Lee Smith (1970). The Renaissance
Maker of Modern Man. National Geographic Society.
ISBN 0-87044-091-8.

[5] Strathern, Paul The Medici: Godfathers of the Renaissance

(2003)

[24] Brotton, Jerry (2002). The Renaissance Bazaar. Oxford

University Press. pp. 2122.

[6] Peter Barenboim, Sergey Shiyan, Michelangelo: Mysteries of Medici Chapel, SLOVO, Moscow, 2006. ISBN 585050-825-2

[25] For information on this earlier, very dierent approach to

a dierent set of ancient texts (scientic texts rather than
cultural texts) see Latin translations of the 12th century,
and Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe.

[3] BBC History, Michelangelo Retrieved May 12, 2007

[7] Encyclopdia Britannica, Renaissance, 2008, O.Ed.

[26] Reynolds and Wilson, pp. 113123.
[8] Har, Michael H. History of Libraries in the Western World,
Scarecrow Press Incorporate, 1999, ISBN 0-8108-3724-2
[9] Norwich, John Julius, A Short History of Byzantium, 1997,
Knopf, ISBN 0-679-45088-2
[10] Brotton, J., The Renaissance: A Very Short Introduction,
OUP, 2006 ISBN 0-19-280163-5.
[11] Panofsky, Renaissance and Renascences in Western
Art 1969:38; Panofskys chapter "'Renaissance selfdenition or self-deception?" succinctly introduces the
historiographical debate, with copious footnotes to the literature.
[12] Huizanga, Johan, The Waning of the Middle Ages (1919,
trans. 1924)

[27] Reynolds and Wilson, pp. 123, 130137.

[28] Reynolds and Wilson, pp. 119, 131.
[29] Kirshner, Julius, Family and Marriage: A socio-legal perspective, Italy in the Age of the Renaissance: 13001550,
ed. John M. Najemy (Oxford University Press, 2004)
p.89 (Retrieved on May 10, 2007)
[30] Burckhardt, Jacob, The Revival of Antiquity', The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (trans. by S.G.C. Middlemore, 1878)
[31] Skinner, Quentin, The Foundations of Modern Political
Thought, vol I: The Renaissance; vol II: The Age of Reformation, Cambridge University Press, p. 69

8.2

Citations

19

[32] Skinner, Quentin, The Foundations of Modern Political

Thought, vol I: The Renaissance; vol II: The Age of Reformation, Cambridge University Press, p. 69)
[33] Stark, Rodney, The Victory of Reason, New York, Random House, 2005
[34] Martin, J. and Romano, D., Venice Reconsidered, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University, 2000
[35] Burckhardt, Jacob, The Republics: Venice and Florence,
The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, translated by
S.G.C. Middlemore, 1878.
[36] Barbara Tuchman (1978) A Distant Mirror, Knopf ISBN
0-394-40026-7.
[37] The End of Europes Middle Ages: The Black Death University of Calgary website. (Retrieved on April 5, 2007)
[38] Netzley, Patricia D. Life During the Renaissance.San
Diego: Lucent Books, Inc., 1998.
[39] Hause, S. & Maltby, W. (2001). A History of European
Society. Essentials of Western Civilization (Vol. 2, p. 217).
Belmont, CA: Thomson Learning, Inc.
[40] Renaissance And Reformation France Mack P. Holt
pg.30,39,69,166
[41] Hatty, Suzanne (1999). Disordered Body: Epidemic
Disease and Cultural Transformation. ebscohost. State
University of New York. p. 89.
[42] Guido Carocci, I dintorni di Firenze, Vol. II, Galletti e
Cocci, Firenze, 1907, pagg. 336-337
[43] Burckhardt, Jacob, The Development of the Individual,
The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, translated by
S.G.C. Middlemore, 1878.
[44] Stephens, J., Individualism and the cult of creative personality, The Italian Renaissance, New York, 1990 p. 121.
[45] Oration on the Dignity of Man (1486) wsu.edu
[46] Burke, P., The spread of Italian humanism, in The Impact of Humanism on Western Europe, ed. A. Goodman
and A. MacKay, London, 1990, p. 2.
[47] As asserted by Gianozzo Manetti in On the Dignity and
Excellence of Man, cited in Clare, J., Italian Renaissance.
[48] Hause, S. & Maltby, W. (2001). A History of European
Society. Essentials of Western Civilization (Vol. 2, pp.
245246). Belmont, CA: Thomson Learning, Inc.
[49] Early Renaissance Early Renaissance Art.
for.com. Retrieved July 17, 2011.

Hunt-

[50] Clare, John D. & Millen, Alan, Italian Renaissance, London, 1994, p. 14.

[53] Peter Brueghel Biography, Web Gallery of Art (Retrieved

May 10, 2007)
[54] Hooker, Richard, Architecture and Public Space (Retrieved May 10, 2007)
[55] Saalman, Howard (1993). Filippo Brunelleschi: The
Buildings. Zwemmer. ISBN 0-271-01067-3.
[56] Hause, S. & Maltby, W. (2001). A History of European
Society. Essentials of Western Civilization (Vol. 2, pp.
250251). Belmont, CA: Thomson Learning, Inc.
[57] Capra, Fritjof, The Science of Leonardo; Inside the Mind
of the Great Genius of the Renaissance, New York, Doubleday, 2007. Exhaustive 2007 study by Fritjof Capra
shows that Leonardo was a much greater scientist than
previously thought, and not just an inventor. In science theory and in conducting actual science practice,
Leonardo was innovative. In Capras detailed assessment
of many surviving manuscripts Leonardos science is more
in tune with holistic non-mechanistic and non-reductive
approaches to science which are becoming popular today.
[58] Allen Debus, Man and Nature in the Renaissance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978).
[59] DIWAN, Jaswith. ACCOUNTING CONCEPTS & THEORIES. LONDON: MORRE. pp. 001002. id# 94452.
[60] Buttereld, Herbert, The Origins of Modern Science,
13001800, p. viii
[61] Shapin, Steven. The Scientic Revolution, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996, p. 1.
[62] Brotton, J., Science and Philosophy, The Renaissance:
A Very Short Introduction Oxford University Press, 2006
ISBN 0-19-280163-5.
[63] Scientic Revolution in Encarta. 2007.
[64] Van Doren, Charles (1991) A History of Knowledge Ballantine, New York, pp. 211212, ISBN 0-345-37316-2
[65] Burke, Peter (2000) A Social History of Knowledge:
From Gutenberg to Diderot Polity Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, p. 40, ISBN 0-7456-2484-7
[66] Joseph Ben-David wrote:
Rapid accumulation of knowledge, which
has characterized the development of science
since the 17th century, had never occurred
before that time. The new kind of scientic activity emerged only in a few countries
of Western Europe, and it was restricted to
that small area for about two hundred years.
(Since the 19th century, scientic knowledge
has been assimilated by the rest of the world).

[51] Stork, David G. Optics and Realism in Renaissance Art

(Retrieved May 10, 2007)

[67] Hunt, Shelby D. (2003). Controversy in marketing theory:

for reason, realism, truth, and objectivity. M.E. Sharpe. p.
18. ISBN 0-7656-0932-0.

[52] Vasari, Giorgio, Lives of the Artists, translated by George

Bull, Penguin Classics, 1965, ISBN 0-14-044164-6.

[68] Catholic Encyclopedia, Western Schism (Retrieved May

10, 2007)

20

[69] Catholic Encyclopedia, Alexander VI (Retrieved May 10,

2007)
[70] Mommsen, Theodore (1942).
Petrarchs Conception of the 'Dark Ages". Speculum (Cambridge MA:
Medieval Academy of America) 17 (2): 226242.
doi:10.2307/2856364. JSTOR 2856364.
[71] Leonardo Bruni, James Hankins, History of the Florentine
people, Volume 1, Books 14 (2001), p. xvii.
[72] Albrow, Martin, The Global Age: state and society beyond
modernity (1997), Stanford University Press, p. 205 ISBN
0-8047-2870-4.

REFERENCES

[88] Documentary heritage concerning Hungary and recommended for inclusion in the Memory of the World International Register. portal.unesco.org
[89] Heughebaert, H.; Defoort, A.; Van Der Donck, R.
(1998). Artistieke opvoeding. Wommelgem, Belgium:
Den Gulden Engel bvba. ISBN 90-5035-222-7.
[90] Janson, H.W.; Janson, Anthony F. (1997). History of Art
(5th, rev. ed.). New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. ISBN
0-8109-3442-6.
[91] Bona Sforza (14941557).
April 4, 2007)

poland.gov.pl (Retrieved

[73] Panofsky, Erwin. Renaissance and Renascences in Western Art, New York: Harper and Row, 1960.

[92] For example, the re-establishment of Jagiellonian University in 1364.

[74] The Open University Guide to the Renaissance, Dening

the Renaissance (Retrieved May 10, 2007)

[93] University, Brown, The John Carter Brown Library.

Portuguese Overseas Travels and European Readers.
Portugal and Renaissance Europe. JCB Exhibitions. Retrieved July 19, 2011.

[75] Sohm, Philip. Style in the Art Theory of Early Modern Italy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001)
ISBN 0-521-78069-1.
[76] Lng, Paul Henry (1939). The So Called Netherlands Schools. The Musical Quarterly 25 (1): 4859.
doi:10.1093/mq/xxv.1.48. JSTOR 738699.
[77] Painting in Oil in the Low Countries and Its Spread to
Southern Europe, Metropolitan Museum of Art website.
(Retrieved April 5, 2007)
[78] Celenza, Christopher (2004), The Lost Italian Renaissance: Humanists, Historians, and Latins Legacy. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press
[79] Michelet, Jules. History of France, trans. G. H. Smith
(New York: D. Appleton, 1847)
[80] Strauss, Gerald (1965). The Religious Renaissance of
the German Humanists. English Historical Review 80
(314): 156157. JSTOR 560776.
[81] Peter Farbaky, Louis A. Waldman (November 7, 2011).
Italy & Hungary: Humanism and Art in the Early Renaissance. Harvard University Press. Retrieved March
6, 2012.

[94] Bergin, Speake, Jennifer and Thomas G. (2004).

Encyclopedia of the Renaissance and the Reformation. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 0-8160-5451-7.
[95] Bergin, Speake, Jennifer and Thomas G. (2004).
Encyclopedia of the Renaissance and the Reformation. Infobase Publishing. p. 490. ISBN 0-8160-5451-7.
[96] Bietenholz, Peter G.; Deutscher, Thomas Brian (2003).
Contemporaries of Erasmus: a biographical register of the
Renaissance and Reformation, Volumes 13. University
of Toronto Press. p. 22. ISBN 0-8020-8577-6.
[97] Lach, Donald Frederick (1994). Asia in the making of Europe: A century of wonder. The literary arts. The scholarly
disciplines (University of Chicago Press, 1994 ed.). ISBN
0-226-46733-3. Retrieved July 15, 2011.
[98] The rst stone tented roof church and the origins of
the tented roof architecture by Sergey Zagraevsky at
RusArch.ru (Russian)
[99] Pokhlebkin V. V. / . . (2007). The history
of vodka / . Moscow: Tsentrpoligraph /
. p. 272. ISBN 5-9524-1895-3.

[82] Title: Hungary (4th edition)Authors: Zoltn Halsz / An- [100] Dening the Renaissance,
Open University.
drs Balla (photo) / Zsuzsa Bres (translation) Published
Open.ac.uk. Retrieved July 31, 2009.
by Corvina, in 1998 ISBN 963-13-4129-1, 963-13-4727[101] Burckhardt, Jacob. The Civilization of the Renaissance in
3
Italy (trans. S.G.C Middlemore, London, 1878)
[83] the inuences of the orentine renaissance in hungary.
[102] Gay, Peter, Style in History, New York: Basic Books,
Fondazione-delbianco.org. Retrieved July 31, 2009.
1974.
[84] History section: Mikls Horler: Budapest memlkei I,
[103] Burckhardt, Jacob. The Civilization of the Renaissance
Bp: 1955, pp. 259307
in Italy. Retrieved August 31, 2008.
[85] Post-war reconstruction: Lszl Ger: A helyrelltott bu[104] Savonarola's popularity is a prime example of the manidai vr, Bp, 1980, pp. 1160.
festation of such concerns. Other examples include Philip
[86] Czigny, Lrnt, A History of Hungarian Literature, "The
II of Spain's censorship of Florentine paintings, noted by
Renaissance in Hungary" (Retrieved May 10, 2007)
Edward L. Goldberg, Spanish Values and Tuscan Painting, Renaissance Quarterly (1998) p.914
[87] Marcus Tanner, The Raven King: Matthias Corvinus and
the Fate of his Lost Library (New Haven: Yale U.P., [105] Renaissance Forum at Hull University, Autumn 1997 (Retrieved on May 10, 2007)
2008)

21

[106] Lopez, Robert S., and Miskimin, Harry A. (1962). The

Economic Depression of the Renaissance. Economic
History Review 14 (3): 40826. doi:10.1111/j.14680289.1962.tb00059.x. JSTOR 2591885.
[107] Thorndike, Lynn; Johnson, F. R.; Kristeller, P. O.;
Lockwood, D. P.; Thorndike, L. (1943). Some Remarks on the Question of the Originality of the Renaissance. Journal of the History of Ideas 4 (1): 4974.
doi:10.2307/2707236. JSTOR 2707236.
[108] Kelly-Gadol, Joan. Did Women Have a Renaissance?"
Becoming Visible: Women in European History. Edited by
Renate Bridenthal and Claudia Koonz. Boston: Houghton
Miin, 1977.
[109] Stephen Greenblatt Renaissance Self-Fashioning: From
More to Shakespeare, University of Chicago Press, 1980.
[110] Osborne, Roger (November 1, 2006). Civilization: a new
history of the Western world. Pegasus Books. pp. 180
. ISBN 978-1-933648-19-4. Retrieved December 10,
2011.
[111] Haskins, Charles Homer, The Renaissance of the Twelfth
Century, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1927
ISBN 0-674-76075-1.
[112] Hubert, Jean, L'Empire carolingien (English: The Carolingian Renaissance, translated by James Emmons, New
York: G. Braziller, 1970).

Bibliography
Burckhardt, Jacob The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (1860), a famous classic; excerpt and
text search 2007 edition; also complete text online
Reynolds, L. D. and Wilson, Nigel Scribes and
Scholars: A guide to the transmission of Greek and
Latin Literature Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1974

10

Further reading

Cronin, Vincent (1969), The Flowering of the Renaissance, ISBN 0-7126-9884-1

Cronin, Vincent (1992), The Renaissance, ISBN 000-215411-0
Campbell, Gordon. The Oxford Dictionary of the
Renaissance. (2003). 862 pp. online at OUP
Davis, Robert C. Renaissance People: Lives that
Shaped the Modern Age. (2011). ISBN 978-160606-078-0
Ergang, Robert (1967), The Renaissance, ISBN 0442-02319-7
Ferguson, Wallace K. (1962), Europe in Transition,
13001500, ISBN 0-04-940008-8

Fisher, Celia. Flowers of the Renaissance. (2011).

ISBN 978-1-60606-062-9
Fletcher, Stella. The Longman Companion to Renaissance Europe, 13901530. (2000). 347 pp.
Grendler, Paul F., ed. The Renaissance: An Encyclopedia for Students. (2003). 970 pp.
Hale, John. The Civilization of Europe in the Renaissance. (1994). 648 pp.; a magistral survey, heavily
illustrated excerpt and text search
Hall, Bert S. Weapons and Warfare in Renaissance Europe: Gunpowder, Technology, and Tactics
(2001) excerpt and text search
Hattaway, Michael, ed. A Companion to English Renaissance Literature and Culture. (2000). 747 pp.
Jensen, De Lamar (1992), Renaissance Europe,
ISBN 0-395-88947-2
Johnson, Paul. The Renaissance: A Short History.
(2000). 197 pp. excerpt and text search
Keene, Bryan C. Gardens of the Renaissance.
(2013). ISBN 978-1-60606-143-5
King, Margaret L. Women of the Renaissance (1991)
excerpt and text search
Kristeller, Paul Oskar, and Michael Mooney. Renaissance Thought and its Sources (1979) excerpt
and text search
Nauert, Charles G. Historical Dictionary of the Renaissance. (2004). 541 pp.
Patrick, James A., ed. Renaissance and Reformation (5 vol 2007), 1584 pages; comprehensive encyclopedia
Plumb, J. H. The Italian Renaissance (2001) excerpt
and text search
Paoletti, John T. and Gary M. Radke. Art in Renaissance Italy (4th ed. 2011)
Robin, Diana; Larsen, Anne R.; and Levin, Carole, eds. Encyclopedia of Women in the Renaissance:
Italy, France, and England (2007) 459p.
Rowse, A. L. The Elizabethan Renaissance: The Life
of the Society (2000) excerpt and text search
Ruggiero, Guido. The Renaissance in Italy: A Social and Cultural History of the Rinascimento (Cambridge University Press, 2015). 648 pp. online review
Rundle, David, ed. The Hutchinson Encyclopedia of
the Renaissance. (1999). 434 pp.; numerous brief
articles online edition

22

11

Turner, Richard N. Renaissance Florence (2005)

excerpt and text search
Ward, A. The Cambridge Modern History. Vol 1:
The Renaissance (1902) older essays by scholars;
emphasis on politics

EXTERNAL LINKS

11 External links
Notable Medieval and Renaissance Women
Renaissance Style Guide
Interactive Resources

10.1

Historiography

Florence: 3D Panoramas of Florentine Renaissance Sites(English/Italian)

Bouwsma, William J. The Renaissance and the

drama of Western history. American Historical Review (1979): 1-15. in JSTOR

Interactive Glossary of Terms Relating to the

Renaissance
Multimedia Exploration of the Renaissance

Caferro, William.
Contesting the Renaissance
(2010) excerpt and text search
Ferguson, Wallace K. The Interpretation of the Renaissance: Suggestions for a Synthesis. Journal of
the History of Ideas (1951): 483-495. online in JSTOR
Ferguson, Wallace K. Recent trends in the economic historiography of the Renaissance. Studies
in the Renaissance (1960): 7-26.
Ferguson, Wallace Klippert. The Renaissance in historical thought (AMS Press, 1981)
Grendler, Paul F. The Future of Sixteenth Century
Studies: Renaissance and Reformation Scholarship
in the Next Forty Years, Sixteenth Century Journal
Spring 2009, Vol. 40 Issue 1, pp 182+
Ruggiero, Guido, ed. A Companion to the Worlds of
the Renaissance. (2002). 561 pp.
Starn, Randolph. A Postmodern Renaissance?"
Renaissance Quarterly 2007 60(1): 124 in Project
MUSE
Summit, Jennifer. Renaissance Humanism and
the Future of the Humanities. Literature Compass
(2012) 9#10 pp: 665-678.
Trivellato, Francesca. Renaissance Italy and the
Muslim Mediterranean in Recent Historical Work,
Journal of Modern History (March 2010), 82#1 pp:
127155.
Woolfson, Jonathan, ed. Palgrave advances in
Renaissance historiography (Palgrave Macmillan,
2005)

10.2

Primary sources

Bartlett, Kenneth, ed. The Civilization of the Italian

Renaissance: A Sourcebook (2nd ed. 2011)
Ross, James Bruce, and Mary M. McLaughlin, eds.
The Portable Renaissance Reader (1977) excerpt
and text search

RSS News Feed: Get an entry from

Leonardos Journal delivered each day
Virtual Journey to Renaissance Florence

Exhibits Collection Renaissance

Lectures and Galleries

Leonardo da Vinci, Gallery of Paintings and
Drawings
The Bagatti Valsecchi Museum
Renaissance in the History of Art
The Society for Renaissance Studies

23

12
12.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

The Renaissance Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Renaissance?oldid=676392007 Contributors: MichaelTinkler, Mav, The

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File:1543,AndreasVesalius{}Fabrica,BaseOfTheBrain.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/1543%

2CAndreasVesalius%27Fabrica%2CBaseOfTheBrain.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Originally from en.wikipedia; description
page is (was) here Original artist: User Ancheta Wis on en.wikipedia
File:Alexander_VI_-_Pinturicchio_detail.jpg Source:
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File:Ambox_important.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, based o of Image:Ambox scales.svg Original artist: Dsmurat (talk contribs)
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Own work www.lucnix.be. 2007-09-08 (photograph). Photograpy:
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File:Francois_Dubois_001.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Francois_Dubois_001.jpg License:

Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Franois Dubois
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File:Karp_Zolotaryov_Theotokos_Late_17th_century.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Karp_
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File:Pacioli.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/Pacioli.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Lauwers, Luc & Willekens, Marleen: Five Hundred Years of Bookkeeping: A Portrait of Luca Pacioli (Tijdschrift voor Economie en Management),
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, 1994, vol. XXXIX issue 3 p. 289304) [1] Original artist: Attributed to Jacopo de' Barbari (1460/1470
before 1516)
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//efemerides2.webcindario.com/febrero/febrero3/salutati.jpg Original artist: Apollonio di Giovanni
File:Sandro_Botticelli_-_Idealized_Portrait_of_a_Lady_(Portrait_of_Simonetta_Vespucci_as_Nymph)_-_Google_Art_
Project.jpg
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GwFKQCuQs0yvFA at Google Cultural Institute, zoom level maximum Original artist: Sandro Botticelli
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Company.[#cite_note-NPG-1 [1]]
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