Epic poetry

For other meanings of epic, see Epic (disambiguation).

An epic (from the Ancient Greek adjective

term includes some poems of the English Renaissance,

particularly those inuenced by Ovid. The most famous
example of classical epyllion is perhaps Catullus 64.
Some of the most famous examples of epic poetry include the ancient Indian Ramayana and Mahabharata,
the Ancient Greek Iliad and the Odyssey, Dantes Divine
Comedy, John Miltons Paradise Lost, and the Portuguese
Lusiads.

1 Oral epics or world folk epics

The rst epics were products of preliterate societies and
oral poetic traditions. In these traditions, poetry is transmitted to the audience and from performer to performer
by purely oral means.
Early twentieth-century study of living oral epic traditions
in the Balkans by Milman Parry and Albert Lord demonstrated the paratactic model used for composing these poems. What they demonstrated was that oral epics tend to
be constructed in short episodes, each of equal status, interest and importance. This facilitates memorization, as
the poet is recalling each episode in turn and using the
Tablet containing a fragment of the Epic of Gilgamesh
completed episodes to recreate the entire epic as he performs it. Parry and Lord also showed that the most likely
(epikos), from (epos) word, story, poem[1] ) is a source for written texts of the epics of Homer was dictalengthy narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serious tion from an oral performance.
subject containing details of heroic deeds and events signicant to a culture or nation.[2] Milman Parry and Albert
Epic: a long narrative poem in elevated
Lord have argued that the Homeric epics, the earliest
style presenting characters of high position in
works of Western literature, were fundamentally an oral
adventures forming an organic whole through
poetic form. These works form the basis of the epic genre
their relation to a central heroic gure and
in Western literature. Nearly all Western epic (includthrough their development of episodes imporing Vergils Aeneid and Dantes Divine Comedy) selftant to the history of a nation or race. (Harmon
consciously presents itself as a continuation of the traand Holman)
dition begun by these poems. Classical epic employs
dactylic hexameter and recounts a journey, either physito delineate ten main characteristics of an
cal (as typied by Odysseus in the Odyssey) or mental (as An attempt
[3]
epic:
typied by Achilles in the Iliad) or both. Epics also tend
to highlight cultural norms and to dene or call into ques1. Begins in medias res.
tion cultural values, particularly as they pertain to heroism.
2. The setting is vast, covering many nations, the world
Another type of epic poetry is epyllion (plural: epylor the universe.
lia), which is a brief narrative poem with a romantic or
3. Begins with an invocation to a muse (epic invocamythological theme. The term, which means little epic",
tion).
came into use in the nineteenth century. It refers primarily to the erudite, shorter hexameter poems of the
4. Begins with a statement of the theme.
Hellenistic period and the similar works composed at
Rome from the age of the neoterics; to a lesser degree, the
5. Includes the use of epithets.
1

NOTABLE EPIC POEMS

6. Contains long lists, called an epic catalogue.

7. Features long and formal speeches.
8. Shows divine intervention on human aairs.
9. Features heroes that embody the values of the civilization.
10. Often features the tragic heros descent into the Underworld or hell.
The hero generally participates in a cyclical journey or
quest, faces adversaries that try to defeat him in his journey and returns home signicantly transformed by his
journey. The epic hero illustrates traits, performs deeds,
and exemplies certain morals that are valued by the society the epic originates from. Many epic heroes are
recurring characters in the legends of their native culture.
Conventions of epics:
1. Praepositio: Opens by stating the theme or cause
of the epic. This may take the form of a purpose
(as in Milton, who proposed to justify the ways of
God to men); of a question (as in the Iliad, which
Homer initiates by asking a Muse to sing of Achilles
anger); or of a situation (as in the Song of Roland,
with Charlemagne in Spain).
2. Invocation: Writer invokes a Muse, one of the nine
daughters of Zeus. The poet prays to the Muses to
provide him with divine inspiration to tell the story
of a great hero. (This convention is restricted to cultures inuenced by European Classical culture. The
Epic of Gilgamesh, for example, or the Bhagavata
Purana do not contain this element).
3. In medias res: narrative opens in the middle of
things, with the hero at his lowest point. Usually
ashbacks show earlier portions of the story.
4. Enumeratio: Catalogues and genealogies are given.
These long lists of objects, places, and people place
the nite action of the epic within a broader, universal context. Often, the poet is also paying homage
to the ancestors of audience members.
5. Epithet: Heavy use of repetition or stock phrases:
e.g., Homer's rosy-ngered dawn and wine-dark
sea.
Poets in literate societies have sometimes copied the epic
format. The earliest surviving European examples are
the Argonautica of Apollonius of Rhodes and Virgils
Aeneid, which follow both the style and subject matter
of Homer. Other obvious examples are Nonnus Dionysiaca, Tulsidas' Sri Ramacharit Manas.

The rst page of the Beowulf manuscript, 8th to 10th century.

2 Notable epic poems

This list can be compared with two others,
national epic and list of world folk-epics.[4]

2.1 Ancient epics (to 500)

20th to 10th century BC:
Epic of Gilgamesh (Mesopotamian mythology)
Atrahasis (Mesopotamian mythology)
Enuma Elish (Babylonian mythology)
Legend of Keret (Ugaritic mythology)
Cycle of Kumarbi (Hurrian mythology)
The Poem of Pentaur (Ancient Egyptian account of the battle of Kadesh)
(The date of compositions of Babylonian epics is often
hard to determine, as they may survive on manuscripts
that are much later than the rst composition. There is
also the complication that they underwent successive revisions and redactions.)
8th century BC to 3rd century AD:

2.2

Medieval epics (5001500)

Mahbhrata, ascribed to Veda Vyasa (Indian
mythology)

3
1st century BC:
Aeneid by Virgil (Roman mythology)

Ramayana, ascribed to Valmiki (Indian

mythology)
The dates of origin of these Indian epics are hard to determine, as they existed for a long time in history as oral
traditions with numerous versions and also in dierent
regions of India and South Asia.

De rerum natura by Lucretius (Latin Literature, Epicurean philosophy)

1st century AD:
Metamorphoses by Ovid (Greek and Roman
mythology)
Pharsalia by Lucan (Roman history)

8th to 6th century BC:

Punica by Silius Italicus (Roman history)

Argonautica by Gaius Valerius Flaccus (Roman poet, Greek mythology)

Iliad, ascribed to Homer (Greek mythology)

Odyssey, ascribed to Homer (Greek mythology)
Works and Days, ascribed to Hesiod (Greek
mythology)

Thebaid and Achilleid by Statius (Roman poet,

Greek mythology)
2nd century:

Theogony, ascribed to Hesiod (Greek mythology)

Buddhacarita by Avaghoa (Indian epic poetry)

Catalogue of Women, ascribed to Hesiod

(Greek mythology)
Shield of Heracles, ascribed to Hesiod (Greek
mythology)

Saundaranandakavya by Avaghoa (Indian

epic poetry)
2nd to 5th century:
The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature:

The following poems pertaining Greek mythology were

written during this period but they are known only
through fragments

Cypria, Aethiopis, Little Iliad, Iliupersis, Nostoi

and Telegony, forming the so-called Epic Cycle
Oedipodea, Thebaid, Epigoni and Alcmeonis,
forming the so-called Theban Cycle
A series of poem ascribed to Hesiod during antiquity: Aegimius (alternatively ascribed
to Cercops of Miletus), Astronomia, Descent
of Perithous, Idaean Dactyls (almost completely lost), Megala Erga, Megalai Ehoiai,
Melampodia and Wedding of Ceyx

3rd to 4th century:

Posthomerica by Quintus of Smyrna
4th century:
Evangeliorum libri by Juvencus
Kumrasambhava by Klidsa (Indian epic
poetry)
Raghuvaa by Klidsa (Indian epic poetry)

Capture of Oechalia, ascribed to Homer or

Creophylus of Samos during antiquity
Phocais, ascribed to Homer during antiquity

De Raptu Proserpinae by Claudian

5th century:

Titanomachy ascribed to Eumelus of Corinth

Danais (written by one of the cyclic poets and
from which the Danaid tetralogy of Aeschylus
draws its material), Minyas and Naupactia, almost completely lost
2.2
3rd century BC:
Argonautica by Apollonius of Rhodes
2nd century BC:
Annales by Quintus Ennius (Roman History)

Silappadikaram by Prince Ilango Adigal

Manimekalai by Seethalai Saathanar
Civaka Cintamani by Tirutakakatevar
Kundalakesi by a Buddhist poet
Valayapati by a Jaina poet

Argonautica Orphica by Anonymous

Dionysiaca by Nonnus

Medieval epics (5001500)

2.2.1 7th century

Tin B Cailnge (Old Irish)
Bhaikvya, Sanskrit courtly epic based on the
Rmyaa and the Adhyy of Pini

NOTABLE EPIC POEMS

2.2.4 10th century

Shahnameh (Persian literature; details Persian legend and history from prehistoric times to the fall of
the Sassanid Empire, by Ferdowsi)
Waltharius by Ekkehard of St. Gall (Latin); about
Walter of Aquitaine
Poetic Edda (no particular authorship; oral tradition
of the North Germanic peoples)
Vikramarjuna Vijaya and di pura (c.
Kannada poems by Adikavi Pampa

941),

Shantipurana, and Ramakatha (c. 950), Kannada

poems by Sri Ponna
Ajitha Purana and Gadaayuddha (c.993 and c.999),
Kannada poems by Ranna
Neelakesi (Tamil Jain epic)
2.2.5 11th century
Statue of Iranian poet Ferdowsi in Rome, Italy. Ferdowsis national epic Shahnameh played an important role in revival of
Iranian patriotism and the Persian language after both were systematically suppressed by the Arab occupation of Iran

Taghribat Bani Hilal (Arabic); see also Arabic epic

literature
Ruodlieb (Latin), by a German author

Kiratarjuniya by Bharavi, Sanskrit epic based on an

episode in the Mahabharata

Digenis Akritas (Greek); about a hero of the

Byzantine Empire

Shishupala Vadha by Magha, Sanskrit epic based on

another episode in the Mahabharata

Epic of King Gesar (Tibetan)

2.2.2

8th to 10th century

Beowulf (Old English)

Waldere, Old English version of the story told in
Waltharius (below), known only as a brief fragment
Daredevils of Sassoun (Armenian)
2.2.3

9th century

Bhagavata Purana (Sanskrit) "Stories of the Lord",

based on earlier sources
Lay of Hildebrand and Muspilli (Old High German,
c.870)
Karnataka Kumarasambhava (c.853), Kannada
poem by Asaga
Sudraka and Harivamsa (c.900), Kannada poems by
Gunavarma I

Carmen Campidoctoris, the rst poem about El Cid

Campeador (c. 1083)
Borzu Nama, ascribed to 'Amid Abu'l 'Ala' 'Ata b.
Yaqub Kateb Razi (Persian epic with a main character and a poetic style related to the Shahnameh)
Faramarz Nama (Persian epic with a main character
and a poetic style related to the Shahnameh)
Moremi, a part of the Yoruba corpus of divine traditions. It is commonly considered to be a continuation of the story of Oduduwa, the protagonists
father-in-law.
Oduduwa, a part of the Yoruba corpus of divine traditions. Although the period that the dynastic section of the corpus describes is commonly believed to
be the 11th century, its divine section deals with the
origin of the world itself, and the holy Yoruba city
of Ile-Ife is known to be an ancient settlement that
dates to a time long before the birth of Christ. Due
to this being the case, it may well be safe to assume
that the earliest aspects of the corpus are from the
ancient era.

2.2

Medieval epics (5001500)

5
Bahman Nama and Kush Nama, ascribed to Hakim
rnh b. Abi'l Khayr
Banu Goshasp Nama
Ramavataram by Kambar, based on the Ramayana
Ramachandracharitapurana and Mallinathapurana
(c. 1105), Kannada poem by Nagachandra (Jain
version of Ramayana)[5]
Girijakalyana (c.1160), Kannada poem Harihara

The Knight in the Panthers Skin by Shota Rustaveli, one of the

greatest Georgian poets.

Oranyan, a part of the Yoruba corpus of divine traditions. It is commonly considered to be a continuation of the story of Oduduwa, the protagonists father.

Jagannathavijaya (c.1180), Kannada poem by

Rudrabhatta
2.2.7 13th century
Philippide (Latin) by William the Breton
Nibelungenlied (Middle High German)
Kudrun (Middle High German)

Varadhamanapurana (c.1042), in Kannada by

Nagavarma II
2.2.6

12th century

Chanson de Roland (Old French)

The Knight in the Panthers Skin (Georgian) by Shota
Rustaveli
Alexandreis by Walter of Chtillon (Latin)
De bello Troiano and the lost Antiocheis by Joseph
of Exeter
Carmen de Prodicione Guenonis, version of the story
of the Song of Roland in Latin
Architrenius by John of Hauville, Latin satire
Liber ad honorem Augusti by Peter of Eboli, narrative of the conquest of Sicily by Henry VI, Holy
Roman Emperor (Latin)

Brut by Layamon (Early Middle English)

Chanson de la Croisade Albigeoise (Song of the Albigensian Crusade"; Occitan)
Antar (Arabic); see also Arabic epic literature
Sirat al-Zahir Baibars (Arabic); see also Arabic epic
literature
Osmans Dream (Ottoman Turkish)
Epic of Sundiata
El Cantar de Mio Cid, Spanish epic of the
Reconquista (Old Spanish)
De triumphis ecclesiae by Johannes de Garlandia
(Latin)
Gesta Regum Britanniae by William of Rennes
(Latin)

The Tale of Igors Campaign and Bylinas (11th-19th

centuries)

Poema de Fernn Gonzlez, cantar de gesta by a

monk of San Pedro de Arlanza; 12501266 (Old
Spanish)

Roman de Troie by Benot de Sainte-Maure, medieval re-telling of the Trojan War

Jewang ungi by Yi Seung-hyu (Rhymed Chronicles

of Sovereigns"; 1287 Korea)

Poem of Almeria (Latin)

Basava purana by Palkuriki Somanatha (Telugu)

Roman de Brut and Roman de Rou by Wace, chronicles in Norman language

Yashodharacharite and Ananthanatha

(c.1209), Kannada poems by Janna

Eupolemius by an anonymous German-speaking author

Harishchandrakavya and Siddharama charitra

(c.1220), Kannada poems by Raghavanka

purana

2.2.8

14th century

Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri

Cursor Mundi by an anonymous cleric (c. 1300)

NOTABLE EPIC POEMS

Prabhulingaleele (c.1425), Kannada poem by

Chamarasa
Torave Ramayana (c.1500), Kannada poem by Kumara Valmiki (also known as Narahari)[8]

Africa by Petrarch (Latin)

The Tale of the Heike (Japanese epic war tale)

2.3 Modern epics (from 1500)

The Brus by John Barbour (Scots)

2.3.1 16th century

La Spagna, attributed to Sostegno di Zanobi (c.

1350-1360)
Mal'abat Al Kaf ez-Zarhouni (Moroccan Arabic)
Siege of Jerusalem (c. 1370-1380, Middle English)

Orlando Furioso by Ludovico Ariosto (1516)

Christiad by Marco Girolamo Vida (1535)
Os Lusadas by Lus de Cames (c.1572)[9]

Zafar-Nameh by Hamdollah Mostow

L'Amadigi by Bernardo Tasso (1560)

The Ballads of Marko Kraljievic, group of poems

about Prince Marko of Serbia

La Araucana by Alonso de Ercilla y Ziga (1569

1589)

Darangen, an ancient epic song about the Maranao

people of the Philippines

La Gerusalemme liberata by Torquato Tasso (1575)

Basava purana (c.1369), Kannada poem by Bhima

Kavi[6]
Dharmanatha purana (c.1385), Kannada poem by
Madhura[7]
Padmaraja purana (c.1385), Kannada poem by
Padmananka[6]
2.2.9

15th century

Orlando innamorato by Matteo Maria Boiardo

(1495)
Shmuel-Bukh (Old Yiddish chivalry romance based
on the Biblical book of Samuel)
Mlokhim-Bukh (Old Yiddish epic poem based on the
Biblical Books of Kings)
Book of Dede Korkut

La Trasimenide by Matteo dall'Isola

Ramacharitamanasa (based on the Ramayana) by
Goswami Tulsidas (1577)
Matilda by Michael Drayton (1594)
The Faerie Queene by Edmund Spenser (1596)
Arauco Domado by Pedro de Oa (1596)
Kumararama
Charite
(also
called
Ramanathacharite, c.1525), Kannada poem by
Nanjunda Kavi[10]
Bharatesha Vaibhava (c.1557), Kannada poem by
Ratnakaravarni
Channabasavapurana (c.1584), Kannada poem by
Virupaksha Pandita[11]
2.3.2 17th century

Morgante by Luigi Pulci (1485), with elements typical of the mock-heroic genre

La Argentina by Martn del Barco Centenera (1602)

The Wallace by Blind Harry (Scots chivalric poem)

The Barons Wars by Michael Drayton (1603; early

version 1596 entitled Mortimeriados)

Troy Book by John Lydgate, about the Trojan war

(Middle English)
Heldenbuch, a group of manuscripts and prints of
the 15th and 16th centuries, typically including material from the Theodoric cycle and the cycle of
Hugdietrich, Wolfdietrich and Ortnit
Gadugina Bharata (also known as Kumaravyasa
bharta, c. 1425), Kannada poem by Kumaravyasa

The Whole Works of Homer Prince of Poets by

George Chapman (1616) a retelling of the Iliad and
Odyssey in iambic rhyming couplets: the Iliad in
iambic heptameter, and the Odyssey in iambic pentameter.
Les Tragiques by Agrippa d'Aubign (1616)
La Cristiada by Diego de Hojeda (1611)

2.3

Modern epics (from 1500)

L'Adone (Adonis, published in 1623; heroic poem

based on Roman mythology), Gerusalemme distrutta (Jerusalem Destroyed, 1626), Anversa liberata (Antwerp Freed, of uncertain attribution) and
Strage degl'Innocenti (Massacre of the Innocents,
1632; sacred poem) by Giambattista Marino

Lima fundada, o La conquista del Per by Pedro de

Peralta y Barnuevo (1732)
Leonidas by Richard Glover (1737)
Epigoniad by William Wilkie (1757)
The Highlander; by James Macpherson (1758)

La Cleopatra by Girolamo Graziani (1632)

The Works of Ossian by James MacPherson (1765)

Biag ni Lam-ang by Pedro Bucaneg (1640)

Il Conquisto di Granata by Girolamo Graziani
(1650)
Exact Epitome of the Four Monarchies by Anne
Bradstreet (1650)[12]
Szigeti veszedelem, also known under the Latin title
Obsidionis Szigetianae, a Hungarian epic by Mikls
Zrnyi (1651)
Gondibert by William Davenant (1651)

O Uraguai by Baslio da Gama (1769)

Caoineadh Airt U Laoghaire by Eibhln Dubh N
Chonaill (1773)
Der Messias by Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock (1773)
Rossiada by Mikhail Matveyevich Kheraskov
(17711779)
Caramuru by Santa Rita Duro (1781)
Vladimir Reborn
Kheraskov (1785)

Paradise Lost by John Milton (1667)

by

Mikhail

Matveyevich

The Conquest of Canaan by Timothy Dwight IV

(1785)

Davideis by Abraham Cowley (c. 1668)

Paradise Regained by John Milton (1671)
Wojna chocimska by Wacaw Potocki (1672)

The Anarchiad by David Humphreys, Joel Barlow,

John Trumbull, and Lemuel Hopkins (178687)

Prince Arthur by Richard Blackmore (1695)

Athenaid by Richard Glover (1787)

King Arthur by Richard Blackmore (1697)

Joan of Arc by Robert Southey (1796)

Rajashekara Vilasa, Vrishabhendra Vijaya and

Shabarashankara Vilasa (c.1650-1671), Kannada
poems by Shadaksharadeva[13]

Hermann and Dorothea by Johann Wolfgang von

Goethe (1797)

Vishnupurana (c.1671),
Chikkaupadhyaya[11]

Kannada

Jaiminibharata (c.1700),
Lakshmisha

Kannada poem by

2.3.3

poem

by

Achilleid by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (17971799)

Bharata, Kannada poem by Lakshmakavi[14][15]

18th century

Ramabhyudaya-Kathakusumamanjari
(or
Ananda Ramayana), a Kannada poem by
Timmamatya[14][15]
Saundara Kavya, Kannada poem by Nuronda[14]

Kumulipo by Keaulumoku (1700) an Ancient

Hawaiian cosmogonic genealogy rst published in 2.3.4 19th century
(1889)
The Tale of Kiu by Nguyn Du (1800?)
Eliza by Richard Blackmore (1705)
Thalaba the Destroyer by Robert Southey (1801)
Columbus by Ubertino Carrara (1714)
Madoc by Robert Southey (1805)
Redemption by Richard Blackmore (1722)
Faust by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (part 1 1806,
Henriade by Voltaire (1723)
part 2 c. 1833)
La Pucelle d'Orlans by Voltaire (1756)

The Columbiad by Joel Barlow (1807)

Alfred by Richard Blackmore (1723)

Milton: a Poem by William Blake (18041810)

Utendi wa Tambuka by Bwana Mwengo (1728)

Marmion by Walter Scott (1808)

2
The Curse of Kehama by Robert Southey (1810)
Childe Harolds Pilgrimage by Lord Byron, narrating
the travels of Childe Harold (1812-1818)[16]
Queen Mab by Percy Bysshe Shelley (1813)
Roderick the Last of the Goths by Robert Southey
(1814)
The Lord of the Isles by Walter Scott (1813)
Alastor, or The Spirit of Solitude by Percy Bysshe
Shelley (1815)

NOTABLE EPIC POEMS

The Mountain Wreath by Petar II Petrovi-Njego

(1847)
Lazarica or Battle of Kosovo by Joksim NoviOtoanin (1847)
The Tales of Ensign Stl by Johan Ludvig Runeberg
(rst part published in 1848, second part published
in 1860)
Kalevala by Elias Lnnrot (1849 Finnish mythology)
I-Juca-Pirama by Gonalves Dias (1851)

The Revolt of Islam (Laon and Cyntha) by Percy

Bysshe Shelley (1817)

Kalevipoeg by Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald (1853

Estonian mythology)

Harold the Dauntless by Walter Scott (1817)

The Prelude by William Wordsworth

Endymion, (1818) by John Keats

Song of Myself by Walt Whitman (1855)

The Battle of Marathon by Elizabeth Barrett Browning (1820)

The Song of Hiawatha by Henry Wadsworth

Longfellow (1855)

Hyperion, (1818), and The Fall of Hyperion, (1819)

by John Keats

The Saga of King Olaf by Henry Wadsworth

Longfellow (1856-1863)

L'Orlanide, Pome national en vingt-huit chants, by

Philippe-Alexandre Le Brun de Charmettes (1821)

Aurora Leigh by Elizabeth Barrett Browning (1857)

Phra Aphai Mani by Sunthorn Phu (1821 or 1823

1845)

Terje Vigen by Henrik Ibsen (1862)

La Fin de Satan by Victor Hugo (written between
1855 and 1860, published in 1886)

Don Juan by Lord Byron (1824), an example of a

mock epic in that it parodies the epic style of the
authors predecessors[16]

La Lgende des Sicles (The Legend of the Centuries)

by Victor Hugo (18591877)

Tamerlane by Edgar Allan Poe (1827)

The Earthly Paradise by William Morris (18681870)

Creation, Man and the Messiah by Henrik Wergeland (1829)

Prometheus Bound by Elizabeth Barrett Browning
(1833)
Pan Tadeusz by Adam Mickiewicz (1834)
Baptism on the Savica (Krst pri Savici) by France
Preeren (1836)
The Seraphim by Elizabeth Barrett Browning (1838)
King Alfred by John Fitchett (completed by Robert
Roscoe and published in 1841-1842)
Jnos Vitz by Sndor Pet (1845)
Smrt Smail-age engia by Ivan Maurani (1846)
Toldi (1846), Toldi szerelme (Toldis Love, 1879)
and Toldi estje (Toldis Night, 1848) by Jnos
Arany, forming the so-called "Toldi trilogy"
Evangeline by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1847)

Ibonia, oral epic of Madagascar (rst transcription:

1870)
Martn Fierro by Jos Hernndez (1872)
Idylls of the King by Alfred Lord Tennyson (c. 1874)
Clarel by Herman Melville (1876)
The Story of Sigurd the Volsung and the Fall of the
Niblungs by William Morris (1876)
L'Atlntida by Jacint Verdaguer (1877)
The Light of Asia by Edwin Arnold (1879)
The City of Dreadful Night by James Thomson
(B.V.) (nished in 1874, published in 1880)
Tristram of Lyonesse by Algernon Charles Swinburne (1882)
O Guesa by Sousndrade (composed 1858-1884)
Eros and Psyche by Robert Bridges (1885)

2.3

Modern epics (from 1500)

Canig by Jacint Verdaguer (1886)

Lplsis ('The Bear-Slayer') by Andrejs Pumpurs
(1888; Latvian Mythology)
Tabar by Juan Zorrilla de San Martn (1888; national epic of Uruguay)

9
Paterson by William Carlos Williams (composed
c.1940-1961)
Sugata Saurabha by Chittadhar Hridaya (19411945)
Victory for the Slain by Hugh John Lofting (1942)

The Wanderings of Oisin by William Butler Yeats

(1889)

Kurukshetra (1946), Rashmirathi (1952), Urvashi

(1961), Hunkar by Ramdhari Singh 'Dinkar'

Lc Vn Tin by Nguyn nh Chiu

Savitri by Aurobindo Ghose (1950)

2.3.5

20th century

The Divine Enchantment by John Neihardt (1900)

Lahuta e Malcs by Gjergj Fishta (composed 19021937)
Ural-batyr (Bashkirs oral tradition set in the written
form by Mukhamedsha Burangulov in 1910)
Drake: (a 200-page epic in blank verse about the
Elizabethan naval commander Sir Francis Drake),
The Torch-Bearers (19171930) by Alfred Noyes
The Ballad of the White Horse by G. K. Chesterton
(1911)
Mensagem by Fernando Pessoa (composed 19131934)
The Cantos by Ezra Pound (composed 1915-1969)
The Hashish-Eater; Or, The Apocalypse of Evil by
Clark Ashton Smith (1920)
Dorvyzhy, Udmurt national epic compiled in Russian by Mikhail Khudiakov (1920) basing on folklore works

The Maximus Poems by Charles Olson (composed

1950-1970)
The Anathemata by David Jones (1952)
Libretto for the Republic of Liberia by Melvin B. Tolson (1953)
Aniara by Harry Martinson (composed 1956)
Song of Lawino by Okot p'Bitek (1966)
Helen in Egypt by H.D. (Hilda Doolittle) (1974)
The Banner of Joan by H. Warren Munn (1975)
Kristubhagavatam by P. C. Devassia (1976)
The Changing Light at Sandover by James Merrill
(composed 1976-1982)
The Battleeld Where The Moon Says I Love You by
Frank Stanford (published 1977)
Emperor Shaka the Great by Mazisi Kunene (1979)
The Legend of Te Tuna by Richard Adams (published 1982)
Empire of Dreams by Giannina Braschi (1988 in
Spanish; 1994 in English).

The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrn by J. R. R.

Tolkien (composed 1920-1939, published 2009)

Omeros by Derek Walcott (1990)

A Cycle of the West by John Neihardt (composed

1921-1949)

Arundhati by Jagadguru Rambhadracharya (1994)

The Odyssey: A Modern Sequel by Nikos Kazantzakis (Greek verse, composed 1924-1938)

The Levant by Mircea Crtrescu (1990)

Mastorava by A. M. Sharonov (1994)

Astronautila Hvzdoplavba by Jan Kesadlo (1995)

Dymer by C. S. Lewis (1926)

The Descent of Alette by Alice Notley (1996)

John Browns Body by Stephen Vincent Bent

(1928)

Cheikh Anta Diop: Poem for the Living by Mwatabu

S. Okantah (1997)

A by Louis Zukofsky (composed 1928-1968)

The Folding Clis by W. S. Merwin (1998)

The Fall of Arthur by J. R. R. Tolkien (composed

c.1930-1934, published 2013)

Fredy Neptune: A Novel in Verse by Les Murray

(1998)

The Bridge by Hart Crane (1930)

The Adagios Quartet by Judith Fitzgerald (19992009)

Kamayani by Jaishankar Prasad (1936)

Canto General by Pablo Neruda (1938-1950)

The Dream of Norumbega: Epic on the U.S. by

James Wm. Chichetto (c. 1990; p. 2000- )

10
2.3.6

5
21st century

REFERENCES

4 See also

Sribhargavaraghaviyam (2002), Ashtavakra (2009)

and Gitaramayanam (2009-2010, published in
2011) by Jagadguru Rambhadracharya

Alpamysh

Inside The Whale: A Novel in Verse by Joseph G.

Peterson (2011)

Calliope (Greek muse of epic poetry)

Thaliad by Marly Youmans (2012)

Sveta poroka by Vlado abot (2012)

Bylina (Russian epic)

Chanson de geste
Duma (Ukrainian epic)
Epic Fantasy

Barter in Panay by Ricaredo Demetillo (1984)

Epic Film

The Trilogy of Saint Lazarus by Cirilo Bautista

(2001)

Hebrew and Jewish epic poetry

Ten Thousand Lines Project For World Peace by

Edwin Cordevilla (2013)

Indian epic poetry

Mock epic
Monomyth

Other epics
Gesta Berengarii imperatoris
Epic of Bamana Segu, oral epic of the Bambara people, composed in the 19th century and recorded in
the 20th century
Epic of Darkness, tales and legends of primeval
China
Epic of Jangar, poem of the Oirat people
Epic of Krolu, Turkic oral tradition written down
mostly in 18th century
Hinilawod, a Panay epic
Khun Chang Khun Phaen, a Thai poem
Koti and Chennayya and Epic of Siri, Tulu poems
Kutune Shirka, sacred yukar epic of the Ainu people
of which several translations exist
Parsifal by Richard Wagner (opera, composed
1880-1882)

National epic
Rimur
Serbian epic poetry
Yukar (Ainu epic)
List of world folk-epics

5 References
[1] Epic Online Etymology Dictionary
[2] Michael Meyer, The Bedford Introduction to Literature
(Bedford: St. Martins, 2005), 2128. ISBN 0-312-412428.
[3] Taken from William Harmon and C. Hugh Holman, A
Handbook to Literature, 8th ed., Prentice Hall, 1999.
[4] According to that article, world folk epics are those that
are not just literary masterpieces, but also an integral part
of the world view of a people, originally oral, later written
down by one or several authors.

Ramakien, Thailands national epic derived from the

Ramayana

[5] Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta; p.357, A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar,
1955, 2002, Indian Branch, Oxford University Press, New
Delhi, ISBN 0-19-560686-8

Der Ring des Nibelungen by Richard Wagner (opera,

composed 1848-1874)

[6] Narasimhacharya, R (1988), p.21, History of Kannada

Literature, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, ISBN
81-206-0303-6

Siribhoovalaya, a unique work of multi-lingual

literature written by Kumudendu Muni, a Jain monk

[7] Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta; p.360, A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar,
1955, 2002, Indian Branch, Oxford University Press, New
Delhi, ISBN 0-19-560686-8

Yadegar-e Zariran (Middle Persian)

11

[8] Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta; pp.364-365, A history of South

India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar,
1955, 2002, Indian Branch, Oxford University Press, New
Delhi, ISBN 0-19-560686-8
[9] The Lusiads. World Digital Library. 18001882. Retrieved 2013-08-31.
[10] Narasimhacharya, R (1988), p.22, History of Kannada
Literature, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, ISBN
81-206-0303-6
[11] Narasimhacharya, R (1988), p.23, History of Kannada
Literature, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, ISBN
81-206-0303-6
[12] Pender, Patricia (2012). Early Modern Womens Writing
and the Rhetoric of Modesty. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 166.
ISBN 9781137008015.
[13] Narasimhacharya, R (1988), p.24, History of Kannada
Literature, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, ISBN
81-206-0303-6
[14] Narasimhacharya, R (1988), p.25, History of Kannada
Literature, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, ISBN
81-206-0303-6
[15] Rice E.P. (1921), p.92, A History of Kanarese Literature,
Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, ISBN 81-2060063-0
[16] Stephen Greenblatt et al. The Norton Anthology of English Literature, volume D, 9th edition (Norton, 2012)

Bibliography
Jan de Vries: Heroic Song and Heroic Legend ISBN
0-405-10566-5.
Hashmi, Alamgir (2011). Eponymous criture
and the Poetics of Reading a Transnational Epic.
Dublin Quarterly, 15.
Cornel Heinsdor: Christus, Nikodemus und die
Samaritanerin bei Juvencus. Mit einem Anhang zur
lateinischen Evangelienvorlage, Untersuchungen zur
antiken Literatur und Geschichte 67, Berlin/New
York 2003, ISBN 3-11-017851-6.
Fallon, Oliver. Bhattis Poem: The Death of Rvana
(Bhaikvya). New York 2009: Clay Sanskrit Library, . ISBN 978-0-8147-2778-2, ISBN 0-81472778-6.

12

7 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

7.1

Text

Epic poetry Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_poetry?oldid=674731608 Contributors: Kpjas, MichaelTinkler, The Epopt, The
Anome, Ed Poor, RK, Josh Grosse, XJaM, Atorpen, Heron, Olivier, Someone else, Renata, Mrwojo, Quintessent, D, Michael Hardy,
Llywrch, Jahsonic, Nixdorf, Matthewmayer, Zeno Gantner, Mkweise, Ellywa, Angela, K1, Ijon, , Glenn, Djnjwd, Deisenbe,
Panoramix, Jod, Pizza Puzzle, Technopilgrim, Ideyal, Charles Matthews, Nedward, Dino, Maximus Rex, VeryVerily, Topbanana, Lord
Emsworth, Joy, Wetman, Hajor, Robbot, DavidA, Fredrik, Tomchiukc, Goethean, Altenmann, Tim Ivorson, David Edgar, Ambarish, Jor,
Jsan, Wiglaf, Risk one, Fropu, Everyking, Brona, Niteowlneils, Jorge Stol, DryGrain, Jackol, Junkyardprince, Bacchiad, Geospear,
Utcursch, Andycjp, Zeimusu, Quadell, Antandrus, Mzajac, Joyous!, Robin klein, Adashiel, R, Pavel Vozenilek, Paul August, ESkog, CanisRufus, Carlon, Joaopais, Rsgranne, Prsephone1674, Bobo192, Filiocht, SpeedyGonsales, Man vyi, PeterisP, Zetawoof, Abstraktn, Alansohn, Mark Dingemanse, Proteus71, Arthena, Jeltz, Riana, Derumi, Ciaran H, InShaneee, Hadija, Ksnow, Tony Sidaway, Rentastrawberry,
Cmprince, Kazvorpal, Sandover, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Woohookitty, Colossus, Shreevatsa, SDC, Sam Coutu-Oughton, Graham87, BD2412, Kbdank71, Island, Josh Parris, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Alex Coiro~enwiki, Sdornan, Vegaswikian, Gadha, Yamamoto Ichiro,
Andy85719, RexNL, Quuxplusone, Fephisto, Bmicomp, Imnotminkus, Frjwoolley, Chobot, Satanael, Personman, RobotE, Deeptrivia,
RussBot, C0bra, Gardar Rurak, Pseudomonas, Wimt, KJPurscell, NawlinWiki, KissL, Bruxism, Grafen, Badagnani, Welsh, Dannybaer,
Ondenc, BirgitteSB, Aldux, Vastu, Deepak~enwiki, 21655, KGasso, Ajpisharodi, Mais oui!, BVegan2, Mikearch~enwiki, Kungfuadam,
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David Surtees, Delldot, Srnec, Francisco Valverde, Septegram, Commander Keane bot, AtarisTheStampede, JFHJr, Gilliam, H2ppyme,
JoeBlogsDord, Kevin Ryde, Leoniceno, Cassan, Colonies Chris, CaveatLector, Dethme0w, Akhilleus, Onorem, Rrburke, TheLateDentarthurdent, Kozushi, Jwy, Jklin, Maelnuneb, Nmpenguin, Kukini, Andrew Dalby, Lambiam, Leonardo Teixeira de Oliveira~enwiki,
Kiptok, RandomCritic, JHunterJ, Kyoko, TastyPoutine, Samael775~enwiki, Hectorian, Hu12, Mkoyle, Iridescent, Llydawr, Ludo716,
IvanLanin, Killdeer, Yosy, 3countylaugh, Courcelles, Tawkerbot2, RookZERO, Curtmack, Aristotle1990, Vzjp, Joostvandeputte~enwiki,
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Zap Rowsdower, Nebulapit, L Kensington, Thomas Capuano, P.Oxy.2354, Subrata Roy, ChuispastonBot, Sunshine4921, Njballa, VincentjBlackwell17, William Branch, Xanchester, ClueBot NG, Davidkellerva, Bped1985, Selvasivagurunathan m, Newyorkadam, Ewokrok,
Helpful Pixie Bot, Calabe1992, BG19bot, PhnomPencil, MusikAnimal, Metricopolus, Darkness Shines, Davidiad, ,
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Mayasandra, WEAPONSGUY, Holenarasipura, Ppsathyan, BreakfastJr, Eminence2012, Echopapa echoromeo, Inanygivenhole, AkselA,
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7.2

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conformance, and MediaWiki compatibility, using a stricter subset of SVG without the extensions of SVG editors, also cleaned up many
unnecessary CSS attributes, or factorized them for faster performance and smaller size. All the variants linked below are based on this
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