III.

Manifestations of High-Temperature Systems

With respect to the topography of surrounding volcanic rocks
and their inferred heat sources:
Manifestations of hydrothermal systems hosted by high
standing volcanic centers (with an inferred local cooling
pluton as their heat source)
Manifestations of hydrothermal systems in rather flat
terrain transferring heat from inferred extensive hot crust
or plutons
Manifestations associated with high-temperature systems
over extensive hot crustal rocks in a plate collision regime

A. Manifestations of Hydrothermal Systems Associated with High Standing

Volcanic Centers
Depending on permeability of the reservoir rocks and their
surroundings and the extent of recharge, three distinct types of
reservoirs:

Low

average of permeability (k) of

the order of <1 to 3 millidarcy

Moderate

average of permeability (k) of

the order of 3 to 10 millidarcy

High

average of permeability (k) of

the order of >10 millidarcy

A. Manifestations of Hydrothermal Systems Associated with High Standing

Volcanic Centers

There are three types of Hidrotermal Systems

Associated with High Standing Volcanic Centers:
1. Liquid Dominated System
2. Natural Two-Phase System
3. Vapor Dominated System

1. Manifestations of Liquid Dominated Systems

a.
b.
c.
d.

e.
f.
g.
h.
i.

All manifestations over the central part of the reservoir derive

from ascending steam that is discharged by fumaroles and from
minor steaming (hot) ground.
Condensed steam, with oxidised H2S gas, feeds minor hot acid
springs.
Steam and CO2 can discharge together through hot mud pools
Gas discharge fetures (CO2 and rarely with H2S). E.g.: Kaipohan
(Philipines) and Putizza (Italy).
Warm springs in downslope with bicarbonates water (HCO3)
Outflows of neutral pH chloride water
Hot springs and hot pools (outflows discharge in valley or at lower
elevations)
Some hot water and steam (spouting springs or geyser)
Warm springs and seepages, some with travertine (CaCo3
deposits) in furthe downstream. E.g.: Hakone system (Japan)

Conceptual model of a liquid dominated. The model is based, in part, on the

Palinpinon system (Philippines); the heat source
is a cooling pluton. (Modified from Hochstein, 1990.)

Examples for Liquid Dominated Systems:

Palinpinon and Tongonan (Philipines)
Berlin (El Salvador)
Momotombo (Nickaragua)
Cisolok and Cisukarame (Java)
Sipoholon (Sumatra)
Songwe (Tanzania)

2. Manifestations of Natural Two-Phase Systems

a. Extensive areas of steaming ground with minor fumarolic
activity. E.g.: Olkaria prospect (Kenya)
b. Heat transfer from the huge reservoir to the surface by
ascending steam that condense at shallow depths.
(mantaining dominantly conductive heat transfer to the
surface)
c. Some minor warm springs that discharge small amounts of
condensate.
d. Examples: Eburru prospect (Kenya Rift Valey), Namarumu
(Kenya), Aluto (Ethiopian Rift)

Simplified model of a high-temperature steaming ground system with a natural two-phase (coexisting liquid and
vapor) reservoir beneath a broad volcanic center in a semiarid environment showing the restricted variety of
surface manifestations in this setting. The model has some affinity to the Olkaria system (Kenya) and many other
similar systems in the East African Rift Valley.

3. Manifestations of Vapor-Dominated Systems

a.

b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

Heat transfer is dominantly by steam ascending from the top of

thick concealed layer with condensates of almost neutral pH
bicarbonate water, that together with intense alteration, may act
as confining cover.
Steaming ground and fumaroles are common
Minor acid condensates form muddy hot pools and small acid
lakes with very low mass discharge.
The low permeability of the rock surrounding these reservoirs
There are no neutral pH chloride springs on the lower flanks.
Examples: Kamojang and Darajat (Java)

Conceptual model of a vapor dominated system beneath a broad, high standing volcanic complex. The
reservoir has a condensate layer on its top. Heat transferred within the reservoir is discharged at the surface
by steam and hot condensates (bicarbonate waters). The model has some similarity to the Kamojang system
(Java); the heat source is a cooling pluton. (Modified from Hochstein, 1990.)