Topic 5 - PIPING

Piping systems are used to convey fluids from the point of conditioning to the point of utilization. A
common example is shown below:

This system is used to distribute chilled water from a refrigeration system (chiller) to the heat
exchangers located in three different spaces of a building that need to be cooled. As can be seen, the
system includes, in addition to the heat exchangers, a pump to circulate the water, several valves and
meters, and runs of pipe. The problem facing the designer is to specify the pipe that will carry the
adequate flow of chilled water and to select the pump that will provide the flow.
In general, we will look at three issues of pipes: 1. physical configuration and material,
2. performance, and 3. rules of thumb.

CONFIGURATION
The preliminary design of piping system usually does not require detailed specifications for pipes or
tubing (tubing is used for water, while pipes are used for water or other fluids). But three terms or
characteristics are worth mentioning:
Schedule - The schedule of a pipe is a measure of the wall thickness and, hence, its ability to handle
high pressure applications. Common schedules are 40, 80, 160, and XX. Most low pressure
applications utilize schedule 40 pipe. Water tubing has thickness specifications of K, L, or M;
see Appendix D.2 of Janna for a table of tubing dimensions. The table below gives common
pipe sizes.

Fitting strength - The mechanical strength of the joints are related to the expected pressures to be
carried by the pipe. Common are 150, 3000, and 6000 lb (psi) ratings. Low pressure fittings
are usually cast; high pressure ratings are forged. Flanged fittings vary widely in the pressure
carrying capabilities.
Type of fitting - The mechanical connection can vary: threaded, socket welded, butt welded,
flanged or bell and spigot. Each of these types of fittings has their specific application and
associated costs. The engineer may need to select the connection type and size and cost
estimates accordingly.

PERFORMANCE
Pipes and ducts convey moving fluids. If the fluids had no viscosity, then their mechanical energy
would remain constant, as expressed by the Bernoulli Equation:

V2
C
2g

P = hydrostatic pressure
= specific weight
z = elevation
V = mean fluid velocity
g = gravitational acceleration
C = Constant
Since the value of the constant C does not change, Bernoulli Equation can be applied between two
points in a continuous pipe to relate the relative changes of pressure, elevation, and velocity head as
2

P1

V
P
V
z1 1 2 z 2 2

2g

2g

But since the pipe surface induces drag on the fluid, it converts the fluid's mechanical energy into
thermal energy through viscous dissipation. As a result of this, the fluid's mechanical energy
decreases continuously throughout its path, and typically must be supported by the addition of
mechanical energy with the use of a pump or fan. The concepts of loss and gain of mechanical
energy can be incorporated into the Bernoulli Equation as
P1

where

z1

V1
P
V
hP 2 z 2 2 hL
2g

2g

hP= head added by a prime mover (pump or fan)

hL = total head loss in the pipe system

The head loss is commonly considered as composed of two components, major losses and minor
losses. The major losses are those due to the pipe itself while the minor losses are those attributed to
the fittings and geometry. The nomenclature does not imply that minor losses are small compared to
major losses; frequently, the opposite is true.
The major loss or head loss due to the pipe drag is related to the velocity head through the friction
factor f through the equation
hL f

L V2
D 2g

where f is the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor and is dependent on the Reynolds Number (Re) of the
flow and the relative roughness of the pipe.
Commonly, the friction factor f is determined in a two step procedure:
1. Relative roughness - using the diagram below, the relative roughness is determined from the
pipe size (nominal) and the type of pipe being considered.
2.

2. Friction Factor - Using the Reynolds Number and the relative roughness from part 1, f is
found from the Moody Diagram as shown below:

As can be seen, the Moody Diagram has a different set of curves for laminar and turbulent flow, so
the flow regime must be known prior to its use. Pipe flow is generally considered to be laminar for
Re<2100, fully turbulent for Re>4500, and in transition between. Most thermal systems are
designed with flowrates that are fully turbulent to utilize the pipes and heat transfer enhancements.

However, some systems must incorporate laminar flow for other reasons, so the designer must
confirm the flow regime before blindly assuming turbulent flow for all cases.
Analytic Expressions for f - The use of the Moody diagram to determine f does not lend itself to
automatic analysis of different pipe systems, since manual chart use is required. Hence, several
explicit algebraic expressions have been developed to approximate the curves of the Moody
Diagram.
Laminar & turbulent flow- for flow that ranges from laminar transition through turbulent, such as
for Re > 2100, the following empirical expressions are available:

Relative roughness - Since all of these expressions require relative roughness, the Moody diagram
may still be required. However, another approach works: f tends to be a weak function of relative
roughness, and the absolute roughness can be used for a given pipe material (See Janna, Table 3.1)
and the pipe diameter D can still be handled as a variable.
Reynolds Number - The Reynolds Number requires specification of both the diameter and the
velocity, which may not be convenient. Another expression for the Reynolds Number that employs
the flowrate Q and the diameter of a circular pipe is
Re

4Q
D

Hydraulic diameter - For non-circular conduits, such as rectangular air ducts or annular spaces in
concentric tube heat exchangers, the characteristic length is the hydraulic diameter DH, defined as

DH

Cross Sectional Area

Wetted Perimeter

Alternate Formulations Using the Bernoulli equation, the approach just outlined allows
calculation of the pressure change, head loss, or pump head for a known flowrate. But, sometimes it
is necessary to calculate the flowrate for a known system with pressure change, head loss, and pump
head specified. For that application, a trial-and-error process is required: guess flowrate, calculate
head loss, determine flowrate, correct original guess, and repeat.
To avoid trial and error solutions, an alternate formulation uses the concept of the Roughness number
Ro = (/D) / Re which becomes the parameter for a modified version of the Moody diagram, rather
than /D as the parameter in the Moody diagram above.
Solving for flowrate Using the Bernoulli equation, the pipe velocity V can be written in terms of
pressure change P = P1-P2, or elevation change Z = Z1-Z2 and the friction factor f. For example,
for a horizontal run (Z = 0),
2 gP
V

then

2 gP
f Re

By knowing /D for the pipe being used, f can be found from the diagram below, which allows
solution of the velocity V, and the flowrate Q = V (/4) D2 .

Solving for diameter - If the flowrate Q is specified and the pipe diameter is being determined, then
the formulation instead needs to use

f Re as the independent variable and again uses /D to solve

for Ro, then finds f from the chart below to yield D. In either case, trial-and-error is avoided. But, a
chart is required since empirical equations are not available for spreadsheet or automated solutions.

Solving for head loss- An approximate, but accurate, method to estimate the head loss for water flow
in circular pipes is the Hazen-Williams method. The head loss (ft) per 100 ft of pipe for flow Q
(GPM) and inside pipe diameter D (in) is
100
hL 0.2083

1.852

Q 1.852
where the Hazen-Williams coefficient C comes from the table
D 4.8655

Material

Hazen-Williams Coefficient
-c-

ABS - Acrylonite Butadiene Styrene

130

Aluminum

130 - 150

Asbestos Cement

140

Asphalt Lining

130 - 140

Brass

130 - 140

Brick sewer

90 - 100

Cast-Iron - new unlined (CIP)

130

Cast-Iron 10 years old

107 - 113

Cast-Iron 20 years old

89 - 100

Cast-Iron 30 years old

75 - 90

Cast-Iron 40 years old

64-83

Cast-Iron, asphalt coated

100

Cast-Iron, cement lined

140

Cast-Iron, bituminous lined

140

Cast-Iron, sea-coated

120

Cast-Iron, wrought plain

100

Cement lining

130 - 140

Concrete

100 - 140

Concrete lined, steel forms

140

Concrete lined, wooden forms

120

Concrete, old

100 - 110

Copper

130 - 140

Corrugated Metal

60

Ductile Iron Pipe (DIP)

140

Ductile Iron, cement lined

120

Fiber

140

Fiber Glass Pipe - FRP

150

Galvanized iron

120

Glass

130

Lead

130 - 140

Metal Pipes - Very to extremely smooth

130 - 140

Plastic

130 - 150

Polyethylene, PE, PEH

140

Polyvinyl chloride, PVC, CPVC

130

Smooth Pipes

140

Steel new unlined

140 - 150

Steel, corrugated

60

Steel, welded and seamless

100

Steel, interior riveted, no projecting rivets

110

Steel, projecting girth and horizontal rivets

100

Steel, vitrified, spiral-riveted

90 - 110

Steel, welded and seamless

100

Tin

130

Vitrified Clay

110

Wrought iron, plain

100

Wooden or Masonry Pipe - Smooth

120

Wood Stave

110 - 120

Minor Losses - The head loss as a fluid passes through the fittings, valves, meters, and the like are
accounted by utilizing an empirical coefficient, either C or K (depending on the source) as
V2
hL K
2g
and for a series of n obstructions, each with the same mean velocity V
n

V2

hL K i
2 g
i 1
Values for K vary widely, as shown in the
Table 3.2 from Janna or the table here:

Example:

RULES OF THUMB
Experience is valuable. Over the years, a variety of "Rules of Thumb" have been developed to
provide a prudent starting point for calculations or caution to the novice designer. The following list
has been complied as a guide for the design of piping systems:
General considerations - Piping systems should be designed to allow flowrates or velocities that
balance a variety of factors, such as noise, erosion, initial costs, and operating costs. Pipes that are
too small have high noise, high erosion, and high pumping costs. Pipes that are too large have large
initial costs.
Initial head loss calculation - A detailed calculation of the head loss in a pipe system requires that
the pipe size be known. A good starting point can be obtained by assuming that the initial length is
50-100% longer than the actual to account for minor losses. Use knowledge of fittings to select the
appropriate starting point.
Pressure drop - Water systems typically are designed to include relatively small pressure drops.
Good starting values are:
D < 2":
D > 2":

2.5' Water / 100 ft pipe

4.0' Water / 100 ft pipe

Pipe noise - Fluids moving through pipes cause noise due to turbulence, cavitation, release of
entrained air, and water hammer. Most residential and commercial installations require fairly low
noise levels, which generally can be satisfied by the following guidelines:
D < 2": V < 4 ft/s
D > 2": 4.0' head loss / 100 ft pipe
All D : V < 15 ft/s
Erosion - Erosion is caused by entrained bubbles or solids, with accompanying high velocities.
Typically, erosion is not a problem if the velocity is less than 100 ft/s.

Aging effects - With use, pipe characteristics change. They must be design to compensate for aging.
The following guidelines allow for aging effects:
Sliming and caking - Potable water systems with no chlorine are susceptible to biological growth.
Caking of precipitates and salts can occur with all water systems that are not treated. The effect
on the pressure drop depends on an open loop or closed loop configuration:
Open Loop - Allow head loss increase of 75-90%
Closed Loop - Allow head loss increase of 15-20%

Corrosion - Incrustation of ferrous oxide in the inside of pipes. Open systems are worse because
of presence of oxygen.
Cast Iron - 50-60% increase
Galvanized - 8-15% increase
Copper
- 25-40% increase
Plastic
- no increase

Example: Examine the trade-offs of capital cost and operating cost (pumping power) for a pipeline
that must carry 100 GPM of water at STP through a 2000' horizontal run. Assume a pumping
efficiency of 60%, steel pipe with an asperity height of 0.006". Use a 10-year life with energy cost of
$0.10/kwh and interest at 6%. Use pipe diameter as the independent variable. Pipe cost varies with
diameter according to the following relationship:
COST/FOOT = $5.00 D1.6
Specifications
INPUTS
Flowrate:
Length:
Pump eff:
Asperity:
Energy$:
Life:
Interest:
Pipe$:
Viscosity:
Spec. Wt

100 GPM
2000 Ft
0.60
0.006 in.
$0.10
10 Years
.06
$5.00 D1.6
1.22E-05 ft2/s
62.4 lbf/ ft3

Solution
Solve velocity from flowrate and pipe diameter, then find Reynolds Number, use in analytic
expression for friction factor f. Calculate pumping cost using head loss, duration, time value of
money, and pump efficiency. Calculate initial cost for pipe using formula provided. Total cost is
the sum of the two.
Equations
L V2
hL f
D 2g

Power = hL Q
Future value present value 1 i

Results

Optimize

Diameter
(in)
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0

Velocity
(ft/s)
163
41
18
10
6.5
4.5
3.3
2.6
2.0
1.6
1.4
1.1
1.0
0.8

Friction
f
0.040
0.032
0.029
0.027
0.026
0.025
0.025
0.024
0.024
0.024
0.024
0.024
0.024
0.024

3.0

4.6

0.025

Capital Cost
Energy Cost
$
$
$3,299 $221,923,137
$10,000
$5,554,268
$19,131
$653,695
$30,314
$144,759
$43,322
$45,320
$57,995
$17,663
$74,218
$8,006
$91,896
$4,052
$110,953
$2,231
$131,326
$1,312
$152,961
$814
$175,809
$527
$199,830
$354
$224,987
$246
$57,724

$17,931

Total Cost
$
$221,926,436
$5,564,268
$672,827
$175,073
$88,642
$75,658
$82,224
$95,948
$113,184
$132,639
$153,775
$176,337
$200,185
$225,232
$75,656

OPTIMIZER FUNCTION
Some spreadsheets will automatically search for the optimal solution. For this case, one does not
need to copy all cells in the solution with all possible values for the variables.
Let's consider the example just completed. For this case, we seek the pipe diameter that minimizes
the Total Cost, which is the sum of the pipe cost (Capital Cost) and the operating cost for 10 years
(Energy Cost). So we set up the calculation cells just as before, whereby the Total Cost becomes a
function of Diameter. When we enter the Data Analysis option and into Solver, we identify the
Target Cell as the answer; in this case, Total Cost. We then select the Equal to: Min since we seek
to minimize this cost. Next we choose the Change Cell, which is the variable diameter. If we wish,
we can set Constraints on the value of the variable; this example constrained 0.5 <= Diameter <=
7.0. For the simplest solution, press Solve to begin the operation. The solution returns the pipe
diameter that yields the minimum total cost
The result is that the optimal pipe size is 3.0", which is commercially available. If a non-standard
pipe size is determined to be optimal, one must still move up or down in pipe diameter for the
selection. None the less, the optimization operation simplified the search.
This example is a fairly straightforward single-variable application of optimization, which may not
warrant the use of the optimizer function. But when the problem becomes more complex, with
several variables, the utility of this function becomes more valuable.
Note: The Solver must be activated from the Add-In menu, if it is not already active. To do that, go
to the Excel Options, select Add-Ins, select the Solver Add-In, and activate.