Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
for Machines
Foundations
for Machines:
Analysis and Design
Shamsher Prakash
University of Missq!)ri-Rolla
Vijay K. Puri
Southern Illinois University, Carbondale
A Wiley-lnterscience Publication
JOHN WILEY AND SONS
New York
Chichester
Brisbane
Toronto
Singapore
To our friend the enlightened saint, humble philosopher, and friend of all
mankind who speaks the language of the heart; whose religion is Jove; who
always aspires to fill lives of one and all with spiritual bliss.
Copyright
Preface
The feedback from the classroom and the professionals in the field has been
of immense help in the planning and preparation of this text.
vii
viii
PREFACE
The special features of this book are: (1) analysis of surface and
embedded foundations by both the elastic half space method and the linear
spring method; (2) analysis of pile supported machine foundations; (3)
detailed discussion of the dynamic soil properties, methods for their determination, and evaluation of the test data; ( 4) detailed design procedure
followed by examples; and (5) discussion of design of machine foundations
on absorbers and vibration isolation.
Knowledge of soil mechanics and elementary mathematics or mechanics
is needed to follow the text.
The reader is introduced to the problem of machine foundation and its
special requirements in Chapter 1. In Chapter 2, the elementary theory of
vibrations is discussed. Chapter 3 deals with the wave propagation in an
elastic medium that provides an important basis for determination of
dynamic soil properties as discussed in Chapter 4. Needless to say, soil
properties play a critical role in the design of machine foundations. Chapter
4 thus forms a very important component of the text. Also included in this
chapter is the procedure for rational selection of soil parameters for a given
machine foundation problem. The determination of unbalanced forces and
moments occasioned by the operation of a machine is reviewed in Chapter
5. The principal subject of the book, the analysis and design of machine
foundations is introduced in Chapter 6, that deals with the design of
rigid-block-type foundations for reciprocating machines. In this chapter the
reader is made familiar with the concepts of elastic half space method and
linear spring method for computing the vibratory response of surface
footings. Foundations for impact-type machines such as hammers are discussed in Chapter 7. Foundations for high-speed rotary machines are
discussed in Chapter 8 and for miscellaneous machines in Chapter 9. The
principles of vibration isolation and absorption are considered in Chapter
10. The design of embedded block foundations for machines is described in
Chapter 11 followed by pile supported machine foundations in Chapter 12.
A few case histories are discussed in Chapter 13 and construction aspects in
Chapter 14.
Computer program for design of a block foundation based on principles
discussed in Chapter 6 has been included in Appendix I, aud for design of a
hammer foundation as in Chapter 7 has been included in Appendix II. A
brief description of the commercially available programs PILAY for solution
of piles and STRUDL for analysis of turbo-generator foundations is included in Appendix III.
The subject matter has been developed in a logical progression from one
chapter to the next. Every effort has been made to make the text selfcontained as far as possible. A comprehensive bibliography is included at
the end of each chapter so that an interested reader may obtain additional
information from published sources.
Development in certain areas, particularly the determination of dynamic
soil properties and analysis of embedded foundations and piles under
PREFACE
dynamic loads, is taking place at a very rapid rate. Analysis and design
procedures may therefore undergo modifications. This fact has also been
brought to the attention of the reader"' at appropriate places in the text.
Thanks are due the American Society of Civil Engineers and National
Research Council of Canada for permitting the use of materials from thefr
publication. Acknowledgment to other copyrighted material is given at
appropriate places in the text and figures.
In preparing this text, several of our colleagues and graduate students
have helped in a variety of ways. The authors wish to express their sincere
thanks to them. Special mention must be made of Dr. Krishen Kumar, who
read the entire manuscript and made useful suggestions, particularly on
Chapter 12, and Dr. A Syed for his useful comments and suggestions and of
Mr. Murat Hazinedarogulu for assistance in writing the computer programs.
The manuscript was typed by Janet Pearson, Charlena Ousley, Allison
Holdaway, and Mary Reynolds. The authors are most thankful to them for
their care, painstaking efforts, and patience. John W. Koeing, technical
editor at the University of Missouri, Rolla, provided editorial assistance and
deserves our sincer~ !hanks.
->', <1"Acknowledgmenis are also due thiFpublishers for their cooperation
during various stages of editorial and production work. A special mention
must be made of the cooperation received from Everett Smethurst, David
Eckroth and Linda Shapiro.
It must also be mentioned that any suggestions or comments by the
readers for making any improvements in the text will be highly appreciated.
SHAMSHER PRAKASH
VnAY
Rolla, Missouri
Carbondale IL
K. PnRI
Contents
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 ;; Type of Machines 'l.~!l Foundations, 2
1.2 Design Criteria to Bi(Satisfied, 4
1.3 Relevant Codes, 9
1.4 Data Required for Design, 1 0
1.5 Significance of Soil Parameters, 1 0
References, 10
CHAPTER 2
THEORY OF VIBRATIONS
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
2.14
Definitions, 12
Simple Harmonic Motion, 14
Free Vibrations of a Spring-Mass System, Hi
Free Vibrations with Viscous Damping, 20
Forced Vibrations with Viscous Damping, 24
Frequency Dependent Excitation, 29
Systems under Transient Loads, 31
Rayleigh's Method, 34
Logarithmic Decrement, 38
Determiii!ltion of Viscous Damping, 39
Transmissibility, 41
Vibration Measuring Instruments, 42,
Systems with Two Degrees of Freedom, 44
Multidegree Freedom Systems, 50
Practice Problems, 58
References, 61
12
CONTENTS
xii
62
3.1
CHAPTER 4
CHAPTER 5
CHAPTER 6
6.7
6.8
6. 9
6.10
CHAPTER 7
189
95
xiii
CONTENTS
212
306
CHAPTER 8
330
CONTENTS~
xiv
376
399
XV
8.2
CHAPTER 9
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 11
11.:b
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
10.1
10.2
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
438
493
xvi
CONTENTS
554
1
Introduction
578
14.1
14.2
14.3
593
1 Computer Program for the De sign of a Block
Foundation, 595
2 Computer Program for the Design of a Hammer
Foundation, 61 0
3 Brief Description of Some Available Computer
Programs, 620
4 Computation of Moment of Inertia, 624
5 Conversion Factors, 629
NOTATION
631
AUTHOR INDEX
647
SUBJECT INDEX
651
INTRODUCTION
------
--.,
Foundation
--1_"///////
)'!_;
L
Maximum
vertical amplitude
Ia)
(b)
Maximum translation
1.1
.::.- ~lf..<l
II
There are many types of machines. All generate unbalanced exciting loads.
In general, the various machines may be classified into three categories:
1. Reciprocating machines: This category of machines includes internal
combustion engines, steam engines, piston-type pumps and compressors,
and other similar machines having a crank mechanism. The basic form of a
reciprocating machine consists of a piston that moves within a cylinder, a
connecting rod, a piston rod and a crank (Fig. 5.1). The crank rotates with a
constant angular velocity. The crank mechanism converts the translatory
motion into rotary motion and vice versa. The operating speeds of reciprocating machines are usually smaller than 1200 rpm.
The operation of the reciprocating machine or the crank mechanism
results in unbalanced forces both in the direction of piston motion and
perpendicular to it (Section 5.1). The magnitude of forces and moments will
depend upon the number of cylinders in the machine, their size, piston
displacement, and the direction of mounting.
If one considers only the unbalanced force in the direction of piston
motion in a machine with only one cylinder that is mounted centrally on a
rigid foundation (Fig. l.la), the motion of the foundation will be only up
and down. A two-cylinder reciprocating machine under similar conditions
mounted centrally on a rigid foundation, will generate an oscillatory motion
and no translation (Fig. 1.1b). Similarly, if a pistonis mounted horizontally,
it will give rise to an unbalanced force and a moment on the foundation.
The foundation will therefore undergo both translation and rotation simultaneously (Fig. l.lc). In the case of a two-cylinder machine mounted
horizontally, the unbalanced forces in a plane parallel to the base of the
foundation generate a couple (Fig. l.ld). This results in a motion that is
similar to the motion of a torsional pendulum. It therefore becomes clear
II
1/
/
(c)
(d)
Figure 1.1. Types of motion of a rigid foundation due to unbalanced forces of reciprocating
machines: (a) pure vertical translation; (b) pure rocking; (c) simultaneous horizontal sliding and
rocking; and (d) pure torsional oscillations.
that the motion of a fpundation depends upon the resulting forces and
moments imparted to it by the machine. Chapter 6 shows that the stresses at
the base of a foundation supporting a reciprocating machine may be uniform
compression as in Fig. l.la, nonuniform compression as in Fig. l.lb, or
uniform or nonuniform shear depending on the nature of dynamic loads.
Reciprocating machines are very frequently encountered in practice. A
rigid block-type foundation is usually provided for these machines. The
vibrations of such a foundation are essentially due to dynamic deformations
in the soil.
2. Impact machines: Incluifed in this category are such machines as
forging hammers, which produce impact loads. These machines consist of a
falling ram, an anvil, and a frame (Fig. 7.1). Forging hammers are divided
into two groups (Barkan, 1962): drop hammers for die stamping and forge
hammers proper.
Free forging operations are usually preformed by forge hammers. The
anvil and the side frame, are generally mounted separately (Fig. 7.1b). The
side frame, together with guides for the ram, contributes to the precision of
INTRODUCTION
the blows required in forging. The foundation block under the anvil serves
as a support for the entire hammer.
The speeds of operation of both these hammers are usually low and range
from 60 to 150 blows per minute. Their dynamic loads attain a peak in a
very short period of time and then practically die out. The unbalanced force
occasioned by the impact lasts only a fraction of a second. In between two
successive blows, the foundation and anvil vibrate freely. The analysis of the
hammer foundation, therefore, proceeds along lines that are different from
those for the analysis of a reciprocating machine foundation. A massive
block foundation is usually provided for impact machines. Vibration absorber pads are placed between the anvil and the foundation to absorb some of
the vibrations.
3. Rotary machines: High-speed machines, such as turbogenerators, turbines, and rotary compressors, may have speeds that exceed 3000 rpm and
may even reach 10,000 rpm.
Steam turbines have elevated pedestal foundations that may consist of an
arrangement of a base-slab and vertical columns, which support at their tops
a grid of beams on which skid-mounted machinery rests. Each element of
such a foundation is relatively flexible (Fig. 8.1) as opposed to the rigid
block-type foundation.
1.2
These are standard requirements that are the same for all footings.
For dynamic loads
2.0
~
c
0
Low tuned
tuned
~0
u.
i5
1.5
cS
~
c
0
1.0
"u
"E
"'
0.5 -
0.0
0.0
I
1.0
2.0
:~~~r~quency ratio ~
Figure 1.2.
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
fundamentalfrequency of foundation
Tuning of a foundation.
standing close to the vibrating machinery. These zones range from "not
noticeable" to "severe." The boundary between "not noticeable" and
INTRODUCTION
r005
0.02
Frequency, cpm
Figure 1.3. Limiting amplitudes of vibrations for a particular frequency. (After Richart, 1962.)
100
rpm
of 0.10 in/sec (2.5 mm/sec). The shaded area in Fig. 1.3 indicates the "limits
for machines and machine foundations." This represents a peak velocity of
1.0 in/sec (25.5 mm/sec) below about 2000 cpm and corresponds to a peak
acceleration of 0.5 g above about 2000 cpm. It should be noted that this
shaded area indicates a limit for safety and is not a limit for the satisfactory
operation of a machine.
along with the cost of installation and losses due to interruption (down time)
determine the limit of the motion amplitudes for which the foundation must
be designed (Richart, 1976). Permissible amplitudes at operating speed can
be established from Fig. 1.4 (Blake, 1964). The vibration amplitudes are
generally specified at bearing level of the machine.
The concept of "service factor" was introduced by Blake (1964). The
INTRODUCTION
1
1
1.6
2
2
0.5
0.3
Effective vibration= measured single amplitude vibration, in inches multiplied by the service
RELEVANT CODES
(in/sec)
<0.005
0.005~0.010
0.010~0.020
0.020~0.040
Machine Operation
Extremely smooth
Very smooth
Smooth
0.040~0.080
Very good
Good
0.080~0.160
Fair
0.160~0.315
Slightly rough
Rough
Very rough
0.315~0.630
>0.630
Source: After Baxter and Bernhard (1967). Reproduced by permission of American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, New York, NY.
1.3
RELEVANT CODES..
'""
factor. Machine tools are excluded. Values are for bolted-down equipment; when not bolted,
multiply the service factor by 0.4 and use the product as the service factor. Caution: Vibration is
measured on the bearing housing, except as stated.
" Horizontal displacement on basket housing.
Source: After Blake (1964). Reproduced with permission from Hydrocarbon Processing,
January 1984.
t American Concrete Institute is working on the codes for design of foundations subjected
to dynamic machinery. But no codes have been finalized so far (1987). Naval Facilities Engineering Command (1983) describes only elementary criteria for design of machine
foundations.
10
1.4
INTRODUCTION
1.5
The reader must have realized by now that the design of a machine
foundation essentially involves determination of the vibration characteristics
(natural frequencies and vibration amplitudes) of the machine-foundationsoil system. Besides the machine and the foundation data, the soil properties
are a rather significant input parameter governing the computed. response,
i.e., the predicted behavior of this system. Depending upon the method of,
analysis (the elastic half space or the linear spring theory, Chapter 6), the
mode of inputting the soil parameters may vary. It will be shown in Chapter
4 that the number of parameters affecting the relevant soil properties are
large and sometimes quite complex.
Fortunately, the determination of soil properties for the design of machine foundations has reached a stage where fairly precise evaluations can
be made for given loading conditions. The soil parameters can be determined in a realistic manner after a careful evaluation of the field or
laboratory test data by following the procedure suggested in Chapter 4
(Section 4.7). The importance of soil parameters must always be kept in
mind by an intelligent designer.
REFERENCES
Barkan, D. D. (1962). "Dynamics of Bases and Foundations."
McGraw~Hill,
New York.
Baxter, R. L., and Bernhard, D. L. (1967). Vibration tolerances--for industry. Am. Soc. Mech.
Eng. [Pap.] 67-PME-14.
Blake, M. P. (1964). New vibration standards for maintenance. Hydrocarbon Process. Pet.
Refiner 43 (!), 111-114.
Crandell, F. J. (1949). Ground vibrations due to blasting and its effects on structures. J. Boston
Soc. Civ. Eng. 36 (2). Also reprinted in Contributions to Soil Mech. BSCE 1941-1953, pp.
206-229.
CH-18-58 Soviet Code of Practice for Foundations Subjected to Dynamic Effects.
REFERENCES
11
DIN 4024 Stutzkonstruktionen fiir rotierende Machinen (Supporting structures for rotary
machines).
DIN 4025-1958 Fundamente fiir Ambo-Hiimmer (Schabotte-Hammer) Richtilinten fur die
Konstruktionen-Bemessung und ausfuhrung (Criteria for the design and construction of
foundations for anvil-hammer construction).
Indian Standards Institution
Construction of Machine
Indian Standards Institution
Construction of Machine
Indian Standards Institution (1968). "Indian Standard Code of Practice for. Design and
Construction of Machine Foundations," Part IV, IS: 2974. lSI, New Delhi, India.
Indian Standards Institution (1969). "Indian Standard Code of Practice for Design and
Constructi?n of Machine Foundations," Part I, IS: 2974 (rev.). lSI, New Delhi, India.
Indian Standards Institution (1970). "Code of Practice for Design and Construction of Machine
Foundations," Part V, IS: 2974. lSI, New Delhi, India.
MSZ 15009-64 Hungarian Code for Design of Machine Foundations.
Naval Facilities Engineering Command (1983). "Soil Dynamics, Deep Stabilization, and
Special Geotechnical Construction," Design Manual 7.3, NAVFAC DM-7.3. Dept. of the
Navy, Naval Facilities Engineering Command, Alexandria, Virginia.
Prakash, S. (1981). "SoiliJ?ynamics." McGraw-Hi!l;;;)'~:cw York.
Prakash, S., and Puri, V.K. (1969). Design of a "tYPical machine foundation by different
methods. Bull.-Indian Soc. Earthquake Techno/._6, 109-136.
Rausch, E. (1943). ''Maschinenfundamente und andere dynamische Bauaufgaben." VDI
Verlag, Berlin.
Reiher, H., and Meister, F. J. (1931). Die Empfindlinchkeit der Menschen gegen Erschiitterungen. Forsch. Geb. lngenieurwes. 2 (11), 381-386.
Richart, F. E., Jr. (1962). Foundation vibrations. Trans. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 127, Part I,
863-898.
Richart, F. E., Jr. (1976). Foundation vibrations. "Foundation Engineering Hand Book,"
Chapter 4. Van Nostrand-Reinhold, New York.
DEFINITIONS
Theory of Vibrations
13
Simple pendulum
n = 2
(a)
(b)
DEFINITIONS
forces inherent in the system and no externally applied force acts, the
frequency with which it vibrates is known as its natural frequency.
12
(d)
(c)
Figure 2.1. Systems illustrating degrees of freedom. (a) System with one degree of freedom
(n = 1). (b) System with two degrees of freedom (n 2). (c) Systems with three degrees of
freedom (n = 3), and (d) Systems with infinite degrees of freedom (n --7 oo),
THEORY OF VIBRATIONS
14
2.2
15
(2.2a)
T= 2Tr
(2.2b)
or
w
in which Tis the time period of motion. The frequency fis the inverse of the
time period; hence
1
w
(2.3)
f= I' =z'lr
In order to determine the velocity and acceleration of motion, we
differentiate Eq. (2.1) with respect. to time, t:
Velocity= i = wZ cos wt = wZ sin( wt +
~)
(2.4)
and
Acceleration= i = -w 2 Z sin wt = w 2 Z sin(wt + Tr)
(2.5)
Acceleration= -w 2z
(2.6)
or
Equations (2.4) and (2.5) show that both velocity and acceleration are
also harmonic and can be represented by the vectors wZ and w2 Z, which
rotate at the same speed as Z, i.e., w rad/unit time. These, however, lead
the displacement vector by Trl2 and Tr respectively.
r-1 cycle---1
z = Z sin wt
I" For an explanation, see Section 3.4.
wt
(2.1)
Figure 2.2.
THEORY OF VIBRATIONS
wZ
I
I
Figure 2.3.
'
\
\ , ....,'A....
17
2, F= mi
In Fig. 2.3, vertical projections of these vectors are plotted against the
time axis t. The angles between the vectors are known as phase angles. Thus
the velocity vector leads the displacement vector by 90; the acceleration
vector leads the displacement vector by 180 and the velocity vector by 90.
in which E F is the sum of all forces in the vertical direction. If th~ sign
convention shown in Fig. 2.4 is used and the inertial force acts opposite to
acceleration, the equation of motion becomes
mi
(2.8b)
mi+kz=O
in which k is the spring constant, defined as force per unit deflection. The
Sign convention
z,
z, z
t+
(2.9)
in which A and B are arbitrary constants, and wn is the natural circular
frequency of the system.
. .
If we substitute the preceding solutiOn mto Eq. (2.8c), we get
(2.10)
which gives
2-
lal
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
If)
Figure 2.4. Spring-mass system. (a) Unstretched spring; (b) equilibrium position; (c) mass in
oscillating position; (d) mass in maximum downward position; (e) mass in maximum upward
position; and (f) free-body diagram of mass corresponding to (c).
w~~-
k
m
or
w =
n
[k
\J;
(2.11)
When w, Tn is equal to 2"1T, one cycle of motion is completed. This yields the
following expression for natural period:
18
THEORY OF VIBRATIONS
(2.12)
19
and
i = V0
(2.16)
By substituting these values into Eq. (2.9), the solution can be obtained in
the form
(2.17)
(2.14a)
Other types of solutions of Eq. (2.8c) can be written in the following forms:
(2.18)
Now
and
mg
(2.14b)
=Ostat
= A
(2.19)
'';;:;:''~,-
Therefore,
EXAMPLE 2.3.1
(2.15)
1 rg1
f,=y-;:---=2
2
7r
0 stat
7T
~9810
=31.541Hz
025
'
EXAMPLE 2.3.2
Determine the spring constant for the system of springs shown in Fig. 2.6.
40
30
"N
~ 20
...
10
......_
r--
0
0
10
Ostat, (mm)
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.6. Equivalent spring constants: (a) springs in series; (b) springs in parallel.
20
THEORY OF VIBRATIONS
21
Solution
(a) On application of a unit load to the system of springs in Fig. 2.6a, the
total deflection is
1
1
kl + k,
- + - = -7-c--'k, kl
klk2
k,,,
klk2
+k
I
_l_ __
T'
m
m
Figure 2.7.
!"~onstant
(x 1 + x 2 ) 2
(x71k 2 + x;lk 1 )
k)" 0
which gives us
s
All real systems exhibit damping. When the force of damping Fd is proportional to velocity, it is termed viscous damping. Thus
c
m
k
m
(2.23)
+-s+-=0
Therefore,
k
(2.20)
in which c is the damping constant or force per unit velocity, FL-IT.
Figure 2.7a shows a spring-mass-dashpot system. If the mass is displaced
by a distance z below the position of static equilibrium, then the free-body
diagram can be represented by Fig. 2.7b. By using the sign convention
shown in this figure, the equation of motion can b_e written as
mi+ci+kz=O
By substituting this
" (s+ms+me=
'
c
2.4
will~;;;::determined later.
in which s is
that
solution into Eq. (2.21), we obtain
k,,,
(b)
(e)
(2.21)
(2.22)
(2.24)
= '5._ = w'
(!..s.)'
2m
m
Le.,
(2.26)
22
THEORY OF VIBRATIONS
or
(2.27)
Now,
(2.28)
23
or
V(1- /; )w,t]
2
V(1 -
V(1 -
/;')w,t)
(2,33)
The nature of the ensuing motion depends upon the values of roots s 1 and
s 2 , and hence on the magnitude of damping (in terms of critical damping)
present in the system. Three different cases of interest are considered here.
CASE I. /;
>1
/; =
~1---N>" r-'~ 2
' -l:r
When I;> 1, both s 1 and s 2 are real and negative and z (Eq. 2.25) decreases
as t increases but it never changes sign. Such a system is called overdamped
or nonoscillatory. A typical solution for g = 2 is shown in Fig. 2.8a. If an
initial displacement is given to such a system, the mass is pulled back by the
springs and dampers absorb all the energy by the time the mass returns to
the initial position.
CASE II.
.. ,.,,_
"'--. r-:-.
't
w,t
I
~ I
(a)
g< 1
When damping is less than the critical damping (I; < 1), the values of s1 and
s, (Eq. 2.29) are obtained as
s 12 = (-1; i~)wn
(2.31)
I
g=
2, and
g=
24
THEORY OF VIBRATIONS
wnd
(2.34)
Sign convention
z, Z,
(2.35)
in which Z 0 and </> are arbitrary constants depending upon the initial
conditions.
Figure 2. Sb shows typical damped oscillations when g is less than 1. 0.
2.5
Equilibrium
position
_L_ _ _
T'
m
m
F= F0 sin wt
F0
Ia I
wt
(2.36)
Z = wZo
mi + ci + kz = F0 sin w t
(b)
z =
(2.37)
90"
<)Zo
90"
Zo
Directions
(c)
z = Z 0 sin(wt- </>)
(2.38)
Then
Fo
(2.39)
or
mw 2Zo
a
+ 7T/2)
(2.40)
= w 2 Z 0 sin(wt- </> + 7)
(2.41)
'l;j~-
and
d
b
Forces
(d)
vib~ations
Free~body
diagram. (c) Vectorial representation of z, i and !i in space. (d) Vectorial solution of forces.
25
26
THEORY Of VIBRATIONS
27
ll,.
2 2
r )
[(1-
+ (2tr) 2 f
(2.44d)
12
Hence,
20
ast
= N = magnification factor
(2.45a)
or
(2.42)
Similarly,
and
</>=tan
</>=tan
cw
-1
k-mw 2
(2.43)
Zo=-Y~(=1=-=m=w~~~k)~'=+=(~c=w=lk~)2
_1
2gr
- -2
(2.44a)
180"
~0
Now, Fufk is equal to the static deflection ll,. of the system under the action
of F0 . Also,
mw
-=
-w )'
<>
3.0
"" goo
0.05
I
0.10
=r 2
0.15t_..'&.
1 -
w"
0.25
2. 0
'7 ~
~~ 1\
cc
L0
..............
-.........__
(2.44b)
If there is no damping present, i.e.,
by
~ I~
LO
0.05
0.150.375-
LO
~
0
03:75
0.50
(b)
Frequency ratio~
W0
Therefore,
(2.46)
1-r
(2.45b)
-Vr=(=1-=r'""l""'=+""(2=g=rl""'
(a)
2.0
3.0
4.0
50
Figure 2.10.
(2.44c)
(a) Magnification factor and (b) phase angle, versus frequency ratio in forced
THEORY OF VIBRATIONS
FREQUENCY-DEPENDENT EXCITATIONS
29
When r is equal to 1, the phase angle </> is 90' for all values of damping,
except when I; is equal to 0. When r is less than 1, the phase angle is less
than 90', and when r is greater than 1, the phase angle is greater than 90'.
The maximum amplitude of motion when r is equal to 1 and I; is greater
than 0 is expressed by Eq. (2.47):
When r=O
N=1
F,
When r = 1
(2.47)
cw
When
r->en
N=O
2.6
As the dampi~g increases, the peak of the magnification factor shifts slightly
to the left. This IS due to the fact that maximum amplitudes occur in damped
VIbratiOns when the forcing frequency w equals the system's damped natural
frequency, wnd [Eq. (2.34)], which is slightly smaller than the undamped
natural frequency, wn.
FREQUENCY-DEPENDENT EXCITATION
d2
(z
dt 2
dz
dt
+m0 -
+ e sm wt) = - kz- c -
'
Ia I
wt
z
Fo
M
9 "" goo
cwZo
(b)
Fo
~k/2
0!
!'
~k/2
0!
//,/#lW##/mrw####J#m/,7/
Figure 2.12.
(2.48a)
30
THEORY OF VIBRATIONS
Mi + ci + kz
m 0 ew 2 sin wt
h
3.0
(2.48b)
z=
Y(k- Mw
2 2
)
+ (cw ) 2
sm wt
(2.49a)
0.25
z0 =
m 0 ew
'"'
:;:
"
0
2 2
+(cw)
ro
ro
0.15
90" t---
1.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
Frequency ratio~
(b)
""
k-:::0.50
.o
(2.49b)
and
0
cw
tan=
k-Mw 2
tv
K, ~
0.375
v(k-Mw)
0.50
~~
01 .
0.05
0.25
0.
1L
1 o.~5
t-
2. 0
2
180"
t-0.10
31
/Y
v
~ 1--\,1
~~~1.0
1.0
3.0
2.0
4.0
5. 0
-~}:ic}~quency ratio~
(2.50)
Wn
-t,.
(a)
me
.
mZ,
Figure 2.13. Response of a system with rotating unbalance. (a)
versus 1requency ratiO
wlwn. (b) Phase angle tfJ versus frequency ratio wlwn. (After Thoms~n, 1972, p. 50. Reprinted
with permission of PrenticeRHall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.)
or
,z
moe! M
(2.51)
and
2gr
tan 1> = - -2
1-r
(2.52)
The value of MZ0 1m 0 e and 1> are plotted in Figs. 2.13a and 2.13b,
respectively. These curves are similar in shape to those in Fig. 2.10 except
that the peak amplitudes occur at
(2.53)
..,...
mi + kz
F0
(2.55)
m 0 el M
21;
(2.54)
THEORY OF VIBRATIONS
33
F(t)
?fLk
Sboo
Fof-------
Fof---,
'
(b)
(a)
Ia I
(b)
dT
(c)
Figure 2.15.
Dynamic amplification due to a square pulse. (a) One degree of freedom system.
lcl
Figure 2.14. Dynamic amplification due to suddenly applied load. (a) Single degree of freedom
system. (b) Suddenly applied load. (c) Magnification factor versus time.
Wben t is equal to r,
Z
z=
Fa
F lk
1- COS wnt
(2.57)
(2.58)
= -Fo
(1
(2.59)
(2.60)
-COS W" T
and
'
T,
F0 w" (Slll
.
-k-
(t)n
mi+kz=O
The solution for displacement z is
(2.62)
in which t' = t - r.
The values of A and B in Eq. (2.62) are determined from the initial
conditions when tis eqOO.l to r. By equating z, and i, from Eq. (2.62), with
those in Eqs. (2.59) and (2.60), respectively, we get A= (F,/k)(l- cos w"r)
and B = (F0 1k) sin w" r. Therefore, Eq. (2.62) becomes
Z =
or
kFo
(1
'+k
Fo Sill
.
W 11 T Sill Wn
t'
THEORY OF VIBRATIONS
RAYLEIGH'S METHOD
(2.63a)
2.8
in which
cjJ =tan -t
1- cos w11 r
sin w 11 'T
(2.63b)
F
= ; Y2(1- cos wn r) sin( wnt' - cf>)
or
F0
z=k
:t
T)
2smz sin(wnt'-q,)
RAYLEIGH'S METHOD
Therefore,
(2.63c)
Fa
k
maximum KE = maximum PE .
7TT
Zmax _
Wn
'T
(2.64a)
Solution
Let the displacement of the mass from the equilibrium position be Yo and
y = y 0 cos w,t. If the extension of the spring is assumed to be linear, the
displacement of the element of the spring at a distance z from the fixed
support is y = (z I L )y 0 cos wnt, and the velocity of element dz is y =
-(zl L )wnYo sin w,t. The maximum KE of the element with mass (wig) dz is
then d(KE)m, = (w/2g) dz ((z!L)wnYof
'TTT
(2.64b)
= 2F0 7TT
m"
Tn
(2.66b)
EXAMPLE 2.8.1
(2.66a)
In Fig. 2.16, the weight of the spring of length L is w per unit length.
Determine the natural frequency of the spring-mass system.
(KE + PE) = 0
or
(zm" ) =
35
(2.64c)
I
I
f
Now, F0 r is equal to the impulse I. Therefore,
Figure 2.16.
36
THEORY OF VIBRATIONS
37
RAYLEIGH'S METHOD
(KE)m,
g
2
(L )21L
WnYo
dz
or
Figure 2.17.
(2.67)
Solution:
d
The deflected curve of the cantilever beam may be assumed to cor~espon
to that of a weightless beam with the concentrated load P actmg at 1ts end.
Then
and the total maximum kinetic energy is
1 (W+~wL)
PL 3
(2.71)
Yo= 3EI
2
(2.68)
WnYo
P;
-;,;i.f
P
3El
k=-=-,Yo
L
LYo ky dy
1
(2.72)
= 2 kyo
(2.69)
(2. 73)
In a conservative system, the maximum kinetic energy equals the maximum
potential energy. By equating the values of the two energies, we obtain
and
Maximum potential energy=
(2.70a)
3 EI
2
2 kyo=
2 L'
Yo
(2.74)
If the weight of the beam is w per unit length and if a harmonic motion is
assumed,
Maximum KE of
(2.70b)
The effect of the spring's weight can thus be accounted for by lumping
one-third of its mass with the concentrated mass of the system.
system=~ LL (wnYl
~~
W;Yo )'
dx
r Hf)'- (f)T
_~ (33wL)w'
140g
nYo
- 2
dx
(2.75)
EXAMPLE 2.8.2
By equating the two energies from Eqs. (2.74) and (2.75), we obtain the
fundamental frequency of vibration of the cantliever beam as
THEORY OF VIBRATIONS
38
Wn
PEl
-
L3
g
/gEl
) = 3.56 \I ~-wL
wL 4
140
( 33
(2.76a)
(2.81b)
Therefore,
Wn
2.9
/iEi
=3.515 \I~
wL
2.10
LOGARITHMIC DECREMENT
zl
/5 =log -
' z,
(2. 77)
27Ti;
(2.82)
(2.83)
0"
(2.78)
/5
1
z
i;=- =-log - 0
27T
2n7T
e zn
(2. 79)
or
/5 = log, exp , r:;--;z
v1- i;
/l=-log-0
n
e zn
(2.76b)
z,
o, -
or
(2.80a)
0.707 .
1
21;
(2.85)
-=-;==~~~
2 2
21;
r ) + 41;?
V(l-
(2.80b)
in which i; is small.
If the damping is very small, it may be more conyenient to measure the
difference in peak amplitudes for n cycles.
In such a case, if zn is the peak amplitude of the nth cycle, then
(2.84)
When the amplitude of motion is 0.707 (1121;), the frequency ratio r may
be determined from Eq. (2.44d) as follows:
or
or
or
r4
(2.81a)
Also,
39
or
=0
40
THEORY OF VIBRATIONS
v4 + 16t;
= ![2(1- 2t;')
2.11
41
TRANSMISSIBILITY
16t;'- 4 + 32t;']
TRANSMISSIBILITY
= (1 - 2eJ 2t;'{l+T'
or
(2.87a)
if t; is small. Now,
or
fn
fn
(2.87b)
/,,
\C'
F,
'/1 + (2t;r)
T, = -m-e_w_2 =, -Y-r(=l~-=r"'2c=)2'=+~(2=t;=r""')2
(2.87c)
4. 5
4. 0
1---E ~ 0
'~ o -
1--- ( ~
0.125-
0.1 6
0.125
Zmax = ~ 152 mm
Vertic11 vibratioL
3. 0
0.1 4
'E
0.1 2
.s
.~
0.
f-- 0.1 0
1/!
0.0 6
0.0 4
10
I ~
J!
0.08
14
18
!"
1-
=)oo
1. 0
"~',":...
I
26
v ,/'
rx"'
~ o.5
~ 1.0
2.0
,I~:2~
( - 2.0-
1'---t.~
10
1'--<~os-
~.,t:o~-~
0
30
34
1.0
2.0
3.0
Frequency (cps)
Figure 2.18.
I/E
:
22
0.25
'-
1\
"'
1\
~\-
~ =
'r
Figure 2.19.
42
THEORY OF VIBRATIONS
43
Equation (2.90) is similar to Eq. (2.48b). Hence the solution for Z 0 can be
written as in Eq. (2.49b):
2.12
Figure 2.20 shows the essential elements of a vibration measuring instrument. It consists of a seismic mass m which is supported by springs and a
dashpot inside a case, which is fastened to a vibrating base. The motion of
the base is to be monitored. Let the motion of the base be represented by
x = X 0 sin wt
(2.88a)
Y sin wt
Zo
mw 2X 0
y(k-mw)
2 2
+(cw)
(2.91)
and
</> =
Z0
cw
tan- 1 -=~2
k-mw
(w/wn)
Y(1- r
Xo
2 2
)
(2.92)
+ (2t;r) 2
(2.93a)
and
_,_
"P
=tan
i,- ~nd
_1
2t;r
- -2
1-r
(2.93b)
Plots of Z 0 /
the frequency'fi\lio and the phase angle and frequency
ratio are shown in Fig. 2.21.
(2.88b)
my =
If we let y - x
k( y - x) - c(.Y - i)
(2.89)
= z and y - i = i, we obtain
mi
+ ci + kz =
mw 2X 0 sin wt
(2.90)
1.0
2.0
Frequency ratio ~
Wn
Base
Figure 2.20.
base.
Ia I
Figure 2.21. Response of a vibration measuring instrument to a vibrating base. (a) Amplitude.
(b) Phase angle. (After Thomson, 1972, p. 60. Reprinted by permission of Prentice~Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.)
45
44
Sign conventions
--:-::--]
Displacement Pickup
z,
For large values of wlw", and for all values of damping, g, Z 0 1X0 is
approximately equal to unity. Therefore, if the natural frequency of the
instrument is low, such that the value of r is large, then the resulting relative
motion Z 0 equals X 0 . Therefore, the instrument functions as a displacement
pickup.
One of the disadvantages of the displacement pickup is its large size.
Because IZl is equal to IYl, the relative motion of the seismic mass will be
as large as the amplitude of vibration to be measured.
k1
w X0
Figure 2.22.
I
=
w;y/[1- (w/w")
1
2 2
]
+ [2gw!wJ
w;vc
(2.94)
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
1.000
0.9995
0.9989
1.000
1.0053
t Zl
>
Z2
~ Fo sin wt
0!
Ia I
Z)
Acceleration Pickup
Z0
Z, Z
(b)
or
(2.95a)
and
or
(2.95b)
Phase Distortion
2.13
The natural frequencies of this system are obtained by considering its free
vibrations. Making F0 = 0 in Eq. (2.95a), we obtain
(2.95c)
Let
(2.96a)
and
(2.96b)
system, the spring k 1 and the mass m 1 constitute the main system, and spring
k, and mass m 2 a vibration absorber. The equations for motion of both the
By substituting the solutions from Eqs. (2.96) into Eqs. (2.95b and 2.95c),
we obtain
46
THEORY OF VIBRATIONS
(2.97a)
_
nll-
I k,
'V m 1 +m 2
(2.99a)
f'-
(2.99b)
and
(J)n/2
(2.97b)
The values of the two natural frequencies wn 1 and wn 2 for this system are
obtained by solving Eq. (2.98) as a quadratic in
w;.
-m 1 w:+k 1 +k 2
k2
47
k2
-m 2
w: + k
Amplitudes of Vibrations
For the force acting on mass m 1 , the vibration amplitudes are obtained by
assuming the following solution for the principal modes:
(2.100a)
or
and
z 2 ~~;ji:J sin w t
or
(2.100b)
By substituting the solution from Eqs. (2.100) into Eqs. (2.95a) and (2.95b),
we obtain
(2.10la)
or
and
(2.101b)
Let
Therefore,
Substituting for Z 2 from Eq. (2.102) into Eq. (2.101a), we obtain
or
or
[m 1m2 w 4
or
(2.98)
in which
or
k2 m 1 w 2
F0 (k 2
m2w
k 1 m2 u/ + k 1 k 2
k 2 m 2 w 2 + k;- k;]z 1
48
THEORY OF VIBRATIONS
49
spring-mass system having its natural frequency given by Eq. (2.106). The
negative sign in Eq. (2.107) indicates that Z 2 and F0 are in phase opposition.
In fact, the amplitude of the main mass Z 1 , becomes zero at this frequency,
because the force, k 2 Z 2 , exerted by spring 2 on mass m 1 is equal and
opposite to the force of excitation F0 The size of the absorber mass m 2 and
its displacement, depend upon the magnitude of the disturbing force,
F0 (=k 2 Z 2 ). For a given force F0 , the smaller stiffness of the absorber spring,
the larger its amplitude Z 2 and vice versa.
Figure 2.23a shows a plot of Z 1 /Z,, versus w/w" 12 (Eq. 2.103b) with
or
or
(2.103a)
Iii
or
6
-~~~-
in which
f_e
Zz
m 1 [w
11
i\
II
(2.103b)
Fo w !,z
2
w (1 + ~t)(w~ 11 + w~ 12 ) + (1 + ~t)w~ 11 w! 12 ]
1::
lli_
I.
0~
0
I !\
II
11
i\
J i \ r'~
1I
, I
018
1/ ItsI \
(2.105a)
=
2
Fow ~12
2
m 1 A(w )
z, = 0,
.....
1.5
--
t---
2.0
2.5
w
Wn/2
Ia I
or
ii
1.0
0.5
0.20
p. =
1.6
......
1.5
(2.105b)
1.4
if
I. 3
I. 2
(2.106)
Then
/
Wnll
I. 0
Wn/2
\i
9
"
:-.......
- r-.
(2.107)
or
..........
1-
6
0
.1
.2
.3
.4
.5
.6
.7
.8
Mass Ratio P.
(b)
Equations (2.103, 2.105, 2.106, and 2.107) explain the principle of vibration
absorbers that will be used in Chapter 10 (Section 10.1). The amplitudes of
Figure 2.23.
versus
~J-(=m~
50
THEORY OF VIBRATIONS
Z =
I
Wnz2
m,~(w2)
(2.108)
and
Z _ (1 + JL)W~ll + JLW~ 12 -
m 2 ~(w2)
2-
F0
(2.109)
51
m/ii +
2: kiixi = 0
(2.113)
j""l
2.14
It has been shown in Section 2.1 that the number of independent coordinates of displacements in a vibrating system determines the degrees of
freedom of the system.
In this section we will discuss the techniques applicable to the solution of
vibrations of multidegree freedom systems.
Two approaches are commonly used for obtaining a solution: (1) stiffness
matrix method; (2) flexibility influence coefficient method.
The stiffness coefficient k 1i is defined as the force on the ith mass due to a
unit displacement at the jth mass with all other masses held at their
equilibrium position. With displacement x 1 , x 2 , and x 3 of points 1, 2, and 3,
respectively, the principle of superposition can be applied to determine the
forces in terms of stiffness coefficients as
ft
f,
k 21 x 1 + k 22 x 2 + k 23 x 3
!3 = k31X1
-;:
':r
-~: ::
i=l,2, ... ,n
(2.115)
j=l
=0 (2.116)
+ k32X2 + k33X3
(p --
(2.111)
in which
2
+ (- 1)"w 2n
0
a0 +aw+
.. +a n-1 w 2(n-l)
1 n
n
n =
(2.117)
Since the coefficient of w~ is not zero, Eq. (2.117) always has n roots. These
roots would give the 1i~ natural frequencies of vibration, namely, w""
Wnz' . . . wnr ... wnn. Corresponding to each value of wn' there is an associated mode shape with amplitudes Air), Ar), ... , A~), which can be
obtained by solving Eq. (2.115).
When a system vibrates in a principal mode, all the masses attain maxkll
[k]
k12
k13
f={J,}.
(2.112)
position simultaneously.
When the number of degrees of freedom exceeds three, the problem of
forming the frequency equation and solving it for determination of frequen-
52
THEORY OF VIBRATIONS
MULTIDEGREE FREEDOM SYSTEMS
cies and mode shapes becomes tedious. Numerical techniques are invariably
resorted to in such cases.
The flexibility influence coefficient a,i is defined as the displacement at ith
mass due to a unit force applied at jth mass. With forces f 1 , [ 2 , and f 3 acting
at pmms 1, 2, and 3, the principle of superposition can be applied to
determme the displacements m terms of the flexibility influence coefficients
x, +
53
2:" (mix)a,i = 0
(2.123b)
j=I
(2.118a)
Ai-
2: m;w~A;aii = 0
(2.124a)
i""'I
(2.118h)
x,
a,,[,
+ a32f, + a,,[,
or
(2.118c)
i=l,2, ... ,n
(2.124b)
{x}
[a]{f}
(2.119)
in which
1)
-( m-a
:~,.. .,u
z
--'
wn
(2.120)
=0
(2.121)
(2.125)
It is thus seen that the inverse of the flexibility matrix is the stiffness matrix
[k], i.e.,
[ar'
[kJ
(2.122a)
or
[a]= [kr'
Forced Vibrations
(2.122b)
<:;onside~ing flexibility coefficients defined above and applying D' Alemhert s pnnc1ple, ~he system can be considered to be in an instantaneous state
of static eqmhhnum under the effect of reversed inertia forces acting on all
masses.
The displacement of mass i due to reversed effective inertia force - m .x.
1 1
actmg on all j masses is
miXi +
L,
ki;X; =
FJt)
(2.126)
j=l
where i = 1, 2, . .. , n.
xi=-
or
2:" (m;X)aii
j=J
modal response would he some fraction of the total response with the sum
of the fractions being equal to one. If the factors by which the modes of
54
THEORY OF VIBRATIONS
X=A('lt
+AC'lt!:.2 ++AC'lc
++A(nlt~JJ
I
I
~J
1
~T
t
or
n
X="'
I
L..J AVlt
I
!:>r
55
(2.127)
"'
L.J FAC'l
I
I
r=l
reel
i=l
i=J
i=l
T"'l
(2.133)
Where r represents the rth mode. Then from Eq. (2.126), we get
n
L
r=l
mA()i:
1
1
br
+"'
L.J
"'k
A(')c
= F(t)
L.J
1 Sr
i
IJ
r=t j=l
(2.128)
"'
AC'l
= 0
LJ m.AC'l
I
I
l
for
r o;6 s
i=1
f,
i=l
m,(A)~);,
when
r=s
Hence
. Hence
n
L
r=
2
mA(')
< +"'
t = F(t)
1
1
~r
L-1 w nr mAC')
t
1
Sr
1
(2.134)
'"' 1
and
Using Eqs. (2.132) and (2.134), the complete solution from Eq. (2.127)
r=I
is
(2.129)
F,(t) =
m,A~') f,(t)
"
X,--~ A, -;;;
-
r-1
(r)
l' ""
L.. j=
l::"
Fj (T )AC'l
j
(A('l)' sm w.,(t- r) dr
J=lm;
EXAMPLE 2.14.1
(2.130)
r=l
r = 1, 2, ... , n
(2.131)
This is a single degree of freedom equation and its solution can be written as
t;, = - 1wnr
l'
0
(2.132)
Figure 2.24.
56
THEORY OF VIBRATIONS
Solution
Let x 1 = 1.0 and x 2 = x 3 = 0. The forces required at 1, 2, and 3, considering
forces to the left as positive, are
VERTICAL DISPLACEMENT
ft = kl + k, = k11
/ 2
-k 2
[, = 0 =
57
0.445
1.247
k 21
k,l
0.802
!1
-k,
k1z
[, = k, + k, = k,,
1.0
[,=-k,=k,,
First mode
Ia I
!I= 0 = k13
h = -k, = k,,
+ k,)
-k,
(k 2 + k 3 )
k2
-k 3
-k
0
+
(k,
k.J
EXAMPLE 2.14.2
For the system shown in Fig. 2.25a, solve for natural frequencies and mode
shapes.
kl2
k21 = -k,
k,, = 2k,
k,, = -k
k,, = -k,
k,,
= 0,
k13 =0
d," k
+ 2kx 1 -
(2k-m 1 w;)
-k
0
-k
(2k- m 2 w!)
-k
-k
(k- m,w;)
=0
- A' 3 + 5A' 2
k 11 =2k,
k31
(b)
Solution
The stiffness coefficients K,i for the system are
= ~k,
sylt~dls for
1
(a) Spring-mass
[, = k, + k, = k,,
K =
Figur-?~:25.
Third mode
Second mode
kx 2 = 0
m 2i 2 - kx 1 + 2kx 2 - kx 3 = 0
6A' + 1 = 0
in which A' = mw ;; k (A' will be equal to 1.0 for a single degree of freedom).
The roots of frequencfequation can be determined by any of the standard
techniques. In this case, the trial-and-error method and the plotting of the
graph of the function will be used. The roots are A;= 0.198, A;= 1.555,
A;= 3.247, and since A'= mw;lk,
2
Will=
k
0.198 m '
w 112 =
1.sss
k
m
(I)
2
n3
= 3.247
k
m
58
THEORY OF VIBRATIONS
- -w-; A 1 + m k
A1+ m
A2 + m
A3 =0
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
59
2.3 For the system represented by Eq. (2.48b), show that the peak
amplitude occurs at a frequency ratio of
1
1
2
2
--,A,+m-kA 1 +m-A +m-A =0
w,
k 2
k 3
r = -Y-,=1,;;_=2t;""'
1
1
2
3
- - , A 3 +m k A, +m k A 2 +m -A 3 =0
k
(f)n
and
First mode
Second mode
Thrid mode
AI
0.445
-1.247
1.802
A,
0.802
-0.555
-2.247
A,
1.0
1.0
1.0
=-~~=
Z~
"
.I
m
I'
~k
//~7/////.////Jm. .
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
2.1
max
(a)
t;=Ht,-J;)
!,,
~k
J;
(b)
Figure 2.26.
r~a=3~~
///?'"!ff.<Y?'"///1'//4
y'
6
(C)
REFERENCE
~k
61
2.6 An 8-cm diameter pole with an 8-m length is guided so that it floats
vertically in water. The specific gravity of the pole's material is 0.79.
Find the pole's natural frequency.
2.7 Set up the equations for motion of the systems shown in Figs. 2.26a, b,
and c and determine the frequency equation and natural frequencies.
Determine the expressions for critical damping in (a) and (b).
2.8 Write the equations of motion for the systems shown in Fig. 2.27 and
determine their natural frequencies.
8
8~k
:w)P//////#/#$#/#~,0
a.
Ia I
REFERENCE
Thomson, W. T. (1972). "Theory of Vibration with Applications." Prentice-Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey.
(b)
21
(d)
Figure 2.27.
60
63
Wave Propagation an
an Elastic Medium
convenient and useful method of determining the soil properties such as the
d namic shear modulus for design of machme foundations. So.me of the
y
t.ton o f the dynamic shear modulus are discussed m
methods
for d etermma
Chapter 4 (Sections 4.5 and 4.6).
.
.
2. The waves generated due to a vibratmg footmg carry away a part o:
the energy into the medium resulting in dampmg effect (geometncal damp
ing) that helps in reducing the vibratiOn amplitudes.
.
.
3. The energy carried by the waves into the mediUm may mduce undesirable and harmful vibrations in adjoining structures and machmes, and .
4 Effective vibration isolation by wave barriers (Chapter 10, SectiOn
can be achieved only if the depth of the trench barners IS adequate
10
compared with the wavelength of the propagatmg waves.
.4)
The principles of wave propagation are also used for subsoil exploration
. h . b
d the scope of the present text.
.
(geophysical exploration), wh JC IS eyon
In this chapter, three problems will be stud1ed:
When a continuous medium is disturbed from within or outside, the waves
are generated. For example, when a pebble is dropped into a large, still
pond, it generates waves, which travel in all directions. Now, if a small
buoyant object such as a piece of wood is floating on the surface of water, it
will oscillate about its original position as the waves travel under it away
from the point where the pebble was dropped. Thus, it can be seen that the
waves travel in one direction with a certain velocity, while the piece of wood
and the particles of water beneath it oscillate to and fro with a velocity that
is different from the velocity of the waves. Also, the waves are returned
(reflected) from the edge of the pond, which is the reflecting boundary for
the surface waves. This is a phenomenon that we frequently observe when
we are children.
In a similar manner, the sudden rupture of stressed rocks within the
earth's crust will generate waves both at the surface and within the earth to
produce what is known as an earthquake. Smaller but similar disturbances
are artificially created by such means as blasting, aircraft landings, and the
explosion of bombs. Machines in operation also generate waves at their
bases and sides, and these waves travel in all directions in the soil.
When a load is suddenly applied to a body, the entire body is not
disturbed at the instant of loading. The parts closest to the source of
disturbances are affected first, and the deformations produced by the
disturbance subsequently spread throughout the b"ody in the form of stress
waves.
The phenomenon of wave propagation in an elastic medium is of great
importance in the study of machine foundations due to the following
reasons.
1. The velocities of wave propagation depend upon the elastic properties
of the medium. The study of the wave propagation velocities thus provides a
62
3.1
Three inde endent kinds of wave motion are possible in. rods: longitudinal,
.
l p d flexural Only the longitudinal and torswnal waves are of
torstona , an
.
.
.
importance to our study of machine-foundatwn-sml systems.
3.1.1
d the stress on
during motion. The stress on a transverse plane at x IS ax' an
. th
+ dx is crx + (acrx /ax) dx. The sum of forces m ex
a transverse p lane a t x
direction can then ~ written as follows:
2: Fx =
mass x acceleration
(3.1)
Now,
acr
)
acrx
"'F=-crA+
dxA
( cr+-xdxA=-a
Li X
X
X
ax
X
(3.2)
64
a~
x
rJx
65
a'u
at' -
+oa,
- dx
ax
a'u
p ax'
(3.7b)
(3.7c)
or
in which
v' =
'
Figure 3.1.
If the displacement of the element in the direction of xis u, the equation for
motwn_ of the element can then be written by applying Newton's second law
of motiOn as follows:
au
ax
_x
a'
dx A = dx A 1' ---':'.
g at'
!:_
(3.8)
(3.3)
dx
---...j
1------
!Jx::::] II
~~=~~jjj:=================rr---~-x
(3.4)
~
The strain in the x direction in au/ax, and the ratio of stress u to strain is
Young's modulus E; therefore,
x
au
ax
u =E-
"
I(
(a)
Substituting the value of aa)ax from Eq. (3.6) into-Eq. (3.4) and replacing
the term y/g by p, the mass density, we get,
ax' -
Vrtn
----1 u I---
(3.5)
(3.6)
Eau_
Xn
a,f----------,
au
P at'
(3.7a)
(b)
or
Figure 3.2.
66
stress on the face in the negative direction of x. Thus, while the compressive
wave travels in one direction, the tensile wave travels in the opposite direction.
Initially, only small zones close to these cross sections feel the stress, but as
time passes, larger zones undergo the stress caused by the displacement u.
It is important to see clearly the distinction between the velocity of wave
propagation V, and the velocity of a particle u, in the stressed zone. Let us
consider the stressed zone at the end of the rod in Fig. 3.2a. When a
uniformly distributed compressive-stress pulse of intensity ux and duration tn
(Fig. 3.2b) is applied to the end of the rod, only a small zone of the rod will
undergo compression initially. This compression is transmitted in time to
successive zones of the rod. The transmission of the compressive stress from
one zone to another occurs at the velocity of the wave propagated in the
medium, that is, V,. During a time interval dt, the compressive stress travels
along the rod for a distance of dx = V, dt. At any time after t,, a segment of
the rod of length, xn = V,t,, constitutes the compressed zone. The amount of
elastic shortening of this zone is given by Eq. (3.9a) and equals the
displacement of the free end of the rod. Therefore,
O"x
Ux
u=-x
E n =-Vt
E r n
au
-a
= f'(x- V,t) ,
X
.
a~
ax
au
f"(x - V,t) ,
at
= - V,f'(x-
V,t),
f 1 (x - V,t) + f 2 (x + V,t)
(3.12)
In this equation, the first term, f 1 (x), represents the wave traveling in the
. positive x <)irections, and the second term, f 2 (x), represents the wave
traveling in ':'flre negative x directi<?~
(3.9a)
End Conditions
or
(3.9b)
Now, the displacement u divided by time t" also represents the velocity of
the end of the rod, or particle velocity. Therefore,
(3.10)
It is important to note, that (1) both wave-propagation velocity and particle
velocity are in the same direction when compressive stress is applied and (2)
that wave-propagation velocity is in the opposite direction of particle
velocity when tensile stress is applied. Another important consideration is
that the particle velocity u depends on the intensity of the stress or strain
induced [Eq. (3.10)], whereas the wave-propagation velocity V, is only a
function of the material property.
Solution of Wave Equation
u = f(x- V,t)
67
(3.11)
The conditions at the end of a bar may be studied by making use of the
superposition of waves. This is possible, because the differential equation,
Eq. (3.7c), is linear. Hence the sum of two solutwns 1s also a soluuon.
Consider a wave whose form is described by a step functwn (Fig. 3.3a).
In this figure, a compression wave is shown traveling in. the. positive x
direction, and an identical tension wave in the negatlve x d1rect1on. In the
crossover zone (Figs. 3.3b and c), where the two waves pass each other, the
portion of the rod in which the two waves are superimposed has z~ro stress.
However, the particle velocity is equal to tw.lce the partlcle veloc1ty m th1s
zone. The particle velocity becomes double m the cr?ssover zone,. because
the particle velocity is in the direction of wave tr~vel m a .compressiOn wave
but is in the opposite direction of wave travel m a tenswn wave, and the
waves are traveling in opposite directions.
After the two waves have passed the crossover zone, the stress and
velocity return to zero at the crossover point alo~g the centerline, and the
compression and tensi'<').p waves return to their m1t1al shape and magmtude
(Fig. 3.3d). It will thus be seen that on the centerline cross sectiOn, the
stress is zero at all times. This stress condttion IS the same as that whtch
exists at the free end of the rod. If half of the rod is removed, the centerline
cross section can be considered a free end (Fig. 3.3e). Therefore, it can be
seen that a compression wave is reflected from a free end as a tension wav~ of
the same magnitude and shape. Similarly, it can be show~ that a tensiOn
wave is reflected as a compression wave of the same magmtude and shape.
Now , let us consider an elastic rod in which a compression wave IS
68
--
GIL
GIL
v,
/r/{z : g
rrnrn;,_rTTITT1,
69
(a) _-'-'t.llll~III~III~III_T------rrmnn~T'"s~ion
Compression
I II II U!!J 1111
v,
(1
=
=
0
0
Ia)
v,
o v,
,1--,
(bl----l..Lij'+--jqr---t'TTrz:_2_"- - -
L_L1uJ
(Jo
v,
--1
It
I
I
1111111
v,
uo
1111111
iDJIIIIIII
(cl--nrllllrrrrlll..t---11
-H!~LW_{I.lllJ__ _
V
I
I
(b)
v=O
2U
v,
(d)
I IT I~Irnl~fln:.-1~1 rmltyJIIIL__
-ITTTITlTTTliTT~ens~ion~_j
II Ill II Ill II I 1\{K :C~mpression
0
0
(C)
v,
Figure 3.3.
t: ~
_(0
a
(d)
So far, it has been assumed that the rod is of either infinite or semi-infinite
length. In practice, the vibrations of rods of only finite length are of interest
in the study of soil dynamics.
70
= U(A
(3.13)
71
For the rod of length, l (Fig. 3.5a), in the free-free case, the stress and strain
on both faces must be zero. This means that dul d.x is equal to zero at both
x = 0 and x = l. By differentiating Eq. (3.15} with respect to x, we get
..
t;'
dU
w (
wnx
wnx)
-=--" -Csin-.-+Dcos-V =0
dx
vr
.o;,,-';~ vr
r
(3.16)
. w,J
Csm-=
V,
(a)
(3.17)
w)
U1
C cos
<X
T
(n
1)
V,
or
w
2.x
U2 = C cos - - (n = 2)
1
3x
U3 = C cos - - (n = 3)
1
(3.18a)
=n7T
n1rVr
=--
.
in which n = 1,2,3....
Equation (3.18b} is the frequency equation from which the frequencies of
the normal modes of vibrations of the rod for the free-hee. cas~ are
determined. By substitlliiing Eq. (3.18b} into Eq. (3.15}, the d1stnbut10n of
displacement along the rod can be found for _any harmonic. The first three
harmonics are shown in Fig. 3.5b, and the displacement amphtude can be
expressed by
n1rx
Un = Ccos -[(b)
free~free
end conditions.
(3.18b}
in which n = 1, 2, 3 ....
(3.19}
72
73
Fixed-Free Condition
The end conditions for a rod in the fixed-free case (Fig. 3.6) are: at the fixed
end (x = 0), the displacement is zero, i.e., U = 0; and at the free end
du
(x = 1), the strain is zero, i.e., dx = 0. By substituting these into Eq. (3.15),
we get
C=O
(3.20a)
and
Dcos
!
1.
I
I
VX = D sin (2n-211)71"X
U, = D sin
(3.23)
'
The first three harmonics described by Eq. (3.23) are shown in Fig. 3.6b.
Fixed-Fixed Condition
The end conditions for a rod in the fixed-fixed case (Fig. 3. 7) are U = 0 at
x = 0 and at x =I. By substituting these conditions into Eq. (3.15), we get
w I
V =0
(3.20b)
C= 0 and
'
wnl
Dsin- =0
V,
which gives
wnl
7T
= (2n -1)V,
2
(3.21)
(3.24a)
which gives
(3.24b)
in which n = 1, 2, 3 ....
wn is given by
in which n = 1, 2, 3 ....
w =(2n-1) 71"V,
"
(3.22)
21
lei
(e)
--j_
D
U1 "" D sin ;~
~
(n = 1)
. 37rx
U2 = D s1n
2"l 1n
T ----= 2)
v .,.
-..........
U1
D sin
U2
. 21rX I
D sm
- - n
U3
D sin
(n
1)
'l
2)
L_
['....
(b)
-Y
;x
(n = 3)
(b)
Figure 3.6.
Figure 3.7.
74
element are
becomes
We can write
Un = D
, n7TX
Sill-/
75
(3.25)
2:;(torque)T=-T+(T+
T=GI ae
Pax
(3.26)
~~ dx)
aT
ax
(3.27a)
(3.27b)
=-dx
aT
a'e
- d x = - l d x -2
ax
g P
at
(3.28a)
or
(3.28b)
By substituting
(3.28b), we get
aT/ax
(3.29a)
or
a'e _ 0 !I a'e
ar' - y ax'
(o)
(3.29b)
or
(3.29c)
in wbicb
'
G-=-=V
(3.30a)
or
'
(b)
Figure 3.8.
(G
\/{)
'
(3.30b)
76
77
(3.31)
I
I
Txy . ,
-.-'(
)./'
arxy
(Txy
n1TV:
=-~
"
(3.32)
(ux
+ Ty dy)
8ox
+ axdx)
Figure 3.9. Stresses on an element in an infinite homogeneous, isotropic, and elastic medium.
Fixed-Free Condition
(3.33)
( (]'x
aax
ax dX ) dy dz - (]'x dy dz
(3.34)
in which n = 1, 2, 3 ....
The concept of a natural frequency of a rod of finite length in a principal
mode of vibration is used in determining the elastic properties of a soil in
the laboratory. This is discussed in Chapter 4 (Section 4.5).
+ ( Txy +
(T
a(]'
( _x
ax
aT
aT)
+ ...__.2
+ ----'-'ay
az
aTu dz) dx dy - Tn dx dy = 0
az
(3.35)
au
dx dy dz = p(dx dy dz) - ,
at
(3.36)
or
2
p at' =
Similar equations can be written for the summation of forces in the y and z
directions. By neglecting body forces and applying Newton's second law in
the x direction, we get
J U
3.2
xz
aTxy
ay dy ) dx dz - Txy d X d Z
Similar equations
follows:
can!;~
Jcrx
ax+
iJTxy
ay
t3Txz
az
(3.37a)
(3.37b)
acting on the faces of this element have been shown in this figure. By
(3.37c)
78
au
ae
2
p2 =(A+G)-+GVu
2
at
ax
a2 v
p -
at2
a2 w
at 2
p -
2(1 + v)
(3.39a)
vE
(1 + v)(1- 2v)
(3.39b)
cc-~~---::-c
E.}.
The strains and rotations may be defined in terms of displacements
(Timoshenko and Goodier, 1951; Kolsky, 1963) as follows:
Ex= Jx '
av
ey = ay ,
E
z
aw
az '
=-
av au
'Yxy = ax + ay
aw av
'Yy. = ay + az
au
aw
'Yzx=az+ax
aw au
x
ay az
- au aw
2w = - - Y
az ax
= av _au
201
' ax ay
(3.43)
(3.44)
ax'
ay'
a')
(3.45)
az
Equations (3.4;~)_, (3.43), and (3.44). are the equations for motion of an
infinite homoge'neous, isotropic, ari{L.~lastic medium.
There are two solutions for the preceding equations. One solution
describes the propagation of an irrotational wave, whereas the other describes the propagation of a wave of pure rotation. The first solution is
obtained by differentiating Eqs. (3.42), (3.43), and (3.44) with respect to x,
y, and z, respectively, and adding all three expressions together. This gives
2-
(3.40a)
(3.40b)
a~
at
(3.46a)
or
(3.46b)
(3.40c)
in which
Rotations
2w = - - -
ae
az
=(A+ G)-+ GV w
Strains
au
and
A=
ae
ay
=(A+ G)-+ GV v
and
(3.38c)
E
(3.42)
(3.38a)
(3.38b)
79
v' = _A_+_2_G_
(3.41a)
(3.41b)
(3.41c)
in which Wx, WY, and Wz are rotations about the x, y, and z axes, respectively. Now, by substituting appropriate expressions from Eqs. (3.38),
(3.39), and (3.40) into Eq. (3.37a), we obtain
'
(3.47a)
(1- v)
2
V' = -p(701-'=+C"--=;v)7( 1;-'---'-.,-2'v)
in which E, is the constrained modulus.
E,
p
(3.47b)
80
81
v;
If _v is equal to zero,
will be equal to Elp and V, is equal to the
veloe1ty of the compressive wave propagation in the rod, V, [Eq. (3.8)]. For
v greater than zero, V, is greater than V,.
The second solution of the equations for motion can be obtained by
differentiating Eq. (3.43) with respect to z and Eq. (3.44) with respect toy
and then eliminating E' by subtracting these two equations. Proceeding in this
manner, we get
P
!.'._ (aw
at'
_av)
cv'(aw
_av)
ay
az
ay
az
=
a2-wx
p -,- =
at
wx from Eq.
~
>
>I>'
(3.48)
"
>
(3.41a), we get
S waves
R waves
G'i/
2-
Wx
0.3
0.2
0.5
Poisson's Ratio, v
or
Figure 3.1 0. Rel~tion between Poisson's ~tj9- v and velocities of propagation of compression
(P), shear (S), and Rayleigh (R) waves in a'<se:!lli~infinite elastic medium. (After Richart, 1962.)
(3.49)
Similar expressions can be obtained for w and
rotation is propagated with velocity V, given' by,
V'= G
'
w,,
(3.30a)
'
~z(r1~;J
(3.50)
different velocities. However, the particle motion associated with the compression wave in the rod and the dilatational wave in the infinite medium is
the same, but the wave-propagation velocities are different. In the rod,
= Elp, but in the infinite medium,
= E,lp. Therefore, the compression wave travels faster in the infinite medium than in a rod. This is true
because no lateral displacements are possible in the former but are possible
in the latter. The second (distortional) type of wave propagates at the same
velocity (V; = G/p) in both the rod and the infinite medium.
It will be seen from Eq. (3.47b) that if v = 0.5, V,-> oo and E,-> oo.
Because water is relatively incompressible compared to soil, measurement
of the velocity of a compression wave in water-saturated soil is not a
representative wave velocity for soil but for water. Because water has no
shear strength and has a zero value of the shear modulus, the velocity of a
shear wave in water-sal!l,rated soil represents the soil property only. This
fact has to be kept in mind when one plans wave velocity measurements for
determination of soil moduli.
Figure 3.11 shows plots of shear wave velocity and void ratio at several
confining pressures for sands (Hardin and Richart, 1963). Table 3.1lists the
velocity of wave propagation for compression and shear waves for different
materials at different strain levels and confining pressures (Prakash and
Puri, 1981).
v;
v;
"
N
Table 3.1. Velocity of Shear and Compression Waves through Different Materials
Soil Type
Range of
Dynamic Shear
Modulus G (kg/em')
for Effective
Confining Pressure
of 1 kg/em'
Associated
Strain
Level
Shear Wave
Velocity V,
(m/sec)
Poisson's
Ratio
(Assumed)
Velocity V,
(m/sec)
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
553
to
3146
3.9 X 10-'
to
1.3 X 10-'
167.7
to
400.0
0.30
313.7
77.5
to
221.5
1.049 X 10-'
to
1.1 X 10-'
63.3
to
107.0
0.35
Silty sand
G, ~ 2.61
r ~ 1.80
e ~ 0.72
~30.5
w, ~ 18.6%
186.9
to
587.0
1.63
101.0
to
179.0
0.35
210.0
to
373.0
131.8
to
306
87.0
to
133.0
0.33
173.0
to
264.0
82.0
to
218.0
0.30
164.0
to
433.0
79.0
to
335.0
0.30
148.0
131.5
to
328.0
0.35
~32'
w,
Compression
Wave
to
748.3
15.2%
X 10-'
to
1.5 to w-'
1.8
10-'
to
4.2 x w-
X
131.8
to
222.70
------
Medium sand
G, =2.58
r ~ 1.79
e ~ 0.71
~30
w,
3.0 X 10-'
to
3.0 X 10- 5
136.3
to
2442.0
1.03
...,,,
19.2
122.9
to
867.3
X 10-'
to
1 X 10- 6
to
627.0
....
,j."
'~.
322.2
to
200
1.5 x 10_'
to
1 X 10- 6
~0.69
=30'
w, ~ 17.6%
a Gs =specific gravity of particles; y =bulk density of soil; e =void ratio; =angle of internal friction; we =water content.
"w
274.0
to
683.0
84
.2
0
o~~~~~L-~--~
0.3
Void ratio
(b)
space, another type of wave, the Rayleigh wave shows up. The motion of a
Rayleigh wave is confined to a zone near the boundary of the half space or
the ground surface. The solution for this wave was obtained by Rayleigh
(1885) and later described in detail by Lamb (1904). The study of waves
propagating in a zone close to the surface is of practical interest in the study
of the machine foundations. The effect of the free surface of the soil
medium on the propagation of waves in soil will now be described.
The half space may be defined in the xy plane only with z axis assumed
positive in the downward direction (Fig. 3.12). For a plane wave traveling in
tbe x direction, particle displacement is independent of y. If the displacements in the directions of x and z are represented by u and w,
respectively, and v is equal to 0, then
au= aw =0
ay
" ..........
,....,...._
.............................. _
'...f:.s~
................................
..............
-.........
_
----
-.. ........
'.fl..0 Pst
If tbe action of body forces is neglected, the equations of wave propagation are the,.same as Eqs. (3.42) and (3.44).
":?'
?.~'.:'t
- .l:
2
a.
a
u
2
(A+ G) -a + GV u = p - 2
(3.42)
x
at
ae
.3Q
-....._Pst
-..-.Iooa
(3.51)
ay
+'
-'--fooo
........... -..
85
a2 w
(3.44)
-...._Pst
Sao
--
-.._pst
400,~-n~-n~-n~~~~~~~~L_~L__j~--~~
0.3 0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
Void ratio
Ia I
Figure 3.11 . Variation of shear wave velocity and shear modulus with void ratio and confining
pressure for dry round and angulargrained sands. (After Hardin and Richart, 1963.)
dastlc body are of httle value. Because machine foundations are supported
m the soil at a shallow depth, the boundary conditions approximating this
SituatiOn are those of a semi-infinite half space. It will be assumed that the
?'led~um
mfimte medium (Section 3.2), it was shown that there are two types of body
waves: the compressiOn wave and the shear )'lave. In case of an elastic half
86
a<P*
ax
alj;*
az
u=--+--
(3.57a)
f3'=x'-k'
(3.57b)
f
(3.52b)
in which <I>* and if;* are analytic functions. Since the z axis is perpendicular
to the soil surface and is positive downwards, then for all points in the soil, z
is greater than zero. If the steady-state propagation of the waves has a
frequency of w, the functions <l:>* and if;* can be expressed as
and
(3.52a)
and
a<P* alj;*
w=----az
ax
h'
a 2 =x 2
(3.53a)
and
(3.59)
The stresses JZ,.and
"'
T"
(3.53b)
T,
(3.54a)
The equations that should be satisfied by the functions <I> and if; then are
(V' 2 + h 2 )<P = 0
(]', =
(3.54b)
(3.60a)
(3.60b)
axaz
ax
and
and
(V' 2 + k 2 )1j; = 0
87
By substituting the expressions for </> and if! from Eqs. (3.56) into the
right-hand sides of Eqs. (3.60) at z = 0, we get
in which
(3.61a)
(3.55)
and
where w is equal to 2Tr!T, in which Tis the period of the propagated waves.
Then his equal to 2Tri(VJ) and k is equal to 2Tri(V;T). Now, VJ and V,T
r~present the wavelengths of lo~gitudinal and transverse waves, respectively. Therefore, h and k are reciprocal values of the wavelengths, and k is
always larger than h.
Particular solutions of Eqs. (3.54a and b) may ~:)!' assumed as
(3.56a)
Uo
= G
(3.61b)
Therefore, we obtain
(3.62a)
and
and
B=(~t~)(~)
(3.56b)
where
(2x - k )A + 2ix(3B
where
(3.62b)
88
89
F(x)
(2x
k')'- 4x'af3
(3.63)
(2
X -
F(x)
(3.67)
x may
(3.64a)
and
F(x)f(x)
w =a
J+- x[(2x
-00
(3.65a)
__!__
J+" a[ -(2x
2.,.0 -
f(x)
k')B
(3.66a)
and
(3.66b)
Equations (3.66a and b) will give nontrivial solution for A and B only when
the determmant of this system equals zero. This leads to
k')x'
( h2) K_6J= 0
K_4 - 16 1 - k
k'
(3.69)
Since k is greater than h, one of the roots of Eq. (3.68) lies between 1
and +oo. It
be shown that th<\:"other two roots, if real, lie between zero
and h 21k'.
The first root corresponds to positive values of a and {3; and therefore, it
does not satisfy the condition f(x) = 0. The last two roots make a and {3
positive and imaginary and, therefore, they do not satisfy the equation
F(x) = 0. This equation has only one root, x' =A 2;t which is greater than
one. Therefore, A2 is greater than k'. For a Poisson's ratio of 0.5, the real
root of Eq. (3.68) is Alk = 1.04678. When vis equal to 0.25, all roots ofEq.
(3.68) are real and are equal to
gn.
A2
1
4
(3.70a)
~ (3- YJ)
(3.70b)
4 (3+YJ)
and
1
(3. 70c)
Of these roots, onl~;the last one satisfies the conditions of this problem.
Its value is
A
in which
k'
-2ixaA + (2x 2
h )(x
(3.68)
Free surface waves occur where they are induced by some initial excitement
on the border surface. Assuming, u 0 = 0, for this case, the values of
constants A and Bin Eqs. (3.61a) and (3.61b) may be determined from the
followmg expressiOns:
k'
and
w = _
(2x'- k 2 ) 4 -16(x 2
(3.64b)
In_ order to tra~sform the exciting force into one that acts along the line
x- o, z= 0 (Fig. 3.12), assume that u 0 is equal to - P(dx/2.,.). By
subshtutmg th1s expressiOn mto the right-hand side of Eq. (3.64) and
mtegratmg With respect to x from +oo to -oo, we obtain the following
expressiOns for the displacements u and w:
u = __!!'__
2.,.0
k = 2 V3+ Y3 = 1.087664
Similarly, if we designate
1 A is a root of Eq. (3.68) satisfying the required conditions.
(3.71)
90
(3.72)
Ia)
s -wave
P-wave
A=_":_
VR
91
(+away)
R -wave
./'>-
vR =Ak v;
for v
= 0.5,
for v
0.25,
(3.73)
Minor tremor
VR
0.9553V:
VR
0.9194V,
Thus, it is seen that the velocity of surface waves propagation is somewhat smaller than that of shear or transverse waves. Therefore Vn is less
than v;. A plot of VRIV: for different values of vis sketched in Fig. 3.10
(Richart, 1962).
It is thus seen that there are three principal waves in an elastic half space.
These ':av~s tra~el at different velocities. Knowing their velocities, it is easy
to prediCt m which order the waves will arrive at a given point as a result of
a disturbance at another point.
Major tremor--\
(b)
{+down)
\_
Particle motion
lei
Lamb (1904) studied in detail the surface motion that occurs long distances
away from a pomt source at the surface of an elastic half space. When a
pomt source acts at the surface, the disturbance spreads out in the form of
~ymmetncal annular waves. The initial form of these waves depends on the
mput Impulse. When the input is of short duration, the characteristic waves
shown m Fig. 3.13a develop (Richart et al., 1970). These waves have three
salient features which correspond to the arrivals of the P-wave, S-wave, and
Raylmgh (R) wave. The horizontal and vertical components of particle
motwn are shown m Figs. 3.13a and b, respectively.
At the ~urface, a particle first undergoes an oscillatory lateral dismen! on arnval of the P-wave. This is followed by another oscillation at the
arnval of the S-wave after a relatively quiet period. This is then followed by
an oscdlatwn of much larger magnitude when the R wave arrives. With
mcreasmg distance from the source, the time interval between wave arrivals
becomes greater and the amplitude of the oscillations becomes smaller. In
additiOn, P-wave and S-wave amplitudes decay rapidly compared to that of
an R-wave. Therefore: the R-wave is the most significant disturbance along
the surface of an elas!Jc half space. At large distances from the source, this
wave may be the only clearly distinguishable wave.
If ~he h~rizo?tal and vertical components of the particle motion starting
at pomt 1 m Figs. (3.13a and b) are combined, the locus of the surfaceparticle motion for the R wave can be drawn as shown in Fig. 3.13c. The
path of the particle motion is a retrograde ellipse.
Figure 3.13. Wave system from surface point source in ideal medium. (After Richart, Hall and
Woods, 1970, p. 90, Reprinted by Permission of Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., After
Lamb, 1904.
3.4
of
'
ii .
92
r-2
r-2
3.5
Circular footing
Geometrical
damping law
r-0.5
-c--ov =
0.25
Relative amplitude
Percent of
Wave Type
(a)
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
.--
P-
FINAL COMMENTS
Solutions for the velocity of the P wave and the S wave (body waves) and
the propagation of the R wave (the surface wave) have been described.
Importance of the wave propagation phenomenon to the study of machine
foundations bas been discussed. In studying wave propagation caused by a
vibrating footing, it has been assumed tbat the footing is circular and placed
at the surface of a semi-infinite elastic half space. In practice, a footing is
more often rectangular than circular. Also, a footing is always embedded a
certain depth below the ground level. Nevertheless, the study of the
problem as a simplified case, as in the preceding discussion, does not reduce
its practical value. In fact, the departure in the actual results as compared
with the analytical predictions based upon simplified assumptions helps in
advancing the state of the art in two ways:
total energy
~ ~ r-----1----'~=:::.__j
S
93
Rayleigh
67
Shear
Compression
26
7
(b)
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
3.1
level.
3.4 If the Poisson's ratio of sand is 0.3, estimate the compression wave
velocity in Problem 3.3.
94
3.5 If the sand gets fully submerged, will tbe shear wave velocity be
altered? Justify your answer.
3.6 Compute the new shear wave velocities in Problem 3. 3.
3.7 Discuss the effect of saturation on tbe compression wave velociiy in
soils.
3.8 (a) A circular footing is vibrating in the vertical direction on the
surf~ce of elastiC half space. Describe schematically the dispersion
of v1bratwns and several wave fronts generated
(b) Explain what you understand by geometrical tktmping.
.
.
I.
'
4
Dynamic Soil Properties
REFERENCES
Ba~kan, D. D. (1962). "Dynamics of Bases and Foundations." McGraw-Hill, New York.
Ewmg, W. M., _Jardetzky, W. S., and Press, F., (1957). "Elastic Waves in Layered Media"
McGraw-Hill, New York.
as.
Miller, _G. F., and Pursey, H. (1954). The field and radiation impedance of mechanical
radtators on the free surface of a semi-infinite isotropic solid Proc R Soc Londo S A
223, 521-554.
n, er.
Mille~,
?:
Pori, V. K.. (1981). Dynamic properties of soils from in situ test. J. Geotech
ng. Drv., Am. Soc. Ctv. Eng. 107 (No. GT-7), 943-963.
'
ay!Leighd, L. M(l885). On waves propagated along the plane surface of an elastic solid Proc
Goodie~,
Zoeppritz, K. (1919). Nachr. Konigl. Ges. Wiss. GOttingen Math._ Phys., Berlin, pp. 66--
94
96
lion parameters, are beyond the scope of this text and are discussed in detail
elsewhere (Prakash, 1981).
4.1
Loading
mm
Pressure
gauge
rubber membrane
Water
Pore-pressure
gauge
97
Most soils are saturated at some time during the design life of a structure.
Drainage conditions before and during shear influence the shear characteristics of saturated soils. In shear tests, soils are first subjected to normal
or confining stress, which is usually maintained at a constant level. An
increasing deviator (shear) stress is then applied. Shear tests have been
devised to measure the shear characteristics of soils under three different
drainage conditions as follows:
1. Unconsolidated-undrained test or "quick test": In these tests, no
drainage is ~ermitted under conlli)fng pressure or during shear. Thus, the
normal load is not transferred to the soil grains as intergranular pressure but
exists as hydrostatic excess pore pressure. It cannot, therefore, mobilize any
frictional resistance. Preventing drainage during shear prevents volume
changes that might otherwise take place.
2. Consolidated-undrained test or "consolidated quick test": In these
tests, soils are allowed to drain (consolidate) under applied confining
pressure, and no drainage is permitted during shear. Although volume
changes can occur during normal loading, these are not possible during
shear. This, however, leads to development of pore pressures during shear.
3. Drained test or "slow test": In these tests, full drainage (consolidation)
is allowed under confining pressure. Free drainage is also permitted during
shear, so that excess hydrostatic pressure does not exist in the pores of the
soil, and all stresses are integranular throughout.
With the triaxial apparatus, volume changes in the drained tests are
measured by the amount of water that flows into or out of a calibrated
burette.
In undrained tests, Jhe volume change tendencies of the soil result in
generation of pore wiler pressures that can be measured by an electronic
pore pressure transducer, manometer, or other suitable type of pressure
gauge.
To cell pressure
control
Mercury
200
98
160
Effective stress
circle
'\;/
80
0~
0
40
Total
~'Dense
120
stress circle
..L
1r
Consolidated-Undrained Test on Saturated Cohesive Soil. In a consolidated-undrained test, all-around pressure, <r3 , is applied, and the induced
pore pressures are allowed to dissipate (consolidate) so that <T3 becomes the
effective pressure. Next, the sample is sheared under undrained conditions.
Fig. 4.4a shows the variation of the void ratio with <T3 .
In Fig. 4.4b, total and effective stress circles are plotted for two clay
samples that were initially consolidated by chamber pressures of a-31 and u 32 .
The Mohr strength envelopes of total and effective stresses are drawn in
continuous and dotted lines, respectively. In this particular case, the mag-
20
0.85
25
0
35
30
--
Loose
oens:
Unconsolidated-Undrained Test on Saturated Soils. When an all around
incremental stress Ll.<r3 is applied to a saturated soil sample, and the drainage
is not permitted, the entire incremental stress is taken up by pore water as
pore pressure Aua, and tlua = Aa3 . Next, the deviator stress, a-1 - a 3 , is
applied until failure occurs. Drainage is not permitted during this stage of
the test either.
In Fig. 4.2, circle 1 represents the Mohr circle of total stresses at failure.
If an undrained test is repeated on a similar sample with a different
confining pressure (circle 2) and the Mohr strength envelope is plotted, it
will be a straight line parallel to the <T axis. Because any variation in
chamber pressure simply changes the pore pressure while the effective
stresses inside the sample remain constant, only one circle of effective
stresses can be obtained from such tests. If the stress-strains are plotted for
each of the tests with a different value of <T3 , only one such curve will be
obtained.
The strength as well as the rigidity (slope of the stress-strain diagram) in
such a test is governed by the effective stress condition in the field prior to
testing.
Figure 4.3 shows the stress-strain curves for the undrained triaxial
compression of a saturated sand (Leonards, 1962).
ILoose
10
-40
-80
0.75
15
'-...
r<e
10
e0
15
lQ.
20
f
30
25
35
StreS~._strain
curves for undrained
triaxial compression of a saturated sand. (After
.
_
,, . "
F1gure 4 . 3 .
Leonards, 1962; Bishop and Henkel, 1957)."
~
I
"'
(a)
- - - Effective stress
- T o t a l stress
'
u31
1132
(b)
Figure 4.4. (a) Void ratio vs. confining pressure; (b) Mohr's plots for consolidated undrained
tests.
99
100
25
20
15
,,.
..1'1'
iil 0'3
Chamber pressure
10 f-- varied between 30.5 1-_ and ~2.0 I~ per sq in.
5
35
sl'
I....- ......,
ol\
'
( 4.1)
;::.;::;:~dtr3
and
(4.2)
II
F_igure 4.~. Plot of undrained cylindrical compresSIOn test m which pore-pressure values are observed.
(After Taylor, 1948.)
2
0
son's ratio are not constants for a soil but, rather, are quantities that
approximately describe the behavior of a soil for a particular set of stresses,
loading conditions, and geometry. The different values of the modulus and
Poisson's ratio apply for any other set of loading conditions.
The terms tangent modulus and secant modulus are used frequently.
Tangent modulus is the slope of the tangent to a stress-strain curve at a
particular point on the curve (Fig. 4.6). The value of a tangent modulus will
vary with the point selected. The tangent modulus at the initial point of the
curve is known as the initial tangent modulus. Secant modulus is the slope of
a straight line connecting two separate points of a stress-strain curve. Based
on a linear stress-strain relationship, the following elastic constants can be
defined.
If a uniaxial stress a, is applied to an elastic cylinder (Fig. 4.7a), there
will be a vertical compression and a lateral expansion such that
.,
101
10
15
in which ex, eY, and ez ar~ the strains in the x, y, and z directions,
respectively (considered positive when compressive), E is Young's modulus
of elasticity, and vis the Poisson's ratio.
If shear stresses r,x are applied to an elastic cube (Fig. 4.7b), there will be
a shear distortion Yu such that
(4.3)
in which G is the shear modulus.
Tangent
modulus
Secant
modulus
4.2
The ?ehavior of a soil is nonlinear from the time a stress is applied. For
f.~~c!Ical p~rposes, the actual nonlinear stress-strain curves of a soil are
Strain ~
Figure 4.6.
102
DYNAMIC SOIL PROPERTIES
103
( 4.5d)
Uniaxial
Young's
loading
modulus
E!!l
(4.5e)
(a)
and
Simple
Shear
modulus
G Tu
-"f..
shear
(b)
(4.5f)
The volumetric strain is given by
Isotropic
compression
3<,
av
Constrained
compression
modulus
..
ux:''5.:TY
= 3e, =
= uz = cr0
3CTo
= Tyz = Tzx
= 0, the
(1- 2v)
"
2(1 + v)
(4.4)
O"o
Eb = 3e, =
ao
aviV
E
3(1- 2v)
(4.5a)
(4.7)
which gives
(4.5b)
(4.5c)
( 4.6)
Still another special modulus is the constrained modulus E,, which is the
ratio of axial stress to axial strain for confined compression or zero lateral
strain (Fig. 4.7d). This modulus can be computed from Eq. ( 4.5c) by letting
ex = ey = 0 in Eqs. 4.5a and b. Thus,
ca:or an elastic and isotropic material with all stress components acting, we
employ the pnnc1ple of superposition to obtain the various strain
components:
e, =
Txy
G=
eY
and
~-,,..,-,-.,-fil Ec .!!...
theEquations (4.l) through ( 4.3) defined the three basic constants of the
odrydofbelaslJcJty: E, G, and v. Actually, only two of these constants are
nee e , ecause they are related as follows:
ex=
(4.5g)
s.!!
Confined
Figure 4.7.
modulus
(c)
(d)
av
-=e
+eJ +e
v
Bulk
E,
(1- v)
(1 + v)(1-2v)
(4.8)
Uniaxial loading and confined compression involve both shear strain and
105
Condition
Shear
Volumetric
Uniaxial
loading
~(1-2v) u<
E
u<
Confined
compression
(1
'Ymax
2G
+ v)(1- 2v)
E(1- v)
(1- 2v)
Tmax
u<
u<
1-
1J
(1- 2v)
1- ll
max
.rg' psi
( 4.9)
1/2.
Table 4.1. Values of k
k
Plasticity Index PI
4.3
Based on the study of dynamic elastic constants, the factors on which these
depend are (Hardin and Black, 1968):
1. Type of soil and its properties (for example, water content and yd) and
state of disturbance;
2. Initial (sustained) static stress level or confining stress;
3. Strain level;
4. Time effects;
5. Degree of saturation;
6. Frequency and number of cycles of dynamic load;
7. Magnitude of dynamic stress; and
8. Dynamic prestrain.
0
0.181
0.30
0.41
0.48
0.50
0 ' ,.
20 ";""
40
60
80
>100
Source: Hardin 1978.
F(e)
Pa
)I-n(U: )"
( 4.10)
F(e)
0.3 + 0.7e
(4.11)
in Eq. (4.10). The function F(e) is more convenient to use than the void
ratio function in Eq. (4.9), but it gives about the same effect as em the
range 0.4 < e < 1.2. For very large values of e, Eqs. (4.9) and ( 4.10) g~e
monotonically decreasing values of Gm" whereas Eq. ( 4.9) g1ves Gm" -0
for e=2.973, and Gm"' increasing for e>2.973. Equation (4.10) will
approximate Eq. (4.9) for 0.4 < e < 1.2 if one makes n = 0.5 and A = 625
106
( 4.12)
=
max
max
-4
-
(2.97- e)
1+ e
2
( _
)o.s
lTo
( 4.13)
= 900 (2.17- e)
l+e
2
(-
)o.3s
Uo
(4.14)
For shearing strains of 10- 4, their results agree with those of Eq. (4.12).
The precoiding expressions inyatiably point out the fact that Gm, is
proportional to ( 0'0 )". The value of'n has been recommended as 0.5 by most
investigators. Therefore, if the shear modulus is determined at a mean
effective confining pressure of ( 0'0 ) 1 , its value at any other mean effective
confining pressure (0'0 ) 2 can be determined from Eq. (4.15):
l'I 3
~0
326
for angular sands. In Eqs. (4.12) and (4.13), G and 0'0 are expressed in
terms of kg/ cm 2 Both equations were originally established to correspond
to shearing strains of 10- 4 or less. Equation (4.12) yields values slightly
lower than those obtained by pulse tests (Whitman and Lawrence, 1963).
Iwasaki and Tatsuoka (1977) determined experimentally from tests on clean
sands (0.61 < e < 0.86 and 0.2 < 0'0 < 5 kg/ cm 2 ) at shearing strain amplitudes of 10- 6 that
G
r;;gl
li2l
f712
I2J
107
2000
!i
a:
(4.15)
(.)
....1
CJ
0.5
1.0
Void ratio
Figure 4.8.
lab
"It
"I
andclays2 1 b 1
d
b
,sr ysan s,srts,
.
' :-a ' c ean san s; 3- 1a , dense, well-graded graveiMsand with some fines; 4-lab
~~labvely u~rform clean gravels; F~-field, silty. sands, silts, and days at Ferndale, Cholame,
and
150
(4.15)
Strain Level. The other important factor affecting soil modulus is strain
level. Ishihara (1971) presented Fig. 4.9, which indicates strain levels
associated with different phenomenon in the field and in corresponding field
and laboratory tests. Typical variations of G versus shear strain amplitude
for different types of in situ tests are shown in Fig. 4.10. The soil modulus
values may vary by a factor of 10, depending upon the strain level.
It is customary to plot a graph between normalized modulus (defined as
G-value at a particular,,~train, divided by Gm, at a strain of 10- 6 ) and shear
strain. One such plot is shown in Fig. 4.11.
The shear strains induced in soil may not be precisely known (Prakash
and Puri, 1981). In the case of wave propagation tests, the shear strain
amplitudes are low and are assumed to be of the order of 10- 6 The shear
strains induced in soil essentially depend upon the amplitude of vibration or
settlement, which in turn depends upon superimposed loads, the foundation
109
1.2,-------,,---------,-----,------,------,
Magnitude of strain
ta,'
ta,-'
w-4
10-3
10- 2
w-'
Phenomena
Cracks, differential
settlement
Slide,
compaction,
!iquifacation
Mechanical
characteristics
Elastic
E!asticplastic
Failure
Constants
Angle of
internal friction
cohesion
Seismic wave
method
e
a"
0
in situ
vibration test
;;; f
.s
~
E
--,
Repeated
loading test
Wave propagation
test
~~
o E
Resonant
column test
~0 f,
.0~
j~
Figure 4.11.
Repeated
loading test
Figure 4.9.
No~;lized
shear modulus
(t;)gmaJ
Strain levels associated with different in situ and laboratory tests. {After Ishihara,
1971.)
"oor---r-~--r-rr--~--,-Tl-r--,---~~==~==~---,,---.---,-,-,
0 fo(t:edv'lbrotloot"
6 F,..e vibration tot
0 Cyclic plate lood tost
,ooo~'---+--4-~-4-~-+--~---f-tf---~~~~~M;"~oo~"~'"~"~'"~,_f-1~--~--~~tj
l;-t---r-1
1600
= aY,
and ez is given by
r-
8'
(4.17)
O'z -
'Ye =
O'x
2G
:~ y,
(<T,- <TJ(1 + v)
-=
e,
(<T,- 2v<Tx)
( 4.18)
( 4.19a)
or
'Yo
E,
Figure 4.1 0.
108
Dynamic shear modulus vs. strain. {After Prakash and Puri, 1980; Prakash, 1981.)
( 1- "x)(l + v)
----".2'-------
(4.19b)
110
If the
then the
If one
principal
and the value of y 0 /e, will depend upon the value of the angle of internal
friction of soil,</>, and the Poisson's ratio, v. Typical values of y0 /e, are listed
in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2. Typical Values of y0 /E,
Angle of Internal
Friction, cf>
(I)
v = 0.25
v = 0.33
v = 0.45
v = 0.5
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
25
30
35
45
0.9317
!.00
!.054
!.097
1.014
1.142
1.183
1.2!6
1.35
1.38
1.398
1.41
!.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
111
It was found that for most soils the time-dependent behavior at low strain
levels can be characterized by an initial phase when a modulus changes
rapidly with time. This is followed by a second phase when the modulus
increases almost linearly with the logarithm of the time (Fig. 4.12). For the
most part, the initial phase results from the void ratio changes and iucrease
in effective confinement during primary consolidation. The second phase, in
which the modulus increases almost linearly with the logarithm of time, is
believed to result largely from any decrease in void ratio and changes in the
soil structure due to a strengthening of the physico-chemical bonds in the
case of cohesive soils and an increase in particle contact for cohesionless
soils. This phase proceeds at a constant confining stress and is referred to as
the long-term time effect. The long-term effect represents the increase in the
modulus with time that occurs after primary consolidation is completed.
Two methods are used to describe the long-term time effects. The
long-term effect is expressed in an absolute sense as a coefficient of shear
modulus increase with time, 10 . That is,
( 4.21)
in which t 1' t2 are the times after primary consolidation, and
!:J.G is the
.
change in low-amplitude shear modulus from t 1 to t 2 (Fig. 4.12). Numerically, I a equal the value of G for one logarithmic cycle of time. The
long-term effect is also expressed in relative terms by the normalzzed shear
modulus increase with time, Na That is,
( 4.22)
~
~
/';G
G- LOG 10 (t 2tt 1l
ao "' CONSTANT
y < J0-3%
.,;
~
~
c~
c
~
oc
:::;
~
"'
10'
102
103
t1
10 4
"'
Specimen Type
(kN/m')'
Low-Amplitude
Shear Modulus
2
G 1000 (kN lm Y
Vacuum extruded
Compacted by
raining and
tamping
200 to 300
70 to 280
140000 to 190000
50 000 to 180 000
Kaolinite
Bentonite
Vacuum extruded
70 to 550
Agsco sand
Ottawa sand
Compacted by
raining and
tamping
70 to 280
50000 to 110000
Confining
Pressure
Soil Type
EPK kaolinite
Ottawa sand
Quartz sand
Quartz silt
Typical
Typical
N'G
(kNim')'
(%)
24 000 to 35 000
1400 to 5500
17 to 18
1 to 11
1000 to 8500
5 to 25
2000 to 10 000
1 to 17
Reference
Hardin and Black (1968)
Afifi and Woods (1971)
Dry clay
Air-dried EPK
Kaolinite
Saturated EPK
Kaolinite
Vacuum extruded
~~~",-,.~~~
i''""~"'c''S,--- --'-
Undisturbed a
70 to 220
2000 to 22 900
1 to 14
Silty sand
Sandy silt
Clayey silt
Shale
Boston blue clay
9 Clays
1 Silt
Clay fills
Decomposed marine
limestone
San Francisco Bay mud
Dense silty sand
Stiff OC' clay
Undisturbed a
Undisturbedd
70 to 700
35 to 415
32 500 to 54 000
13 000 to 235 000
=7000
26 OOO!'to 23 500
15 to 18
2 to 40
Undisturbedd
Undisturbedd
35 to 70
325 to 830
4200 to 15 000
28 000 to 102 000
7 to 14
3 to 4
17 to 550
220 to 620
1280 to 1300
725 to 32 000
5000 to 17 000
14 000 to 26 000
8 to 22
4 to 10
4 to 8
Lodde (1977)
Fugro, Inc, (1977)
Fugro, Inc, (1977)
ltJndisturbedd
Undisturbedd
Undisturbedd
Source: Anderson and Stokoe, 1977, copyright ASTM. Reprinted with permission.
"I a defined by Eq, (01),
"NG defined by Eq, (422),
-"'
-~~,""""'""'''
;;1,
'i
115
114
in which G 1000 is the shear modulus measured after 1000 minutes of constant
confining pressure (after completion of the primary consolidation).
The duration of primary consolidation and the magnitude of the longterm time effect vary with such factors as soil type, initial void ratio,
undrained shearing strength, confining pressure, and stress history. Figure
4.13 shows typical time-dependent modulus responses for different soils.
Typical values of Ic and Nc are given in Table 4.3.
The shape of tbe low-amplitude modulus-time graph at a constant
confining pressure depends primarily on whether the soil is predominantly
fine-grained (silts and clays) or coarse-grained (sands).
Figure 4.14a illustrates typical changes in the shear modulus of a clay with
time at a constant confining pressure. The two distinct phases of modulustime response are clear from this figure. First, during primary consolidation,
values of the shear modulus are initially constant. They then increase rapidly
and finally begin to level off. Second, during the long-term time effect,
values of the modulus increase linearly with the logarithm of time.
Figure 4.14b shows the vertical height change of the clay specimen during
the constant-pressure confinement. By comparing the height change results
with the modulus-time graph, it can be seen that the end of the initial phase
in the modulus-time graph coincides with the end of primary consolidation.
The point of transition in the modulus-time graph for this loading sequence
is defined as the end of primary consolidation. Therefore, modulus values
determined at a time before the end of the primary consolidation is
complete are at an effective stress less than that assumed, because excess
pore-water pressures still exist in the specimen.
During the long-term time effect phase of modulus response, the shear
6G DUE TO CHANGE
IN VOID RATIO
iG
,, - - - 151
Gtooo
--+-
lONG-TERM TIME
EFFECT
0,5
''
8
L~.::.:..:..:_.:.,-.__
101
'
___._,__
102
-:'::,---~
10 3
10
2.0
4
tO-WEEKS
SOl LS
at constant confining
Frgure 4 .14 Typical modulus and height changes with time for day
d h
)
<>
NC CLAYS
OC CLAYS
CLEAN SANOS
pressure. (After Anderson and Stokoe, 1977, copyright ASTM. Reprmte wrt permrssron.
5-20
3-10
.c
1-3
'
:'
SANDS :
OL-----~----~----~----~-----'
to 1
to2
toJ
to4
to5
Figure 4.13. Effect of confinement time on shear modulus. (After Anderson and Stokoe, 1977,
copyright ASTM. Reprinted with permission.)
116
12~-------,--------r--------r--------,
..
117
28
<
"'
.,;
0-
"'~
~
~
< 0
w z
%<
190
10-3,
ON
26
c,.
,.,
JD-
~ 61000
180
"'<,l.
co
25
Is
6G
N
lo
G .. G1000 ~"
.. LOG 10 (t 21t 1)
~X
~~
~
~
<
170
24
1
101
102
DURATION OF CONFINEMENT.
o,'--------~~--------~--------~.-------_j
1
1
10
10 2
10-4
103
DURATION OF CONFINEIIENT, t (MIN)
"''
DETROIT CLAY
%z
w~
::;
~
~~
We
~<
0
0%
~
"'
.,;
e0 = 0.5
27
~
~
~
<
0 0 .. 207 KN/111 2
'"'
t (min)
'"'
Figure 4.16. Typical modulus change with time for sand. (After Lodde, 1977; Anderson and
Stokoe, 1977, cbpyright ASTM. Reprinted;;,~~th permission.)
Fi~ure 4.15. Effect _of stress history on shear modulus~time relationship. (After Anderson and
Stokoe, 1977, copynght ASTM. Reprinted with permission.)
'
a
0 were
re uce relative to value of Ia and N 0 in the normally consolidated state.
A typiCal modulus-time graph of a coarse-grained soil is shown in Fig.
4.16. It can be se~n that the shape of the modulus-time response for the
~ohes10nless soil differs significantly from that of the fine-grained soil shown
m Fig. 4.14. For the sand, the primary consolidation phase is not evident
Rather, the long-term time effect had begun by the time the first mea:
sur~ment was made. The long-term time effect is, however, similar to that
which occurs for clays.
In Fig. 4.16, the linear increase in modulus with the logarithm of time
was momtored for ~bout 10,000 min. Values of I a and Na for this sand are
250 psi (1725 kN /m ) and 1.0 percent, respectively. These values are much
smaller than those shown for the clays in Figur<> 4.14a.
Moduli m~asured -~t sheari ng strain amplitudes between 0.001 and 0.1
3
percent (stram of 10 to
also increase with time.
The results of a number of tests show that long-term modulus increases
occur at low to mtermediate strain levels (0.001 to 0.1 percent) for stiffer
clays (Lodde, 1977). Preliminary results from long-term, high-amplitude
modulus tests on sand seem to indicate that long-term modulus increases
occur m clean, dry sands at strain amplitudes up to 0.1 percent as well.
w- )
119
118
pressure under working conditions in the field. The. sample is then subjected
to an axial stress equal to the anticipated statlc stress under workmg
conditions. Positive and negative values of a small mcrement . of load
corresponding to the loading levels in the .field should then be apphed (Fig.
4 18) It will be seen that initially the stram mcreases after each apphcat10n
. t
le But after 6 to 10 cycles the additional axial stram generally
of s ress eye .
'
.
d'
1
becomes negligible, and a closed loop on the loadmg-:-unloa mg eye e !S
obtained. The value of the modulus may then be determmed from the slope
of the line "aa" by using Eq. ( 4.23):
change in unit stress
Modulus= corresponding change in unit deformation
(4.24a)
k = LI.Z
ao
o-0 "" 1188 psf
'Yox = 1.6 X lQ-4
(4.23)
612 psf
'YOx = 1.6 X
w- 4
Figure 4.17.
I
I
low amplitude (C-190 Ottawa Sand, e0 =0.46, Hollow Cylindrical Specimens). (Drnevich, Hall,
and Richart, 1967. 1968 The University of New Mexico Press.)
"'
4.4
Static working
stress
Figure 4.18.
Ax,al stress vs. axial strain in a triaxial test using repeated static loading.
120
in which P is the load on the spring (Fig. 4.19b) and I!.Z is the change in
length of the spring.
Next, consider a plate of area A and thickness t that is subjected to a
pressure of umform intensity, p (Fig. 4.l9c). The change in the thickness of
the plate, l!.t, is given by
( 4.24b)
Because the total load P is pA, the above equation may be rewritten as
or
P
EA
-=-=k
l!.t
(4.25)
121
c" =
uniform compression ( p)
elastic settlement (s")
( 4.26)
';o,- '7
k'
load
elastic deformation
Therefore,
(4.27)
in which A is the area of the test plate or the foundation base.
2. Coefficient of Elastic Uniform Shear ( CJ:
(a)
uniform shear
(b)
C,
Tav
( 4.28a)
(4.28b)
~~~~~~~~
+
r'========-----V';
T
(c)
Figure 4.19.
Co~cept of spring constant in soil. (a) Unloaded spring (b) static deflecti
'
A .
on z,
3 & 4. Coefficient of Elastic Nonuniform Compression ( C1 ) and Coefficient of Elastic Nonuniform Shear ( C",). Because the elastic deformation is
not uniform over the base of the block as in cases 1 and 2, no simple
definitions for C<t> and C", can be given. However, definitions in terms of
mathematical quantities and overall displacements (rotations) of the block
and its geometry are given in Chapter 6 (Section 6.7).
The value of C, can be determined from Eq. (4.29) (Barkan, 1962)
122
DYNAMIC SOIL PROPERTIES
1.13 _1_
I - vz
VA
( 4.29)
LABORATORY METHODS
123
ultrasonic pulse test, (3) cyclic simple shear test, ( 4) cyclic torsional simple
shear test, and (5) cyclic triaxial compression test.
in which
4.5.1
E =Young's modulus
and
The value of C" varies inversely with the square root of the
f
h alrea o
contact of the foundation with the soil. Thus if C and C
c ffi t f 1
.
'
"'
u2 are t eva ues of
oe helen s o e asttc umform compression corresponding to areas A and
A 2 , t en
1
( 4.30)
However, for areas greater than 10m 2, A, is taken as !Om' only. This is
duhe to the fact that for large areas, soil rigidity and area effects cancel each
ot er.
The values of the different soil coefficients are approximately related to
each other as g1ven m Eq. (4.31) (Barkan, 1962)
c,- = ! cu
( 4.3!a)
C 4, = 2Cu
( 4.3!b)
C1,=0.75C"
( 4.3lc)
and
( 4.3ld)
may be used in calculation. Also these coefficients will vary with area as
does.
c
u
It may be pointed out that the equivalent soil springs essentially depend
ohn ttheffvaluEes of E and G. Therefore, they will be influenced by all factors
t a a ect
and G.
4.5
LABORATORY METHODS
The resonant column test for determining the modulus and damping characteristics of soils is based on the theory of wave propagation in prismatic rods
(Richart et a!., 1970). Either compression waves or shear waves can be
propagated through the soil specimen from which either the Young's
modulus or shear modulus can be determined.
Such a device consists essentially of a coil-magnet drive system, an
accelerometer or velocity transducer to monitor the motion of the drive
system, a linear variable differential transducer (LVDT) or other type of
displacement transducer to detect a change in the vertical height of the soil
specimen, and a confining chamber.
In the test setup, the coil-magnet drive system is attached to a top cap,
which is seated on a membrane-encased, cylindrical soil specimen. The soil
specimen can,be either hollow or sol~d, depending on the capabilities of the
particular test" device. The bast'''"pedestal, upon which the specimen is
placed, is connected to a drainage line. Filter paper strips may be used along
the length of the specimen to accelerate specimen consolidation. The top
cap and bottom pedestal are usually serrated or roughened in some manner
to assure good mechanical coupling between the soil and equipment. The
system is generally set up so that only a hydrostatic confining pressure can
be applied, although anisotropic loading conditions can be simulated in
some devices.
An electrical system is employed to operate and monitor. the resonantcolumn equipment. To obtain accurate shear wave velocity measurements, it
is necessary to use electronic equipment (Fig. 4.20). In such a system, a
signal generator supplies a sinusoidal voltage to the coils in the coil-magnet
drive system. The magnetic field induced by the current in the coils interacts
with the magnetic field from the permanent magnet, thereby resulting in a
torsional oscillation of the drive cap and specimen. By varying the frequency
of the input signal, the amplitude of vibration can be varied. An accelerometer (or velocity transducer) located on the top cap generates a
voltage proportional to the amplitude of vibration of the soil-top-cap
system. This signal is c~nditioned and then displayed on an oscilloscope.
The amplitude and freqlency of the signal at resonance are monitored. An
LVDT is used to monitor the changes in specimen height.
The purpose of the test is to vibrate the soil-top-cap system at the
first-mode resonance at which the material in a cross section at every
elevation vibrates in phase with the top of the specimen. The shear wave
velocity and shear modulus are then determined on the basis of system
constants and the sizes, shape, and weight of the soil specimen (Drnevich,
1977; Drnevich et al., 1977).
124
125
LABORATORY METHODS
r::::=~;t7'0(1,t)
SINE-lAVE
r--------1
VOLTitiE.TER
SINE-WAVE
GENERATOR
GENERATOR
O(l,tl
AHD
AMPLIFIER
FREQUENCY COUNTER
f----.--j
(a) J/Jo =
00
"-
.J
Weightless spring
CHARGE AMPLIFIER
~~O~,
OSCILLOSCOPE
Rigid mass
Dashpot
~I'
ORAl NAGE
The resonant column technique was first applied to testing soils by the
Japanese engineers Ishimoto and !ida (1937) and Iida (1938, 1940). About
20 years later, Shannon et al. (1959) and Wilson and Dietrich (1960)
described new applications of the resonant column principle (Woods, 1978).
It is possible to develop several versions of the resonant column test by
using different end conditions to constrain the specimen. Some common end
conditions are shown schematically in Fig. 4.21. Each configuration requires
a slightly different type of driving equipment and methods of data interpretation. The fixed-free apparatus is the simplest configuration in terms of
equipment and interpretation. Apparatus of this type was described by Hall
and Richart (1963). In the fixed-free apparatus shown in Fig. 4.21a, the
distribution of angular rotation 0 along the specimen is ~ sine wave, but by
adding a mass with mass polar moment, 10 at the top of the specimen as in
Fig. 4.21b, the variation of 0 along the sample becomes nearly linear. Later
models of the fixed-free device (Drnevich, 1967) take advantage of endmass effects to obtain uniform strain distribution throughout the length of
the specimen.
The apparatus in Fig. 4.21d has a fixed base and a top cap that is partially
restrained by a spring, which in turn reacts against an inertial mass. The
configuration of the apparatus shown in Fig. 4.21c can be described as the
spring-base model. The apparatus of the Shannon-Wilson device is of this
type, if the spring is considered stiff compared to the specimen's stiffness.
For a condition in which the spring is weak compared to the specimen, the
Specimen, nonrigid
distributed mass
Rigid mass
weightless spring
,J;
0/'Fixed
Orivingfo*
(c)
(d)
'
.
11 d
be
counter weight, but if !!>he changes the counterweight, an axm oa can
nt
applied to the specimen.
.
l
t' not
s own m Ig.
. 4 21b The average shearing strain on any honzonta cross s~c wn IS. .
F Ig.
d the sheanng stram IS
greatly different from the maximum or mtmmum, an
127
LABORATORY METHODS
DYNAMIC SOIL PROPERTIES
126
Permanant
Soil
spec'! men
Top cap
No. 28 gauge
winding wire
(b)
AA
-:+-~ .
f
t cOfutfin adapted for attenuation measurements. ( er
Figure 4.23. schematrcs o resonan
,, -Woods 1978.)
Bottom cap
Figure 4.22. Hollow specimen resonant column and torsional shear apparatus. (After
Drnevich, 1972.)
.
(W d 1978) but the technique still needs to be
oo s,
'
shear wave attenuation
perfected.
.b d
calibration procedure and aids for
that propagates either a rod
Drnevich et a!. (1977) descn e a t
reducing data derived from an appara u~
compression wave or a shear wave or bot .
4 .5.2
uniform along the height of the specimen. Drnevich also increased the
torque capacity of his device to produce "large" shearing strain amplitudes.
Anderson (1974) used a modified "Drnevich" apparatus to test clays at
shearing strain amplitudes up to 1 percent. Woods (1978) tested dense sands
on the same device at shearing strain amplitudes up to 0.5 percent at 40 psi
(276 kN 1m 2 ) confining pressure.
Lord et a]. (1976) suggested a technique to measure. attenuation as a
function of frequency in the resonant column apparatus. In the apparatus,
two straight lengths of coil winding wire are embedded a vertical distance d
apart in a soil specimen (Fig. 4.23a), which is excited longitudinally by short
pulses of different carrier frequencies. As the waves travel past the wires,
the wires move with the velocity of their neighboring soil particles. Because
the wires are in a magnetic field, they generate a voltage proportional to
their Velocities. The voltage is measured at two points a known distance
.
.
enerate and receive ultrasomc waves m
Piezoelectric crystals are used ~~Juce either compression or shear waves.
soils, and some of them can p
th t includes a pulse generator, an
Stephenson (1977) described a s:J~~s (t:ansmitter and receiver). The pulse
oscilloscope, ~nd two ultraso~iCt
direct current pulse to the transmittmg
enerator
dehvers
a
vanable
vo
tage,
.
ulse to the time base of the
g
d
.
1
th a 7-V tngger P
probe simultaneous y WI
h
dueled tests on unconfine
.
oscilloscope. With t~\s . apparatus, e con
specimens of cohesive 'soils. .
h . e is that it is difficult to identify and
One of the drawbacks of this tee mqu
More importantly the strain
a1 f es of the waves.
'
. h
interpret exact arnv
lm . d with this pulse technique, are only m t e
f the technique is that tests can be
amplitudes, which can be achieve
.
-n.
mary advantage o
.
llH
4.5.3
\ \((0\'0000\\
_,
Figure 4.24.
earthquake.
I v..-:;
II I
111111
A
I W//,
ru
'lll
Soil sample
Shearing chamber
Plan view
Soil deformation
Elevation
Figure 4 . 25 . Schematic diagram illustrating rotation of hinged end plates and soil deformation
in oscillatory simple shear. (After Peacock and Seed, 1968.)
Shear
stress
_L
X
Shear
strain
/;?5777747/
H
Idealized stress condition for an element of soil below ground surface during an
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.2&. (a) Stress-strain curve of a soil. (b) Bilinear model (After Thiers and Seed, 19&8.)
129
130
(1) modulus G, until a limiting strain 'Y, is reached, (2) modulus G 2 beyond
strain 'Yy, and (3) strain 'Yy
If the direction of strain is reversed, the behavior can again he determined hy using modulus G 1 until a strain change of 2y, is developed, and the
modulus G 2 again controls the behavior. This pattern is continued throughout the cycle.
Typical stress-strain plots taken from simple shear tests of San Francisco
Bay mud were made from the records of deformation and loads versus time
data for different cycles of loading. Figure 4.27 shows such plots for cycle 1,
cycle 50, and cycle 200, with about 4 percent shearing strain. The decrease
in peak load as the number of cycles increases is reflected by the progressive
flattening of the stress-strain curves. Similar tests were performed at different peak strains, and plots of the dynamic moduli G 1 and G 2 versus peak
strains are shown in Fig. 4.28.
However, in machine foundations, the magnitude of dynamic
(oscillatory) load is small compared to the static load (Fig. 4.18). Hence, the
stress-strain loops stabilizes after 6 to 10 cycles, and no further irrecoverable
deformations occur. Consequently, the modulus corresponding to that condition is adopted in machine foundation design. However, corrections for
confining pressure and other factors need to be applied, as described in
Sections 4.3 and 4.7.
A major drawback of most of the cyclic simple shear apparatus is that
they do not permit measurement or control of lateral confining pressures
during cyclic loading; therefore, it is impossible to investigate in detail the
effects that K0 -consolidation has on the behavior of a given soil.
40r-----.--,------,----,
"
~ 20~~~~~----+-------r------1
'0
E
u
r----~~~::;;r~~~~~~~
1u
"'
20
'
".2"
0
"0
10
E
u
'['
ro
>-
Shear
10
Peak strain,%
stress
131
LABORATORY METHODS
00
Peak strain,%
(b) Dynamic modulus G 2
(kgfcm 2)
Figure 4.28. Effect of cyclic loading on dynamic moduli. (a) Dynamic modulus G,. (b)
Dynamic modulus G2 (After Thiers and Seed, 1968.)
(a) Cycle 1
(b) Cycle 50
Figure 4.27. Stress-strain curves and bilinear models for San Francisco Bay mud. (a) Cycle no.
1. (b) Cycle no. 50. (c) Cycle no. 200. (After Thiers and Seed, 1968.)
132
lABORATORY METHODS
4.5.5
based on the same concept but use much shorter specimens, and the height
at the outside and inside diameters can be varied.
. The apparatus (Fig. 4.22) designed by Drnevich (1972) has an advantage
m that both resonant column and cyclic torsional shear tests can be
performed in the same device. Ishihara and Yasuda (1975) also used a long,
hollow, cyhndncal sample configuration as did Iwasaki et al. (1977). It is
difficult to prepare specimens for the long, hollow, cylindrical devices, and,
obviously, "undisturbed," cohesionless soils cannot be tested in this device.
However, Woods (1978) was able to trim hollow, cylindrical specimens of
many different types of soils.
The cyclic torsional simple shear devices of Yoshimi and Oh-Oka
Ishib~shi and Sherif, and Cho et al. were designed to generate uniforO::
sheanng strams throughout the wall of a cylindrical specimen whose bottom
or top surface was tapered (Fig. 4.29) so that the taper would be exactly
proportional to the inside and outside radii of the hollow cylinder. "Undisturbed" sp~cimens can be formed more easily for the size and configuration
of this device than for the devices which require taller hollow cylindrical
specimens. Although the initial shearing stress conditions in a short hollow
cylindrical specimen were described as uniform by Ishibashi and Sherif
(1974), Ladd and Silver (1975) noted that, because the shearing stresses on
each boundary are not the same, all initial stresses cannot be uniform
throughout a sample.
133
Cyclic triaxial tests have been extensively used to study the stress-deformation behavior of saturated sands and silts (Puri, 1984; Seed et al., 1986).
Also, Young's modulus E and the damping ratio ' have often been
measured in cyclic triaxial tests (Fig. 4.30) when strain-controlled tests have
been conducted. These tests are performed in essentially the same manner
as the stress-controlled tests for liquefaction studies. A servo-system is used
to apply cycles of controlled deformation. Young's modulus is determined
from the ratio of the applied axial stress to axial strain, and the shear
modulus is computed from Eq. ( 4.4).
As in all laboratory attempts to duplicate dynamic field conditions, cyclic
triaxial tests have limitations, among which are the following:
1. Shearing strain measurements below 10- 2 percent are generally difficult.
2. The extension and compression phases of each cycle produce different
results.(Annaki and Lee, 1977); therefore, the hysteresis loops are not
symmt!'fric in strain-controlleji tests, and samples tend to neck in
stress-controlled tests.
'
3. Void ratio redistribution occurs within the specimen during cyclic
testing (Castro and Poulos, 1977).
Vertical stress
---X
!t
Compression
~
Boundaries indicated by heavy lines
~//~>-~
0H 0H~u,
""
aH
IJH
""
'"
Figure 4.29. Specimen, cross section and initial stress distribution in a hollow cylindrical
sample with tapered ends. (After ladd and Silver, 1975.)
I
D _ _!___
Area of Hysteresis Loop
- 21r Area of Triangle OAB & OA'B'
Figure 4.30. Equivalent hysteretic stress-strain properties from cyclic triaxial test. (After Silver
and Park, 1975.)
134
FIELD METHODS
4. Stress concentrations occur at the cap and base of the specimen being
tested.
5. The principal stress changes direction by 90 during the test.
Void ratio distribution is common to all cyclic shear tests, whereas the
other limitations are related mostly to the cyclic triaxial test.
It is generally agreed that (Seed et al.. 1978; Annaki and Lee, 1977) for
an earthquake-type excitation of soils, cyclic simple shear or cyclic torsional
shear techniques are more appropriate than cyclic triaxial compression.
Wolfe et al. (1977) reported on their adaptation of the cyclic testing of a
cubical device developed by Ko and Scott (1968). Their results compared
favorably with cyclic triaxial compression tests, but problems remained
concerning specimen preparation and appropriate testing methods to simulate _field conditions correctly with this apparatus (Woods, 1978).
Silver (1981) prepared a table (Table 4.4) indicating the relative quality
of each test technique for measuring dynamic soil properties.
4.6
FIELD METHODS
The following methods for determining dynamic properties of soil are in use
in different parts of the world.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Brief descriptions of these tests along with the typical setups and methods
of interpretation of data are presented in the following pages.
{'''[ .
Table 4.4. Relative Quality of Laboratory Techniques for Measuring Dynamic Soil
Properties
4.6.1
Relative Quality of Test Results
Technique
(1)
Shear
Young's
Material
Modulus
Modulus
Damping
Effect of No.
of Cycles
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Good
Good
Good
Good
Resonant
column
with
adaptation
Ultrasonic
pulse
Cyclic
Fair
Fair
triaxial
Poor
Good
Good
Good
Good
Good
Good
Good
Good
Cyclic
torsional
shear
Fair
Good
Cyclic
simple
shear
Attenuation
(6)
There are several available field methods with which the dynamic soil
properties and damping of soils can be determined. Salient features of these
methods will now be described.
'"!;-~.:7
137
FIELD METHODS
136
S = Source
R = Receiver
(a) Up hole
Figure 4.32. (a) Up-hole and (b) down-hole techniques for measurement of velocity of wave
propagation.
Transducer
(((((~itcross~bore
Impulse rod
Recorder
~~~en
~1:)"
Trigger
geophone
Wooden
plate
Rubber
expander
plate
3-component
geophone
Figure 4.33.
4.6.2
Back
Up-hole and down-hole tests are performed by using only one borehole. In
the up-hole method, the receiver is placed at the surface, and shear waves
are generated at different depths within the borehole Fig. 4.32a. In the
down-hole method, the excitation is applied at the surface, and one or more
receivers are placed at different depths within the hole (Fig. 4.32b). Both
the up-hole and the down-hole methods give average values of wave
velocities for the soil between the excitation and the receiver if one receiver
is used, or between the receivers, if more than one is used in the borehole
4.6.3
Rayleigh waves and L'llve waves can be used to determine the shear moduli
of soils near the surface. The Rayleigh wave (R-wave) (Section 3.3) travels
in a zone close to the surface. An electromagnetic or other harmonic
vibrator can be used to generate a steady-state R-wave, and the ground
surface can be deformed as shown in Fig. 4.34. A mechanical oscillator is
usually set to work at approximately 10Hz. One ray is drawn away from the
centerline of the oscillator. One of the geophones connected to the horizon-
138
FIELD METHODS
139
Qo sin wt
(4.34)
and
G=V:p
f--_,._x
Figure 4.34.
( 4.35)
in which p is the mass density of the soil and v, the Poisson's ratio of the
soil.
Table 4.5 gives repesentative values for Poisson's ratios that can be used
in lieu of the measured values.
tal plates of the oscilloscope is fixed 30 em away from the oscillator along the
ray so that the sensmg ax1s of the geophone is vertical. A similar geophone,
connected to the vertiCal plates of the oscilloscope, is moved along this ray
away from the oscillator. The second geophone is moved until the Lissajous
figure on the oscilloscope screen becomes a circle. The two signals are at the
same frequency and 90 out of phase. However, if the phase angle is
d1ffere~t than 90~, the Lissajous figure is an ellipse, and for a zero phase
angle, 1t 1s a strmght hne (Doebelin, 1966). The distance between the two
geophones is measured. This distance is then a measure of the wavelength of
the generated Rayle1gh wave. The test is repeated at other frequencies. The
test can also be conducted by using a phase meter in place of an oscilloscope. In case of uniform soil up. to infinite depths and the Lissajous figure of
a cncle, the wave length, A", of the propagating waves is given by
(4.32)
in which S is the measured distance between geophones.
The veloCity of the Rayleigh waves v, is then given by
( 4.33a)
or
(4.33b)
in which f is the frequency of vibration at which the wavelength has been
measured.
In case the phase angles corresponding to different distances between
Type of Soil
Clay
Sand
0.5
0.3 -0.35
0.15-0.25
Rock
~ .
--------:c:-;;:"_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
c:-.
': ',,-
140
The raw data obtained from the impact test is reduced with the help of a
dynamic signal analyzer (DSA), and the inversion curve is obtained. From
the different DSAs that are being commercially manufactured, the DSA
supplied by Hewlett Packard (HP 3562A) has been used successfully,
A typical shear wave profile for a site in which the velocity profiles have
been determined both by !he crosshole method and SASW method show
good agreement (Nazarian and Stokoe, 1984). The tally between the values
measured by the two methods is strikingly close. The SASW method is
economical, and less time consuming than the crossbore hole method and
has the advantage of complete automation (Nazarian and Stokoe, 1984;
Woods and Stokoe, 1985; Prakash, 1986). However, proper inversion
techniques must be used.
Motor oscillator
assembly
Concrete
IM 1501
Depth to be
Tied
Ia)
4 50 m
1 mfmin
[]
i'=;:J[O]
'tr
l
~
,.
2.75 m
1m min
(b)
Figure 4.35.
142
FIELD METHODS
because different forces cause different strain levels below the block. This is
accounted for when the appropriate design parameters are being chosen.
The coefficient of elastic uniform compression, C, of the soil is then
determined from Eq. (4.37), (Refer to Chapter 6, Section 6.7),
( 4.37)
in which fnz is the natural frequency in vertical vibrationS, m the mass of the
block, oscillator, and motor, and A the contact area of the block (footing)
with the soil.
The value of C" from Eq. ( 4.37) corresponds to the area of the test block
and for other areas; its value may be obtained by using Eq. (4.30).
Knowing the value of C", E may be obtained from Eq. (4.29). Shear
modulus can then be determined by using Eq. ( 4.4).
143
A=~
2 2
'
4tr
0.20
'E
-""'
f--
0.12
"'
0.08
VJ
0.04
~~ r--o:
70'
""
20
25
140'_
30
35
40
45
Frequency, (Hz)
Figure 4.36. Amplitude vs. frequency plot from vertical resonance test at raw mill site in
Bhutan. (Prakash et al., 1976.)
( 4.38)
105
__ ,y ,/
~
15
In a
I !f ~
0
10
1 r;
0.16
.s
u
.0..e"
4.6.5
( 4.36)
in which ax is the horizontal acceleration in the direction under consideration, and f the frequency of the horizontal vibrations in hertz. Amplitude
vs. frequency curves are plotted for each force level to obtain the natural
frequency, fnx, of the soil and block tested as for the case of vertical
vibrations. A plot of the amplitude with the height of the block determines
its mode of vibrations. The coefficient of elastic uniform shear (C,) of the
soil is then determined by using Eq. ( 4.39). (For details, see Section 6.7.)
144
C ~
'
145
FIELD METHODS
87T Yf~x
(Ao + Io (Ao + Io) 2 - 4yA 0 I0
(4.39)
Load intensity
\
I
I
Ses
-r
,___ _ _ ___J
Elastic rebound -
4.6.6
(a)
Figure 4.37. (a) Load intensity vs. settlement' ill a cyclic-plate-load test and (b) Load intensity
vs. elastic rebound from cyclic-plate-load test. (After Prakash, 1981.)
Free vibration tests may be performed by pulling the block and releasing it
in a longitudinal direction or by hitting it with a hammer for vertical
excitation. From the observed natural frequency, the C,, C,., E, and G
values can then be determined.
4.6. 7 Cyclic Plate Load Test
The equipment for a cyclic-plate load test is similar to that used in a
static-plate load test. It is assembled according to details given in the
American Society for Testing Materials (1977) or Barkan (1962) or in
textbooks on foundation engineering.
After the equipment has been set up and arranged, the initial readings of
the dml gauges are noted, and the first increment of static load is applied to
the plate. This load is kept constant for some time until no further
settlement occurs or until the rate of settlement becomes negligible. The
final readings of the dial gauges are then recorded. The entire load is
removed and the plate is allowed to rebound. When no further rebound
occurs, the readings of the dial gauges are again noted. The load is then
gradually increased until its magnitude is equal in value to the next higher
proposed stage of loading; the load is maintained constant and the final dial
gauge readings are noted. The entire load is then r~ducect' to zero and final
dial gauge readings are recorded when the rate of rebound' becomes
negligible.
The cycles of loading, unloading, and reloading are continued until the
estimated ultimate load has been reached; the final values of dial gauge
readings are noted each time. The magnitude of the load increment is such
that the ultimate load is reached in five to six increments.
Se
(b)
I
i
I
146
'
91N. 337
( 4.40)
4.7
determined.
It is customary to make a plot of G versus shear strain. It is necessary to
147
DAMPING IN SOILS
( 4.41)
and
_
_
vcrz
ux = u
=
- -v
y
1-
( 4.42)
The sam/;.~marks apply to arf"ivaluation of C", C<l, C,, and c., from
field tests. The application of the above procedure to actual field conditions
has been illustrated in solved examples (Section 4.9).
4.8
DAMPING IN SOILS
~ta~~~~~~:~;n;~i~~~~~;';;~~~;:~i"t;~~-i~t;;;;~i~1~i~!~ L fo ~,
Materi7d Dam in8] Damping in a freely vibrating system reduc~s the
pea amplitudes after each successive cycle. If the fore~ of dampmg IS
considered proportional to the velocity of the mollon, It IS called vtscous
damping (Section 2.4).
.
.
.
When a cylindrical s_a,mple of soil is set into a state of free vibratiOn, as m
a resonant column test:1lhe vibration decreases in amplitude and eventually
disappears. This reduction in amplitude of vibration is caused by internal
damping within the soil mass. The decay of vibration is similar to that
described for the free vibration of a viscously damped system. It should,
however be understood that the internal damping in soils is not considered
to be
the
single-degree-of-freedom system with viscous damping is useful for describing the effect of the damping that occurs in soils.
149
148
DAMPING IN SOILS
z
a= log, _l
z,
;:
f::
(2.77)
II
or
a=
2-rrt;
v '
I
(2.80a)
I II
;:
f::
The logarithmic decrement may be obtained experimentally from a resonant-column test by setting a soil sample into steady-state forced vibration, then shutting off the driving power and recording the decay of
amplitude with time. Figure 4.38a shows a typical vibration-decay curve
obtained from a resonant-column test for Ottawa sand (Hardin, 1965; Hall,
1962). The logarithmic decrement was obtained from the decay curve by
plotting each amplitude against a cycle number on semilog graph paper (Fig.
4.38b). If the damping in the material produces an effect similar to that
occasioned by the viscously damped free vibrations, the plot is a straight line
on the semilog graph. Hall (1962) found that the damping determined from
the decay of steady-state vibrations in resonant-column samples of rounded
granular material is similar to viscous damping. The values of logarithmic
decrement varied from 0.02 to approximately 0.20 in his tests.
Hardin (1965) described further studies on resonant-column tests for
evaluating the ;!<!-'.~~~'.:~ in sands. He also conducted an analytical study of
the applications of the Kelvin'- Voigt model (viscous damping) to represent
the material for comparison with the test results. He found that the
Kelvin-Voigt model satisfactorily represents the behavior of sands in smallamplitude vibration tests, if the viscosity I-' is varied with frequency such that
ftW I G, is maintained a constant. This ratio is related to the logarithmic
decrement as given in Eq. (4.43)
1::
f\h
I'
Ia I
to J-,--.-~-,-,,.,--r-ITIII
9
8
7
No. of cycles
(b)
(4.43)
a=9-rr(y,) \<T,r''
0
in which Yo is the
(4.44)
>!'
confining pressures of 500 lbift' < (T0 < 3000 lblft and for frequencieS o
less than 600 cycles/sec.
.
.
Drnevich (1967) studied the effect of high-amplitude sh~anng strams on
the damping in sands. He found that: (1) no change occ\l~s m dampmg With
cycles of prestrain for prestrain amplitudes less than 10 ; (2) the loga~ith. d
t varies with (0' )- 113 within the range of 400 to 2000 lb/ft for
mtc ecremen
o
_5
-4.
d (3) an
m Y
all shearing-strain amplitudes between 10 and 6.0 X 10 , an
151
150
Equivalent
Clay
Silty sand
Dry sand
Reference
0.03-0.07
0.01-0.03
0.03
0.05-0.06
0.02-0.05
0.03-0.10
0.01-0.03
Barkan (1962)
Barkan (1962)
Stevens (1966)
Hardin (1965)
Sour~e:
ilEu
1-l.cs-
"
----- ----------"
( 4.46)
1970, p. 398.
'
'
Type Soil
DAMPING IN SOilS
( 4.45)
The term E. in Eq. (4.45) represents the strain energy described by the area
under the hysteresis loop.
t The horizontal scale in Fig. 4.39a is greatly exaggerated for simplicity of illustration.
in which k" represents the proportionality factor between strain energy and
the square of the displacement amplitude for the nth cycle of decaymg
vibration. It needs be emphasized that there is no general relat1o~sh1p
il,d, and the ralio of
between Acs and 11 cd but for small values of a, A"=
1
the proportionality constants, K~+ 1 1 K", is approx1~ately ..
Sometimes the decrease in amplitude of vibratiOn w1th distance fro~ _a
source that is caused by energy losses in the soil is also evaluated. This IS
designated as attenuation (the energy loss as a function of distance) and IS
measured in terms of -W,e coefficient of attenuation a (1 /ft). The coeffic1ent
of attenuation is related to the logarithmic decrement by
z,. Va
{j= - - =Aa
(4.47)
153
152
DAMPING IN SOILS
(4.48a)
In Eq. (4.48a), G 1 (w) is the elastic component and G 2 (w) the viscous
component. The loss angle 15L is defined by
G,
tan 15 = L
Gl
( 4.48b)
and it is related to the logarithmic decrement 15 and to the ratio p.w I G [see
Eq. (4.43)]. Thus,
3
':;~if;, Bx, B<t>
or By,
( 4.49)
From the above discussion, it can be seen that there are several methods
for measuring and describing the damping liisOITS. ..F~rthermore:because
darniJTiigin~oil~~~ii"~~i!ses;;;;mt~I11~Iiiii5lli~~if~o(vf6rationJEq. 4. 44], i!_~ay
be convementto use different .method.s for differ~nt r"f!ges ()f amplitude
('Rlcilarlet al., 1970). Beneath machine foundations, the order llrinagnii.llde of vibrations encountered in soils is such that the logarithmic
decrement should be less than 0.2.
damping constants obtained in the analog solutions (See Section 6.4) and
15
= 1T
tan 8L
- ... ...
- From each solution for vibration of a footing on a half-space, -",Yi!]tle of
the equivalent damping ratio !; is derived. This iS' then used in a lumpedanalys!S:-Aconvenient method for evaluating !; is to equate the
peak amplitudy of motion from the half-space solution to the peak amplitude obtain(ld from the mass-spring-dashpot system and then to solve for
g. Figure 4.40 wasprepared by using this method (Richart et al., 1970).
Approximately the same results can be obtained by calculating !; from the
parameter..
t d
(2.26)
'
(2.27)
c,
'[lJ;
( 4.50a)
155
154
DAMPING IN SOILS
( 4.50c}
For torsional oscillations,
0.50
1 + 2B"
in which
(4.50d}
B =(1-v} m
B
x
= 3(1- v}
B
"'
and
pr~
( 4.50f}
w
Mmo
pr~
B = Mmz
( 4.50g}
z
m"'
= -c===m~0:=;ec=w~===,
2 2
2
V(k- Mw
+ (cw)
(2.49b}
(4.50h}
pr~
l/1
( 4.50e)
If
"V "M
(4.51}
(4.52)
M 1n Eq . (4 .52} , because Z "' is measured in Fig. 4.41 and
3. D etermme
(m 0 e) is a known quantity.
4. Determine k from Eq. ( 4.51).
5. Then damping constant c from
( 4.53)
in which Z, is the amplitude at w
w,.
Factors Affecting Damping. There are several factors that affect damp~
The more important of these are: strain level, confimng press~re, vot
ra~io number of cycles of oscillatory stress, and frequency of motton.
In' Table 4.8, the ini'~ortance of each variable is indicated by the symbols
~ R
d L (Hardin and Drnevich, 1972a).
.
.
.
, Theandam~ing factor !; increases generally with an mcreasmg stra~~
amplitude, decreasing confining pressure, '?creadsm~ vmd :a(t~~72~ldp~o.
b of cycles of loadmg. Hardm an
rnevtc
creasmg num e~d ex ressions for determining damping in a partic~lar
P~~~fe~h~~~s~derabl~ judgment is still needed to select ~value of da?'pmg
P
.
d .
blem Fortunately the chmce ts not that dtfficult
to be taken m a estgn pro
in
156
157
EXAMPLES
Clean
Sands
(I)
(2)
Strain amplitude
IT2. ..Effective
mean principal stress
!
. 3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
:Void ratio
Cohesive
Soils
(3)
/v
v
v
v
v
(v
\ v '
\_vj
L
R
L
L
R
R
gradation, mineralogy
12. Soil structure
13. Volume change due to shear strain
R
R
R
R
Degree of saturation
Overconsolidation ratio
Effective strength envelope
Octahedral shear stress
L
L
L
L
L
Figure 4.42.
G=V ,,2 p
=
G
EXAMPLES
cr,A:
EXAMPLE 4.9.1
The soil profile at a site is shown in Fig. 4.42. A cross borehole test was
conducted at this site to determine the value of shear wave velocity in a
small area surrounding point A (Fig. 4.42) and its average value was
observed to be 120 m/ sec. Calculate the value of dynamic shear modulus G
for point A. Also determine the values of G for points B, C, and Din the
profile. If subsequently the water table rises to the ground surface, what will
be the values of G at A, B, C, and D. Assume 'YJ = I. 75 g/ em 3 and
y,., = 2.05 g/cm 3
Solution
Dynamic Shear Modulus-water table 10m below ground level (as shown
in Fig. 4.42}.
Observed value of shear wave velocity V, =120m/sec
0 5
'
= 363.2 kg/em
159
EXAMPLES
"
-'0
c "
.0
" 0"
[-<
~
(j
"
t:
~
~
s "-"'
" u :;:: "
0\('f")V)OO
ocirl~~
0\00'70\
,......, N M('f")
.,~
.c ""
"'~
-~ ~
....c "
o-6
"
2 ::: g
..oo't:
-"
'"""'
2 s "g
::E "
~a:)
~
OONM-.;:t
0('1')~~
lf)\O,.....,lrl
N('f")~"i"
- {.)2
.,;
...
,., ,.,
"
tnOI.rlc),_;~r-i
"'><
~
'0
:1
c
"'~
.0 ""
..a
~.,.
~~
lb"'
~
~
~
ao =
"'
.c"
"'
'5"'
....,;
"
:;:;
,_"'
158
KoO\
""
~
0\ + ii2 + ii3
iiz = ii3
"""
0;
(4.9)
The values of e, OCR, k, PI and 0'0 are needed for using this equation.
The values of e, PI, and OCR are given in the problem. These values are
also listed in Table 4.10, columns 2, 3, and 4, respectively.
The value of 0'0 is calculated as
"'>-c
Q
05
29 3
- e) (0'0 ) psi
+e
Gm"' = 1230(0CR)k ( ;
"~
" "
i5 t:::" "
~0::
~
Solution
.;_.,_,,
The values of low strain dynamiC shear modulus for the soil profile can be
calculated by using Eq. (4.9).
O)N
- B "
c
EXAMPLE 4.9.2
The'soil profile for a site is shown in Fig. 4.43a. Calculate the values of
dynamic shear modulus at different depths in the profile. Also plot the
variation of shear modulus with depth. Assume shear strain amplitude
'Yo= 10- 6 (i.e., low-amplitude vibration case).
NV)f:-..0
Q.
oooo
tri 0 tr)' 0
-
-N
For normally consoli~ted clay (layer #3) K 0 is given by the equation below
(Brooker and Ireland,' 1965)
K = 0.4 + 0.007(PI) for 0 s; PIs; 40
0
For the normally consolidated clay and PI= 30, K 0 is determined to be
0.61. (See also Fig. 4.49.)
For over consolidated clay (layer #4), the value of K 0 is obtained from
charts given by Brooker and Ireland (1965). For PI= 55 and OCR= 2, the
value of K 0 is determined to be 0.95 (Fig. 4.49).
,..
_,.
.
...,...,...,...,:::;,_,
0" " ::r .
Ci(ll~(tl
(D<=:In
;.. .
"
~
~"
"
0.
"
e:.
><-,.,..,
(!>
"
0.
<
...,..,_
~
~. ~
(!> 0
-O>
0o-
"' ~
"
or """0
s _q,
"
~
"""
0>1
(!>
0"
(!>
(!>
(!>
0"
:E
"
s
.....
0
"
"
s0<= 8g.
'-0
"
"'
E.
Or:n'"1-
. og:=;
""" " '
.
...
(!>
" 0. "
+:-.-oo-
"
v.
0
"""
-l
"='
0"'
tl:l
-c
Depth (ftl
..
"'
k-"'~"'
. I.
a
~
. if
.
e...
...
-<
~
3
;;
0
0
0
,..
~
"'
0
0
0
!;
...3
0
"'
0
0
0
!;;.
c
<
~
0
0
0
0
...
~
~
3
15'
~
~
ro
~
c
~
"'
N
0
0
0
"-
ro~r~~~
, 5"00~: 9,_.<::;:;
~0 "'0
~0~-o
<h
!l. ;., .,, !::;,
..
;;;
~
3
-c
"00
': .
' '
'
f'
' o o
'
<
"3.,.
'
0
0
0
..."
'".,_
ocoU.'. ,
~
;.
;=;
V>
0
;::
.
"'.
"':::!m
Lateral
:::
;::
"
OCR
K,
Effective
Vertical
Pressure
r:T, (psf)
Void
Ratio
e
z
>
"
0"
Table 4.10. Values of Dynamic Shear Modulus at Different Depths (Example 4.9.2)
Depth
(ft)
-<
fl- PI
':7'
Stress
(7"3
(T2
Ko iii
(psf)
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
0
2.5
5.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
15.0
17.5
20.0
20.0
22.5
25.0
1.10
1.10
1.10
0.85
0.85
0.85
1.125
1.125
1.125
0.80
0.80
0.80
0
0
0
0
0
0
30
30
30
55
55
55
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.455
0.455
0.455
0.61
0.61
0.61
0.95
0.95
0.95
0
250
500
500
763
1026
1026
1157.5
1289
1289
1458
1627
0
125
250
227.5
347.1
466.8
625.9
706.1
786.3
1224.5
1385.1
1545.7
;f~
'~}-
Mean
Effective
Confining
Pressure
r:T0 (psf)
Dynamic
Shear
Modulus
G (psi)
Remark
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
0
166.7
333.3
318.3
485.8
653.2
759.2
856.5
953.8
1246.0
1409.4
1572.8
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.24
0.24
0.24
0.38
0.38
0.38
0
2210.4
3126.0
4455.6
5504.4
6381.6
4538.4
4821.6
5088.0
12348.0
13136.4
13876.8
Top of layer #1
In layer #1
In layer #2 (top)
In layer #2
In layer #3 (top)
In layer #3
In layer #4
162
The following tests were performed at a proposed factory site to determine the in situ dynamic properties of the soil.
1. Four steady-state vibration tests were conducted on a 1.5 x 0.75 x
0. 7 m high concrete block. The tests were conducted by subjecting the block
to a vertical unbalanced force and a horizontal unbalanced force. In both
cases, the tests were repeated at different settings of eccentric masses. The
data on observed resonant frequencies and corresponding amplitudes of
vibration are shown in Table 4.11, columns 1 through 4. The tests were
conducted in an open pit, and the base of the block was at 4.0 m below
ground level. The density of concrete was 2.4 t/m 3
2. Two cyclic plate load tests were performed on 60 X 60 em plate in a pit
3 X 3 X 4.0 m deep. The typical cyclic plate load test data for Test-5 are
plotted in Fig. 4.44 and the values of the load intensity and corresponding
settlements are listed in Table 4.12, columns 1 through 3.
I I I
.i~r
I
I
I I
..
I
s-s;"~
00
X X
X X
X X
"'v-:oo
"'
"'
"""'
("!')vi
"'"' "'"'
-::r..-.:
X-'_X
~~Vl
r-.i("<')ff)
"' 0
00
00
~~
--"':::::- :'--....
~f'::...
8 E
E
c
12
E
w
Bw
"'
16
20
24
Figure 4.44.
., ~ ~
"'',I'.,,, ~-..., ~
' ' ' "', ~[\
' ' -...,
.,.
0
"-""~>
' ',
'-....,
''
''
II
~~
0
~
E
0 ;-:;
1\
' ',
"
-....\
Settlement vs. load intensity {cyclic plate load test) (Example 4.9.3).
0
0
"
<'>t--O
' 0 "'
~
"'
0
<'>t--
"' 0
"' r--
"' 0
"' r--
"'
II
'E
Jj"
163
165
EXAMPLES
N values
-::t-Mt-ov;
.,.)000<")("")
ViMOOO\t;'"--
('1'")7('1,....,,......,
:6:6!;:~M
rl"<TO\I.rlOO
~rl~NN
--,.--1-00000
x X X X X
l.rJ\O,....;om
Figure 4.45.
'7"1.00\000
'
Typical bore log of the site.(Prakash and Puri, 1984) (Example 4.9.3).
rlrlNv)v-;
l- t-- -
\0
'('f)
~ci~ciN
\ONO,.....,O\
7V1"1"("1'")N
~
00
t-l.rlN\00
v-ioONr-..:0
NNN--
v;
t--OV'>
0001."--0tn
o,....;,....;triM
0000
v;
Mtrl'7NO
N~t--=>.0~
"'
o..:,....;
""
OO'T
..,...,.
v;
v;
N000\,......;\0
"
NNMviv-i
c
164
2 2
f nz m
t/
4'1T (2.00)
2
3
2
3
"= l.lZ5 x 9 _81 f"' tim = 7.154!"' tim
( 4.37)
166
or
167
EXAMPLES
block
for
fu, = 29.75 Hz
= 0.076875 kg/ cm 2
4q [ 2mnv'm 2 +n 2 +1 m 2 +n +2
These calculated values of C" are shown in Table 4.11, column 5. The values
of G are calculated from Cu as follows
avz = 41T
mz
.
"
1.13
2
(1- v )
G=
+ sm
\Ill
(4.29)
2mnv' m + n + 1 J
2
z
2 z
m +n +1+mn
2
(Taylor, 1948).
(4.4)
+ v)
- L/2- 75 -2
m37.5-
-z-
Substituting for E in terms of G from Eq. ( 4.4) into Eq. ( 4.29), we get
B/2
n=
37.5
= 37.5 = 1
S<':
2
G = (1- v)(VA)C"
2 X 1.13
(1- 0.33)
G=
2.
(Y150 x 75)C"
26
<T01
=0.21
(2X0.5+1)
2
=0.14kg/cm
3
2
The value of G for the mean effective confining pressure of 1 kg/cm may be
obtained as follows:
_ _ _ (2K0 + 1)
in which
(T'v
, _1 2 X 2 X 1V2 + 1 + 1]
+sm
2 2 + 1 2 + 1 +2 2 1 2
For
Uoi -
or
= 31.44C" kg/cm
_1
+ nz + 1 + m2n2 mz + nz + 1
2(1
= 76.875 g/ cm 2
G 1 = 199.01 kg/cm
1.0 )0.5
G 2 = 199.01 ( 0.
14
= 531.9 kg/cm
169
EXAMPLES
U JO Ui
<e:3a:"'
":
~ "
"
f"!
f"!
"!
'Yo=
~'
~~~~
~
'-( ~
II"',.
~'
I= 0.75
~V~ VI
~; ~'<~r-~'~if~~h
rh
');
II I/ I I II I I
'll_.f/~/., rT I. 11111111 I 1
1 I
"'~'l,.,ff$)
~
:<(J//,
r; '/. I. I
II
I 1 I I I
10
..
~
'-'<..'//
J//'1///.
"'-'<'/ / / '"
;..;;.
..0
"'
N
// r////-
T""
/7
,..'0 :: /
":
'//.1/ ///_/j :
/~ %~W& ~
_v
r::::
'"'"
..
- %'k" 0: ~~;
0
0
<e~
1,{}
1,{}
U JO Ui
'..
"":-:."'~.'<
Mm t
X 0.85
20
= O 37 5
. 7 m
= 0.04669 t m/sec-
~
~
...,
v,.~
~ ~~1~~
v
'k~@~~
Mmo
= 0.07569 t m/secMm
0.04669
oi
168
-4
WI/I 'I I 7 I II I I
~W,tC1rt,lfk1Vj r/ I I ///;
f7"""<4//;~~'/ '/ I ~Ill
"'
2.46
~0
"
0.185
750
oi
5
~
Amplitude
Width
170
2
C =
87T Yf:x
" (A 0 + I 0 ) Y(A 0 + I 0 ) 2
-===-- = 5.5181
p
2.25
2
c.=;.:= (0. 875110 ) = 25.71 kg/em
2.0 )
( 9.81
=3 46 (-I-)=
3.46 (0.2109) _ 0 6408
Mmo
0.07569
-
8( 7T
) X
(0.6168)/~x
"
4 X 0.6168
5.5181
48.7005[~
t-
( 4.26)
The values of C,. for other data in the cyclic plate load test may be
calculated in the same way and these are shown in Table 4.12, column 4.
The values of G for the test and the corresponding values at a mean
effective confining pressure of 1 kg/ em' may be computed in the same way
as for the case of block vibration test. Similarly, the strain level, Yo, may be
obtained as a ratio of the elastic deflection to the width of the plate. All
these values are shown in Table 4.12, columns 5 through 9.
1.125
A= A
o m
( 4.39)
4yA 0l 0
171
EXAMPLES
9.6408
( 4.40)
= 9.30 f~ tim 3
= 0.00930[~
kg/ cm 3
or
For
(V,) y/g =
(215.9) X 2.05(1000) k I 2
9.81 X 100 X 100
g em
( 4.35)
= 16'
_
4 X 2.050
2
u,. = 100 X 100 = 0.82 kg/ em
The calculated values of C,. are shown in Table 4.11, column 5. The value
of c. may be calculated and corrected for confining pressure in the same
manner as for the case of vertical vibrations. Shear strains may also be
calculated in the same manner (column 6) Table 4.11.
(3)
From the load intensity versus settlement plot for the cyclic plate load
test (Frg. 4.44), we can compute the elastic settlement as follows:
u 01
= 0.82
(2K0 +1)
3
= 0.546 kg/ em
-6
range 10 .
a. G vs. 'Yo
in which
The values of G vs. shear strain, y0 , are plotted in Fig. 4.47 (Curve A).
b. G/Gm, vs. y6 , i.e., normalized G/Gm, vs. Yo plot:
settlement
after the
load
increment
t Since fn is the first natural frequency, negative sign has been used.
has
been
re-
The values of G for different strain levels in plot A (Fig. 4.47) were
divided by Gm,, i.e., 1317 kg/cm 2 These values for different strain levels
are shown in Table 4.13, column 3, and are plotted in Fig. 4.47 (Plot B).
172
EXAMPLES
173
151()0
N~
E 1250
Legend
6 Block vibration test
"
0
1000
"'
~ 3.28 tim'
o From N values
0.6
750
"
<'i
0.4
i"ro
0.8
250
Figure 4.47.
G vs. 'Yo and G/Gma~ vs. Yo (Prakash and Puri, 1984) (Example 4.9.3);.
1
'
(3)
( 4)
1 X 10 6
5 X 10' 6
1 X 10' 5
5 x 10'
1 x 10
5 x 10'
1 x 10'
5 X 10'
1 X 10'
13!7
1225
1137
837
740
425
355
237
200
1.0
0.930
0.863
0.635
0.562
0.323
0.269
0.180
0.152
1121.3
1042.8
967.7
712.0
630.2
362.1
301.6
201.8
170.4
-;;..
(b) Cyclic plate load on a plate 30.5 em X 30.5 em. The elastic settlement corresponding to a load intensity of 1.0 kg/ cm 2 is 2.4 mm, which
gives a c" value of 4.20 kg/cm 3
(c) Wave propagation test which gives an average value of the dynamic
shear moduli, G ~ 335.5 kg/cm 2 The distance between the geophones is
5.0m.
2. The permissible amplitude of vibration is 1.0 mm. Static stress below
2
the foundation is 0.7kg/cm
3. The water table is 2.5 m below the ground level. The unit weight of
soil at the site is 1.7 g/cm 3, and the submerged unit weight is 1.05 g/cm 3
Find the value of C" for the design of the machine's foundation. The
3
assumed density of the.,concrete in the test block is 2.4 tim
Gmax
(2)
"'
~ 0.328 kg/cm 2
EXAMPLE
~
C3
'
G ~ (175.3) X 2.05 _
,
- 6422 tim
9 . 81
~ 642.2 kg/ cm 2
Solution
( 4.40)
175
EXAMPLES
the shear strain levels are shown in Table 4.14, column 7. The mean
effective confining pressure ii0 below the test block can be computed in the2
same way, (as in Example 4.9.3) and its value is found to be 0.14 kg/cm
The values of C" for ii0 = 1 kg/cm 2 are shown in Table 4.14, column 8.
Nt'--0\\0tn
--,.....,
oci0~MN
,.....,....,
"'
'<t
""
,....._,....,
""
.;-
,.-.,
0000
0
,.....,.,....,
t:,
xxxxx
0'
c"'=~
C~.~1
Az
-----
3
Cuz = ~ 0.305 X 0.305
_
(1. X 0 _75 ) or , Cu 2 = 1.20 kg/em
5
42
The mean effective confining pressure at a depth of 30.5/2 = 15.25 em is
found to be 0.732 kg/cm 2 The corresponding shear strain level is equal to
2
2.4/(30.5 X 10) = 7.86 X 10- 3 The value of C" for ii0 = 1 kg/cm is equal to
3
112
(1/0.732) (1.2) = 1.46 kg/cm
tnNOO-::tt---
00
00000
::t::t-::1"-::t::t
00000
(4.30)
ooc:!ifn~b
00o.rio.ri-.,i
C"
1.13
(1- vz)
vA
( 4.29)
1!2
"'
<n
\OtnrlON
Q,....;('f)('f)tr)
c:ic:iOOO
1.13
2 X 335.5 X (1 + 0.33)
1
2
(1- 0.33 )
Y150 X 75
= 10.67 kg/ cm 3
E
u
U<r;
<n
. o.
0<'>
"'
For the wave propagation test, the value of the dynamic shear
modulus is representative of a depth of L/2, in which L is the distance
between the geophones. The average effective confining pressure at a2
depth of 1/2(5/2) = 1.25 m is 1.7 x 1.25 X 100(2 X 0.5 + 1)/3 = 141.7 g/cm
=i0.1417 kg/cm 2
2
The value of C" at a,~confining pressure of 1 kg/ cm is given by C" =
3
(1/0.1417) 0 5 x 10.67 = 28.41 kg/ cm
The shear strain level associated with the wave propagation is taken as
10-'.
176
"'
"'
M
""
'"
~I
20
......
15
.E
.
ro
10
"'
w
0
u
o Resonance test
cw
A = 1.5 X 0.75 m 2
11o = 1 kg/cm 2
c---"- W~~~,P'opagat,on
0
10 6
177
25
;;;
.E
OVERVIEW
10 5
.~
w-3
lQ-4
C" = 14.9 (
I~w-2
1.5X0.75)
10
112
= 4.99 kg/em
The reader may note that no direct correction has been applied to the
value of C" for effects of water table as is usually done when calculating the
bearing capacity. However, this has been accounted for in calculating the
mean effective confining pressure.
Figure 4.48.
4.1 o
(5) Value of C" needed for the design of the machine foundation
The shear strain level associated with the machine operation, 'Yo, is
(Prakash and Puri, 1977, 1981).
'Yo=
Amplitude
Width
1.0
-4
'Yo- 8 X 1000 = 1. 25 X 10
From Fig. 4.48 the value of C" for 'Yo= 1.25 x 10- 4 is 17.5 kg/em' and
corresponds to 0'0 = 1.0 kg/ em 2
This value of C" has to be corrected for the mean effective confining
pressure below the foundation and the area of the block.
( 6) Correction for the confining pressure
The ~ean effective confining pressure at a depth of 8/2 = 4.0 m below the
foundatiOn block can be calculated as follows:
!J[ 2Ko3+ 1 ]
OVERvfEw
Several comparisons have been made among the Gm,. values obtained
from different tests. Cunny and Fry (1973) determined the values of Gm,.
178
179
OVERVIEW
(4.54}
3. 0
v
2. 5
.............
';- ~32
1/
F
5~
v.
B
0.5
113
1---1----
--
)
K,= 2o(N1'''
N = Corrected value of N measured in SPT test delivering 60% of the
I
theoretical free-fall energy,
ii0 = mean effective confining pressures psf.
r---
-~ 1.0
where
!-....
....
2
I
10
20
40
50
30
Plasticity index, P.l.
60
70
80
Figure 4.49. K0 as function of overconsolidation ratio and plasticity index. (After Brooker and
Ireland, 1965; Lambe and Whitman, 1968.) Reprinted by permission of John Wiley, New York.
for 14 sites from laboratory and field tests. They used the steady-state,
surface vibration method to evaluate G m"' in the field, but applied the
resonant column test in the laboratory. The laboratory-determined shear
and compression moduli were found to range within 50% of the in-situ
moduli. They observed that the cross-hole method would have given better
values of shear wave velocity V, at the depths from which undisturbed
samples were taken and that inclusion of the secondary time effect would
have brought the laboratory cohesive-soil values nearer to the field values.
The secondary time effect is negligible for sands. Stokoe and Richart
(1973a, b) and Iwasaki and Tatsuoka (1977) found agreement between the
resonant column and the cross-hole field test values. Prakash and Puri
(1981), who obtained in-situ data on dynamic soil constants by making
resonance tests on blocks, the shear modulus test, the wave propagation
test, and the cyclic-plate-load test at several sites, reduced the modulus G
values to a mean effective confining pressure ii0 of 100 kN /m 2 for purposes
of comparison and suggested a method for rational evaluation of test data.
They suggested that the value of dynamic shear modulus for analysis and
design should be selected after taking into consideration the effect of
important parameters influencing its value.
Standard penetration values have been related with low strain shear
modulus (Gm,,) in psf for sands by Seed et al. (1986) by Eq. (4.54)
I;= l;m"(1-
cf-)
(4.55)
m"'
in which l;m,, is equal to 2k 1 17T and k 1 is ratio of the hatched area show? in
Fig. 4.50 and the area of triangle abc, A (obc): There. are ma?y questiOns
concerning the validity of this equatiOn, and 1ts use m a design problem.
This indicates that more work needs to be done in this direction.
Machine foundations generally are partially embed~ed when they are
installed. This reduces the._ampiltuifeol motio-natThe resonant peaks,
increases the value of the resonant frequency, and i~creases t~e _e~~:~!~~e
180
DYNAMIC SOIL PROPERTIES
'
Gmax
'
-';+----__j d
d
.
.
yna~mc response as a function of time for both drained
d
d .
conditiOns.
an un ramed
~~:~i~~
to
values and in
profile with depth from the spec! u,es. I e. etermmatwn of shear wave
ra ana ysis of surface waves (SASW)
appears to be a promising field method for the future.
,
Ladd and Dutko (1985) presented detailed testing procedure which was
OVERVIEW
181
Yu and Richart (1984) tested three sands under six different stress paths
to study the effect of stress ratio on shear modulus of sands. They
recommend modifying Hardin's equation [Eq. ( 4.9)] by replacing u 0 =
(j-1 + a-, + a-, )1 /3 by
182
in which a-. and ii6 are principal stresses in the direction of shear wave
propagation and along the particle motion respectively. They also proposed
two new equations for Gm", which depended on a function of principal
stress ratios (ii1 /ii3 or ii,lii,).
Thus, it would appear that our understanding of the factors affecting
shear modulus is gradually improving, and some of the concepts presented
in this chapter may need a revision as more information becomes available.
Machine foundations may be supported on piles in some cases. The
corresponding spring constants will depend upon the: (1) soil properties; (2)
pile properties; (3) pile group geometry; and (4) mode of vibrations of piles.
These properties are examined in detail in Chapter 12.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
1.
2.
If the water table in problem 1 rises to the ground level, will the values
3.
4.
A clay has liquid limit of 60% and plastic limit of 30%. Estimate the
variation of G m" with overconsolidation ratio of this clay at a standard
confining pressure of 1 kg/ cm 2 if OCR varies from 1 to 32.
6. The shear wave velocity determined by torsional vibration of uniformly
graded dry sand specimen in a resonant column device was 750 ftl sec.
The longitudinal wave velocity of this soil is 1200 ft/sec. Determine:
(a) Young's modulus and shear modulus if the void ratio and the
specific gravity of soil solids of the specimen were 0.7 and 2.7
respectively.
(b) Poison's ratio.
5.
1 t/ft 2
7. List and discuss briefly laboratory and field methods for determination
of shear modulii of soils at different strains.
8. Discuss the factors affecting soil modulii and damping.
9. In Figure 4.13, determine Ic and N 0 for 3-soils.
REFERENCES
10.
183
( ) If you had a choice to order either laboratory tests or field tests for
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. h ar,
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Afifi, S. E. A., an d R lC
Soils Found. (Jpn.) 13(1), 77-95.
"Is
shear modulus of sot .
Afifi S E. A., an d W 0 ds, R D (1971) . Long-term pressure effects 5on1460
j
Mech. Found. Div. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 97(SM-10), 144 .
.
.
.
.
.
(1977) "St ndard test method for beanng capactty of
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American Societ~ for Testmg Matenals_
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Soil
Philadephia, PA.
.
't of
mverst y
f
Proc -In Situ Meas. Sod Prop., a etg '
.
Woods R. D. (1976). Time dependent increase in shear modulus o
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.'
c E 102 (GT-5) 525-537.
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. .
cla . I. Geotech. Eng. Dtv., Am. Soc. tv. ng.
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d at
n erson, . .,
, .,
. S
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..
y, I 1 181-197.
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CA Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., June, Proc. Am. Soc. Czv. Eng. o. '
.
.
.
,
d
Le
K
L
(1977)
Equivalent
uniform
cycle
concept
of
soil
dynamtcs.
I.
Annak1, M., an
e,
) 549 564
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~ . t b in-situ vibration
II d R .F. , Jr. (1964). Determination
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Baar,
.
N shear
4691moduh at dep h y
techniques. Waterways Exp. St. Mtsc. Pap. o. .
. N
y k
.
" McGraw-Htll, ew or ..
D D. (1962). "Dynamics of Bases an d Foun dat tons.
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. a fim'd-saturated porous sohd. I.
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Biot, M. A. {1956). Theory of propagatiOn
A d
n
~~~p;rty
bTt J
I
S J (1977) Factors affecting liquefactiOn and cychc mo l l y. .
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. E
Castro, G., and Pou_os,
Geotech Eng. Dtv., Am. Soc. Ov. ng. 103
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H
h .
W K (1976) Saturated sand and cyclic dynamtc tests.
Cho, Y., Rizzo, P. C., and ump nes,E . . Ph"l d~lphia PA Meet. Prepr. 2752, 285-312.
1a
Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., Ann. Conv. xpo.,
'
'
.
.
d
dF
Z B (1973). Vibratory in-situ and laboratory sml moduh compare .1.
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Soil Mech. Foun tv.,
p
Pan
De Mello, V. B. F. (1971). The standard penetration tes~: A state-of-the-art report. roc.
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1H5
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:'3
Hardin, B. 0., and Drnevich, V. P. (1972b). Shear modulusand damping in soils, design
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Hvorslev, M. J., and Kaufman, R.I. (1952). Torsion shear apparatus and testing procedure.
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Iida, K. (1938). The velocity of elastic waves in sand. Bull. Earthquake Res. Inst., Tokyo Imp.
Univ. 16, 131-144.
Iida, K. (1940). On the elastic properties of soil particularly in relation to its water content.
Bull. Earthquake Res. Inst., Tokyo Imp. Univ. 18, 675-690.
Imai, T. (1977). Velocities of P~ and S-waves in subsurface layers of ground in Japan. Proc.lnt.
Conf. Soil Mech. Found. 9th, Tokyo, Vol. 2, 257~260.
.
.
M (1975) "The Relation of Mechanical Properttes of Sods toP- and
d y h'
Ima 1 T an
os tmura,
U
R
1 t Qya
$:Wave Velocities for Soil Ground in Japan,'' Rep. RD-477, TN-07 . rawa es. ns .,
Corp., Tokyo, Japan.
. .
Indian Standards Institution (1978). "Indian Standard Method of Test _for ~etermmatton of
Dynamic, Properties of Soil," IS 5249-1978, 1st rev. lSI, New Delhi, Indm.
Ireland, H. 0., Moretto, o., and Vargas, M. (1970). The dynamic penetraton test-A standard
.
that is not standardized. Geotechnique 20(2), 185.
Ishibashi, 1., and Sherif, M. A. (1974). Soil liquefaction by torsional simple shear dcvtce. J.
Geotech. Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. lOO(GT-8), 871-888.
.
Ishihara, K. (1971). Factors affecting dynamic Properties of soils. Proc. Asian Reg. Conf. Sotl
Mech. Found. Eng. 4th, Bangkok, Vol. 2.
.
'h
K
d L' s (1972) Liquefaction of saturated sand in triaxial torston shear test.
t, .
.
Isht ara, . , an
Soils Found (Jpn.) 12(2), 19-39.
.
.
Ishthara, K., an
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6
K ovacs, W . D .,
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.
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., m. oc.
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easurement of dynamic soil properties-State-of-the-Art. Proc Am
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'
'
. '
. ' '
allow setsmtc exploration in soil dynamics
R h 1 C'
zc ar ommemorattve Lectures R D Wood Ed"t
p
C .
SAm
'
.
'
nng torston apparatus for simple shear tests. Proc. Int.
Conf. S~il Mech Fo , d. E
un ng., oscow, Vol. 1 Pt 2 501-506
Yu P
d R"
'
. '
.
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ng. zv., m. Soc. Ctv. Eng. 110(3), 331-345.
IV.
M.
5.1
191
190
(5.2)
OB = OC + CB = r cos 8 + l cos</>
where </> =Angle between the connecting rod and the X axis, and
8 =Angle between crank rod and X- aXIS.
t
Substituting for OB from Eq. (5.2) into Eq. (5.1), we ge
x = r(1-cos 8) + 1(1-cos </>)
p
Cylinder
ll
II
or
--X
II
JJ0
Xp
AC = r sin 8 = l sin</>
'I
Letting 8 = "!I
-'
_t:--
r---c--~~----------l+c----------~
:r
-;to'_,_~
sin
<f> =
r .
sm wt
Single-Cylinder Machines
1
"'(1.!__ sin2 wt-- r4 sin4
cos '" 8 I
2 1'
2
axis
(5.1)
(5.5)
wt
+ ...
may be
(5.6)
(5.7)
"' f
E (57) into Eq. (5.3), we get
Substituting the value of cos '"' rom q. .
2 112
The value of r/1 is usually small (around 0.25) and Eq. (5.5)
written in a series form [Eq. (5.6)]:
a. The piston and the piston rod undergo an oscillatory motion along X
= (r +I)- OB
(5.4)
xP
(5.3)
x =r(1-coswt)+l(1-cos</>)
~P = r(1- cos
r2 . 2
wt) + 21 sm w1
(5.8)
xP = r( 1 _cos wt) +
or
xP = r( 1 +
(5.9)
193
UNBALANCED FORCES FOR DESIGN OF MACHINE FOUNDATIONS
192
(5.14)
Equation (5.8) shows that the piston motion is periodic but not necessarily
harmonic. Equation (5.9) expresses the piston motion in terms of a primary
component that varies with the frequency of rotation and a secondary
component that varies at twice the frequency of rotation. The magnitude of
the secondary component depends upon the r II ratio and if the length of the
connecting rod is large compared to the crank radius r, the influence of the
secondary component becomes negligible and the piston motion may be
considered harmonic. The velocity xP and acceleration xp of the piston may
be obtained by differentiating Eq. (5.9):
z.
Forces Due :a
R d
;l sin 2wt)
(5.10)
complex mo wn o.
f the connecting rod by a concentrated
accuracy by replacmg the mass M" 0
M and M should be
M
at A and a mass Mh at B. Masses
"'
b
.
.
:e~~rmi~~d such that the resultant unbalanced force due ~o th;~mou~n~s
the same as due to motion of the connecting rod. Magmtu es. o "'an
b
may be determined from Eq. (5.15) and (5.16) respectively.
.. = rw '( cos wt + 7
r cos 2wt)
xP
(5.11)
(5.15)
iP = rw (sin wt +
The inertia force FP due to translatory motion of the piston and piston
rod is thus given by Eq. (5.12):
and
-;~-:-.7
(5.16)
Ma2-f.:MIJ=Mcr
(5.12)
where I,, I,
in which
MP =mass of piston, piston rod and cross head .
Force Due to Motion of Crank Rod. The unbalanced force due to rotary
motion of the crank will now be determined. The unbalance in the crankshaft may be replaced by an equivalent mass at the crankpin A so as to
produce the same inertia force as due to motion of the crank. Since all
points on the crank rod move in a circular path, equivalent mass can be
determined from Eq. (5.13):
(5.13)
d ay be
at A will be undergoing a rotary motiOn an m
M
h
b 1
f e F due to
T e mass a2
in
combined with the mass of the crank M,,. The un a ance ore ..; M
rotation of masses at A may be obtained by replacmg M,, by (Ma,
,,)
Eq. (5.14):
2
in which
M , 1 = Equivalent mass of crank rod lumped at A
M, =mass of crank rod acting at its centre of gravity K
r = crank radius
and
r 1 = distances of center of gravity of crank rod from 0
(5.17)
q.
= "'fo.1 8 rw '(cos
wt +
I cos
2wt)
(5.18)
and
(5.19a)
194
Fz = M,\rw 2 sin wt
(5.19b)
F,
195
Fx =FAX+ FB
- M
Arw cos wt
r w
+ MBrw 2 cos wt + MB-1cos 2wt
(5.20)
(d
. , orce m the directiOn of piston motion has both
bee;~~::~:/fr~~ ~ and secondary (depending on 2w) component1'~;';:~
of the iston m . q. (5.20). The force m a direction perpendicular to that
. Pd f otwn has only a pnmary component [see Eq. (5 19b)] The
magmtu e o pnmary and secondary components of F can be . . .
obtamed by
separatmg the terms containing w and 2w in Eq. (5.20):
pl)
Counterweights
F,
Figure 5.2.
(5.21)
--,. };,.,..
and
(5.22)
of Fx.
x -
.
A
as counterwe 1ght at
f
.
dtrectwn of radius 0 A (Fig 5 2 ) Th
. an ang1e o 180 Wtth the
e
magmtude
of
M'
d
d.
Fx-M
rw cos 2wt
srw 2 cos wt + Ms-I
(5.23)
Multicylinder Engines
(5.24)
197
196
Y
T
I
I
Direction of
rShaft
Cylinder # i
tJJe---,---j
1'1
Y,
Y!
~q---L-i-n
F, = w'
x-j
2:"
(5.27a)
i=l
Cylinder #1
or1 ----~~~-------1~----------~
--3]
ill
+ Ms,)
Fxi = (MA,
crank rotation
Fx = w'
r,[ (MAi
(5.27b)
i~l
(a)
(b)
Figure 5.3. Schematic layout of (a) multicylinder horizontal engine in xy plane (piston motion
in x direction, Engine shaft is parallel to y axis.) (b) Orientation of axes.
is parallel to Y axis and the crank rotation is in XZ plane with the origin of
coordinates at 0, the combined mass center of gravity of the engine and the
foundation.
The arrangement of multicylinder engine under consideration will generate unbalanced forces in the directions of X and Z. The magnitude of
unbalanced force due to any cylinder will depend upon the crank angle a
which defines the relative position of pistons in different cylinders at any
time. For example, a = 180" for a two-cylinder engine implies that when the
piston in one of the cylinders is in the extreme right piston, the piston in the
other cylinder is in the extreme left position. That is, they operate out of
phase. The unbalanced forces due to operation of a multicylinder engine can
be computed by following the principle that was used for the case of a
single-cylinder engine and then determining the resultant force in a given
direction as the algebraic sum of the components of forces due to all the
cylinders in that direction. Depending upon the mounting arrangement of
different cylinders in a multicylinder engine, its operation may result in the
generation of either the unbalanced forces or unbalanced moments or both.
Let the total number of cylinders be n. The unbalanced forces due to
operation of the ith cylinder may be obtained from Eqs. (5.19b) and (5.20)
by replacing MA with MA,, Mn with Mn 1, r by r, and changing wt to
(wt +a;). This substitution gives
(5.25)
(5.28a)
i=l
and
F =rw'f(MA +Ms)
X
'
(5.28b)
"
(5.29a)
M="'FY
~
X
Zl
i=l
"
My ="'Fx
L..J
Zl
(5.29b)
i=l
"
M z ="'FY
L..J XI
I
i=l
where
and
'
(5.29c)
198
!he exciting moments will have primary and secondary components dependmg upon the ~ature of unbalanced forces generated by the machine.
The conditiOns for balancing the fo~ces and moments generated by
operatiOn ~fa honzontally mounted multiCylmder engine can be established
by exammmg Eqs. (5.28) and (5.29). The primary component of exciting
forces Will be balanced if [from Eqs. (5.28a and b)]
199
F, =0
t=l
(5.30a)
Fx= rw
and
t=l
M 8 cos(wt+ a,)+
(5.30b)
cos2(wt+
a,)]
(5.33b)
F~ = rw 2 M 8
(5.33c)
i=l
2 2
IM
"'
F: = -rw- M 8 ,~[cos
2(wt +a,)]
1
(5.30c)
(5.33d)
Substituting the value ofF, from Eqs. (5.33a) in Eqs. (5.29a,b), we get
(5.34a)
.2.:
i=l
X, sin ( wt + a ) = 0
(5.31a)
(5.31b)
M y =0
.2.:
1=1
n
2.:
1=1
(5.31c)
Substituting the values ofF; and F: from Eqs. (5.33c,d) in Eqs. (5.29c), we
get
M;=LF;iyi
Y,cos2(wt+ a,)=O
(5.32)
So far, we have c6nsidered the unbalanced exciting loads due to operatiOn of honwntally mounted smgle or multicylinder engines. For vertically
mounted engmes (piston motwn along Z axis), the exciting loads can be
computed by mterchangmg X with Z in Eqs. (5.19)-(5.24) for singlecylmder engmes and m Eqs. (5.28) and (5.29) for multicylinder engines. For
piston motion along Y axis, replace X by y in the above equations.
(5.35a)
i=l
M"="'
Z
L.,; F".Y
XI
I
1=1
(5.34c)
Also
In the case under consideration, only the force Fx has a secondary component and the secondary component of moment will be balanced if
.2.:
(5.34b)
(5.35b)
i=l
200
It is also observed from Eqs. (5.33c) and (5.33d) that the maximum
secondary force is equal to r/1 X (maximum primary force in that direction).
The absolute values of the exciting forces and moments depend upon the
cr~k :ngle a. For example, for the two-cylinder engine with crank angle
a- 90 (Fig. 5.4) and rotatmg mass counterbalanced, we have, from
equatiOnS (5.33),
F, = 0
201
Unbalanced primary and secondary forces and couples due to single and
multicylinder engines for different crank arrangements are summarized in
Table 5.1 (Newcomb, 1951). In case all the cylinders of a multicylinder
engine are not identical, the exciting loads should be calculated using Eqs.
(5.27) and (5.29). Besides the forces due to engine operation, there will be
additional forces due to machines being operated by the engine or vice
versa. The resultant exciting loads will influence the dynamic response of the
foundation. The horizontal forces due to engine operation will also give
exciting moments about the combined center of gravity of the machine
foundation system.
(5.36a)
5.2
by
M; is given
(5.36c)
(5.37)
in which m =mass of rotor and e =effective eccentricity, that is, the
distance of the mass center from the axis of rotation. The horizontal and
vertical components of the unbalanced force are given by
Fx
7T)J
= mew cos wt
(5.38a)
(5.38b)
and
r w2 D
= - -2 M 8 [cos2wt+cos2wt]
1
rzwz
= - - M nD cos 2wt
1
F z =mew sin wt
(5.36d)
-----+D/2 ---0
F= 2mew 2
D/2
(5.39a)
The vertical and horizontal components of the unbalanced force are given
by
Figure 5.4.
Fx = 2mew 2 cos wt
(5.39b)
:::"'
Table 5.1.
Forces
Couples
Primary
Single crank
_A_
Two cranks at 90
~
1~
Two cylinders on
one crank
Cylinders at 90
Two cylinders on
one crank
Opposed cylinders
).
Four cylinders
Cranks at 180
Cranks at 90
Six cylinders
r J,llt
~
+~
~~
F' without
"'
"'
0
Primary
Secondary
None
None
F"
counter wts.
(0.5) F' with
counter wts.
0
2F"
F'D without
counter wts.
F'
T D with
counter wts.
Nil
None
Nil
F'D
(1.41) F"
Nil
Nil
counter wts.
2F' without
counter wts.
F' with
counter wts.
'"'
.. 0
.
0
Secondary
,.~,
None
Nil
(3.46) F' D
4.0 F"D
''-~
204
EXAMPLES
205
= mew
l cos wt
Mz =mew 1sin wt
(5.39e)
(5.39f)
(a)
(b)
5.3
Machines such as forging hammers, punch presses, and stamping machines produce inwact or pulse-type loads. There is no method to date (1987)
to define the fbrces imposed on tile\"foundation due to an impact and the
variation of these forces with time. This information may however be
obtained experimentally. Experimental data on impact tests on 30-cmdiameter instrumented model footing (Drnevich and Hall, 1966; Lysmer and
Richart, 1966) indicates that the shape and duration of the loading pulse
varies with the energy of impact and energy absorbing characteristics of
supporting medium such as elastic pads. The necessity to acquire such data
on prototype foundations of this type cannot be overstressed.
We have so far considered the nature of unbalanced exciting loads due to
operation of different types of machine. The process of calculation of
exciting loads will now be illustrated with some typical examples.
m
m
.t'
lei
..._
'
. t'
(d)
5.4
Figure_ 5.5. Unbalanced forces due to rotary machines. (a) single rotor; (b) two rotors with
: ual m phase u~balance; (c) two rotors with equal unbalance with a phase difference of 180
1 1 two rotors with equal unbalance at any phase.
'
and
(5.39c)
For the case of rotors shown in Fig. 5.5c, the
due to the two masses at any time cancel out, but there is a resulting
moment M gtven by
M = mew 2 (l)
(5.39d)
EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 5.4.1
A horizontal single cylinder reciprocating engine is mounted on a foundation block as shown in Fig. 5.6. The center line of the piston is 30 em
above the top of the block and the center of the crank lies vertically above
the mass center of the combined machine foundation system. The data on
the engine is as follows~''
Weight of the piston and piston rod= 10.5 kg
Weight of crank assumed concentrated at the crank pin= 4.6 kg
Weight of connecting rod= 5.3 kg
Length of connecting rod l = 45 em
Crank radius r = 15 em
Operating speed of engine = 600 rpm
The connect;ng rod is of uniform cross section.
206
(a)
1.
F~
207
EXAMPLES
, F"x
Foundation
block
Combined
e.G.
-~;-::M r 2 w~
F" =-
(F~)m, =
Compute the unbalanced exciting forces and moments for the design of
the foundation assuming:
3.
cos 2wt
2
(0.45)
10.5 + H5.3)
= ,.------;~';-'---'9.81
600(21T)
= 62.83 rad/sec
60
(b)
(5.22)
k =
264 .5 g 0 .2645 t
F~h
M; = F:h = (0.2645)(0.3
=0.739kgsec 2 /m
.
d
T o t a I mass at B due to ptston
an crank rod M
M 8 r w = (1.340)(0.15) (62.83) =
M~
4.6+ t{5.3)
9.81
M; is given by
+ 1.0) = 0.344 t m
Exciting force Fz
F, =0
208
..
.!
209
EXAMPLES
F~
is given by
2
F; = M 8 rw cos wt
(5.24)
(')
Exciting moment
The primary component of exciting moment M ~ is given by
M; = F~h = (0.7935)(1.3) = 1.0315 t m. The secondary component
of the exciting moment
remains unchanged and is equal to
0.344 t m as calculated in part (a).
M;
1.0 m
j_
EXAMPLE 5.4.2
In Example 5.4.1 if the engine was mounted vertically with XZ as the plane
of crank rotation and the counterweights are installed, determine the
exciting forces and moments for design of the foundation. Assume that the
line of motion of the piston lies along the Z axis through the center of
gravity of the engine and the foundation.
(b)
Figure 5.7.
Solution
Data is as given in Example 5 .4.1.
The direction of the piston motion is vertical and along Z axis and
counterbalancing has been done:
(a)
r w
(FJm" = MB - 1- =
is similary given by
F~
(1.340)(0.15) (62.83)
(0.45)
= 264.5 kg= 0.2645 t
(b)
(c)
Because of counterbalancing, Fx = 0
Unbalanced exciting moments. As F; and F~ pass through 0 and
Fx = 0, no unbalanced moments are generated and Mx = My = M, = 0.
EXAMPLE 5.4.3
t f
nks a
,
= 180
of exciting loads.
foundation. The two cylinders are identical in all respects. The data for the
d ers ts
as gtven
4.2)
2.1+ ( T
'
M=0428kgsec/m
Total rotatmg mass A 9.81
4.2)
5.2+ ( 2
2
=0 744kgsec /m
Total rectprocatmg
mass M n -9.81
210
'lT(~~OO)
= 157.07 sec- 1
REFERENCES
Unbalanced forces Fx
1. Unbalanced force Fx 1 due to cylinder #1
(c)
2.
Fx 1 = M Arw sm
= 1.5838(sin wt) t
2.
1.
Primary component
F;,
cos wt
(From 5.21)
(cos wt) kg
F;,
Secondary component
F 11
zl
r w
MB - 1
due to cylinder #1
COS
Resultant forces Fx
Fx = Fx 1 + Fx 2 = 1.5838 (sin wt- sin wt) = 0
due to cylinder #1
F;
Unbalanced forces
(From 5.19b)
wt
2
(b)
211
The foundation should be designed for the following exciting forces and
2wt
(From 5.22)
2
0
) (0.15)
= ( .744 (0. 4S) (157.D7) cos 2wt = 9.17 (cos 2wt) kg
moments:
F, = F; = 1.8354 t (secondary)
REFERENCES
F'::,_ = (0.744)
~~.~~))
=0.9177 (cos2wt)t
5.
F;
Reciprocating machines are probably the oldest machines used by mankind. The classical example is a crank mechanism (Fig. 5.1) which is used to
convert translatory motion into mtary motion and vice versa (Section 5.1).
Typical examples of reciprocating machines are steam engines, internal
combustion engines (e.g., petrol, diesel, and gas engines), pumps and
compressors. These machines may consist of a single cylinder and a piston
which may be single acting or double acting, may consist of multicylinders
with pistons operating in a regular pattern and mounted on a common
crank. The pumps and compressors belonging to the category of reciprocating machines may be of the single-stage or multiple-stage type depending on whether the total compression is developed in one or more than one
operation. The multiple-stage arrangement may consist of either several
piston-cylinders operated by a common engine or several different engines.
The direction of piston movement may be horizontal or vertical. Most
reciprocating machines have operating speeds that are smaller than 12001500 rpm. Reciprocating machines operating at higher speeds are sometimes
encountered.
The foundations for reciprocating machines usually consist of rigid concrete blocks that have openings for mounting the machines. The machines
may be mounted directly on a concrete block or on suitably designed elastic
pads. Block foundations resting on springs are also sometimes used.
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
1.
Foundations for
Reciprocating Machines
6.1
213
6.2
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Any movement of the block can be resolved into these six independent
displacements. Hence, the block has six degrees of freedom (or modes of
vibration) and six corresponding natural frequenctes. Of the stx modes,
translation along the Z axis and rotation around the Z axis can occur
independently of any other motion. However, translation along the X or Y
axis and corresponding rotation about the Y or X axis, respectively, always
214
215
V'
Torsion (yawing)
0'
0'
~+X
Longitud ina I
z
Figure 6.1.
METHODS OF ANALYSIS
Because only the first two are used in practice, these are described in detail
here.
6.4
00
occur together and are called coupled modes. Therefore, in analyzing rigid
block foundations, one is concerned with four types of motion of which two
(translation along the Z axis and rotation around the z axis) are independent, and two (translation along the X axis and rotation around the Y
axis and vice versa) are coupled and occur simultaneously. The nature of soil
reactions that come into play for the different modes of vibration are
different, as already discussed in Section 4.4.
6.3
Figure 6.2. Lamb's problems for steady-s!ate o~cillating force or ~ulse loa_ding acting at a point
(three-dimensional) or along a line (two-dimensional). (a) For verhcalloadng at the surfa.ce. (b)
For horizontal loading at the surface. (c) For vertical loading within the body. (d) For horazon~al
loading within the body. (After Lamb, 1904. After Richart, Hall, and Woods, "Vibrations of S?ds
and foundations/' (1970, p. 193. Reprinted by permission of PrenticeRHall, Englewood Chffs,
New Jersey.)
(6.1)
in which
216
3. Parabolic
(6.6)
/p = wro- 2wfro
oVa
v -1.7"""
'
and
'
(6.2)
b=-=P r'o
Ysro'
217
(6.3)
in which
It can be seen from Eq. (6.3) that the mass ratio essentially describes the
relatiOn between the mass of the vibrating footing and a certain mass of the
elastic half-space.
Reissners' solution was extended by Quinlan (1953) and Sung (1953a),
both of whom considered the effect of three types of vertical contact
pressures bel?w the base occasioned by an oscillating vertical force. The
pressure distnbutiOns considered were
1. Rigid base
(T
eiwt
0
27TroVr~-r2
az=O
(6.4)
for r>r 0
2. Uniform
(6.5)
Figure 6.3. Effect of pressure distribution on the theoretical response of vertically vibrating
rigid footing (After Richart and Whitman, 1967.)
Rigid
~I~
1.0
o~------t;------~------~-0.5
1.0
1.5
Vibration amplitude = Az
b~4o ~4
(6.7a)
~T
1//7/.////7/
Po
219
Equation (6.7a) helps to define the value of the equivalent spring constant
k, for vertical vibrations as follows:
= constant
.;:I~
4Gr 0
(6.7b)
k, = (1- v)
".Ef
u
"'
..
"E
ro
~
0.3 . . - - - - . . - - - - - , - - - - - - - ,
0.3
.Q
~
0.2
~
I
<
c
"g_
0.]
0.2
__..;>.._-----.j]/4
E
0
"
0
1.5
.___.::::..-c-~:-1112
0
114
112
1.5
(,)
.
~
;g~!e 6.5. Ampli~ude versus frequency relations for vertical oscillation of a rigid
oo .;~g ~n an elast~c halfMspace (v = ! ). (a) For constant amplitude of exciting force
exc1 mg orce amphtude dependent on exciting frequency. (After Richart, 1962 .)
218
circular
(b) For
Frequency ratio, ao
Figure 6.6. Displacement functions for a rigid circular footing vibrating vertically on the
surface of an elastic half~space. (After Rycroft, 1956.)
220
Hsieh's Analog.
in which
c.
Q = Qoeh<>~
221
Gro ( -[2
= --;;;--
!'1 + !'2
r; , 17':.
= -;;0
- [2
v Gp !'1 + !'2
and
(6.8)
(6.13)
(6.9)
By differentiating Eq. (6.9) with respect to time, one gets
Thus, both c, and k, are dependent upon a 0 and v. Next Hsieh also
considered a rigid cylindrical footing of total weight W placed on the surface
of an elastic half-space and excited by a vertical periodic force P (Fig. 6.7b).
The equation of motion of such a system is given by
2
dz
wQ eiwt
dt =
G~
(if; - [,)
W d z
g dt 2
( 6.10)
This leads to
(6.12)
P- Q
(6.14)
f 1 wz- f z dz
~
Qow
Gr
(f'1 +f')e'w'
2
W d z
dz
P iwt
--+
e
2 c -+kz=P=
g dt
'
' dt
0
or
=
(6.15)
~~ u; + t~l
0
(6.11)
Weightless
rigid disk
Block
mass = m
F= - 1 -v
G, v,
B,
+z
Q =
dz
Czdt +
Ia)
kzz
(b)
Figu~e 6:7. Parameters in Hsieh's equations. (After Hsieh, 1962. Published by Thomas Telfo d
Publications.)
F 1 + tF2
(6.16)
Q
G, v, p
f=
1-v
1-v m
= -4- b = -4- - ,
pro
(6.17)
in which B.= modified mass ratio for vertical vibrations. By using the values
of F and B, Lysmer and Richart (1966) developed the response curves
shown in Fig. 6.9.
The effect of frequency ratio on the variation in damping and spring
factors was studied. It was observed that frequency-independent constant
223
'
4Grb
k =-z
1- v
112
.;:
I
114
""
(6.18)
3 .4r; _ r-:::7"
(6.19)
c.= (1- v) v pG
E
0
u
By using the above values of spring and damping constants and the theory of
vibrations (Chapter 2), natural frequency "'"' is determined as
w
1.0
1.5
Dimensionless frequency, a0
~ii~~::.~-~~ ~riation of modified displacement function with Poisson's ratio. (After Lysmer and
nz
'V!7S
T:i
(6.20)
3.4r!
mi + ( _ v)
1
4Gr
vPGi + (1 _
~) z
(6.21)
"'G'""'-~
(v =
- - - - Simplified analog
""::;
II
1
3}
Bz
or
::;,"
(6.22)
Resonance occurs only when B, "'0.3, and the following approximate
formulas for resonanct< condition for frequency-independent constant force
excitation were establr~hed:
w
2
Dimensionless frequency, a 0
222
nz
V, yB,-0.36
=-
ro
(6.23a)
Bz
and
(6.23b)
225
224
P,
2 2
)
+ (2/j) 2
P,
k,{[1- (wlw,,)']' + (2~,w/w,j}ll
(6.23c)
7-8v
-m -
7-8v
w
--,
(6.25)
The dimensionless frequency factor a ox is equal to wr"yprG. The expressions for the equivalent spring and damping factors are as follows: The
equivalent spring
(6.26)
(6.24a)
The maximum vibration amplitude for frequency dependent exciting force is
given by
A
'
_m_,e c::-::~,;;B~,==
m 0.85y B,- 0.18
(6.24b)
(6.27)
ex
0.2875
CC
=-=-X
(6.28)
The mass in the above analog is the total mass vibrating on the surface of
the elastic half-space. The shape of the magnification factor M versus a for
(6.29)
By comparison with Equations (2.37) and (2.11),
constant force excitation in Fig. 6.9 shows that the peaks at ;esonancea are
relatively flat, and significant damping is associated with the vertical mode of
(6.30)
vibration.
As pointed out in Section 6.2, the sliding and rocking vibrations of a rigid
block foundation are coupled and occur simultaneously, but for simplicity it
IS necessary to study the cases of pure sliding and rocking vibration first. The
information on natural frequencies of pure rocking and sliding is used to
compute response of foundations undergoing simultaneous rocking and
shdmg. It Will be shown later that the natural frequency in sliding alone is
very close to the lower natural frequency of combined rocking and sliding.
Arnold et al. (1955) and Bycroft (1956) presented analytical solutions for
horizontal translation of a rigid circular disc resting on the surface of an
elastic half-space and excited by a horizontal force,,~px = Ptiiwt. Their results
were expressed in terms of the dimensionless frequency ratio a and mass
ratio b; the solution was valid for all values of v. In a manne; similar to
Lysmer's solution, Hall (1967) developed an analog between the elastic
cy factor aox derived through the elastic half-space solution are compared
with the curves for the analog solution in Fig. 6.10 (Hall, 1967). The flat
peaks on the curves in Fig. 6.10 indicate that the mode of vibration for
horizontal sliding is also associated with significant damping as in the case of
vertical vibrations. It may be mentioned here that the expressions for sliding
along the y axis are also similar.
Rocking Vibrations of a Rigid Circular Footing
Hall's Analog.
227
FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES
226
Bx
r-"\
5
- - Exact solution
---Analog solution
- - Exact sqluf1on
---Analog solution
:'
;'l"
"'
c
0
"'u
'2
00
"
o.sot__L-~L-~-~-~o~.s~-L-~~-L-_L-~-~~k--~~
"''
a~
Figure 6.1 0. Response of a rigid circular footing on an elastic half space for pure sliding. (After
Hall, 1967. 1968 The University of New Mexico Press.)
about tbe Y axis, and cf> is the angle of rotation. Figure 6.11 illustrates the
geometry of the problem and sbows a plot of the magnification factor, M 1
vs. dimensionless frequency factor ao.P for different values of the inertia ratio
B 1 (analogous to mass ratio in case of translation.) The inertia ratio Bq, is
defined as
B = 3( 1 - V) _M_mo = ~ _M-"'m"'-o('--1_-_v-'-)
5
"
8
pr o
8
'Y, 5
-r
(6.32)
in which Mmo is the mass moment of inertia of the foundation and machine
about the axis of rotation (in this case they axis, not shown).
It may be seen in Fig. 6.11 that the response curves are characterized by
relatively sharp peaks compared to the case of vertical vibrations. Hence
smaller damping is associated with the rocking mode of vibration (see Fig.
4.40).
.
ring-dashpot model that
. .
.
he
Hall (1967) proposed an eqmva1ent mass-sp .
could be used to evaluate the response of a rockmg ngtd footmg ond t b
y
surface of an elastic half-space. His analog for rockmg ts represente
(6.33)
in which
.,,
kq,
= 3(1- v)
(6.34a)
and
Cq,
= (1-
v)(1 + B 4J
(6.34b)
229
228
(; = ,S;_ =
1
0.15
(l+B,p)VB:;
c1"
wn<P
(6.36)
is given by
={If.
(6.37)
mo
The analog solution is shown in Fig. 6.11 by dotted lines along with the
elastic half-space solution and is in rather close agreement with it.
Torsional Vibrations of a Rigid Circular Footing
br:fifiro
Gof=~
. 1 f
nc factor at resonance for torsional
Figure. 6.12. lnert~ahratioHv~rsusd ~:~:o~~i~ra;~~~eof ~oils and Foundations," 1970, P
vibrations (After RIC art, a an
I
d crff N Jersey)
215. Repr.inted by permission of Prentice-Hall, Englewoo
' s, ew
.
wn.;
(6.39)
in which tf; = angular rotation of the footing around the vertical axis of
k~, =equivalent soil
spring constant for torsional vibrations, and M,e'w' =horizontal exciting
moment acting about the Z axis. The spring constant k 1, and the damping
constant c 1, are given by (Richart and Whitman, 1967)
(6.41b)
k,,
16
Gro
1.6r~y'Gp
c1, = 1 + B,,,
( 6.40a)
{6.40b)
0.5
(6.42)
+ 2B,1.)
230
It has already been. stated (Section 6.2) that either rocking or sliding
Rx
alo~e IS
X0
xo
=X-
(6.44)
Lcf>
231
(6.45)
}i"
+x
~+Px
(b)
/~
l_
0
X
llr-
(a)
1-1
I
I
I
I
r
11
'I
I!
~Fx
1:
(6.50a)
'N
r-
I I
J(--
and
.~
(6.50b)
l
'/
-A'r0
I
(c)
Figure 6.13. Coupled rocking and sliding vibrations of a rigid circular block on an elastic
halfMspace. (After Richart and Whitman, 1967.)
Equations (6.47) and (6.49) demonstrate that coupling of the two motions, i.e. sliding and rocking, takes place because the center of gravity of
the footing and the point at which the horizontal reactive force R x of the
elastic half-space is applied are not the same. If L equals zero, there is no
coupling effect, and sliding and rocking are independent. Particular solutions of Eqs. (6.47) aud (6.49) may be obtained by substituting
solved. However, if the spring constant and damping are assumed to have a
frequency independent constant value as in the case of analog solutions for
232
sliding a~d rocking, Eqs. ( 6.47) and ( 6.49) can be easily solved. The natural
freq~encws of coupled rocking and sliding are obtained by making the
forcmg functiOns Px e'w' and M/w' in Eqs. (6.47) and Eq. (6.49) e ual to
zero. Th1s leads to:
q
( 6.5la)
and
233
(6.55a)
(6.51b)
By substituting Eqs. (6.50a,b) into Eqs. (6.51a,b) and rearranging the
terms, the frequency equat10n IS obtamed as given below (Prakash and Puri
1980, 1981b)
'
4
[ wnd
w2
w,d (
n</>
+4[~xwnxwnd
'Y
+ (I) nx
2
4< <
(w2 -w2 )+
nd
rt<f>
W nx W n<f>]
+ ~~""""""
(6.55b)
The value of A(w 2 ) is obtained from Eq. (6.56)
~q,W,q,W,d
( 2-
(t)I!X
2 ]2-0
(l)nd)
(6.52)
in which
1;1
px
Ax=-M
m m
If ~x
= {;1 = 0, that is, when there is no damping in the system then Eq.
(6.52) reduces to
'
2
4-
w,
Wnx
w,
+ Wnq,) +
y
W,xwn1>
(6.54a)
nJ,2
= _
2y
[w 2 + (J)n<fl
2 ) + , /( 2 + 2 )2
2 2
v {J)ntf,
-4ywncf>(l)Nx]
/IX
and
{J)/JX
(6.54b)
(6.57b)
In case the footing is subjected to the action of a moment and a
horizontal force, the resulting amplitudes of sliding and rocking may be
obtained by adding the corresponding solutions from Eqs. (6.55) and (6.57).
Rigorous solutions for Eqs. (6.47) and (6.49) can be obtained for both
elastic half-space and Halls' analog by using numerical techniques on a
high-speed digital computer. .For numerical solutions, frequency-dependent
stiffness and damping can also be considered.
234
235
6.5
0.12
~
I
..........
0.08
""
-(2
0.24 ~------,-------,-------,
'0
ba')
( 37T
'
(6.58b)
'\;
:-"\
~
I
'Y-;:~-/
0.12
', "
<
'-
-fz
'
- ~ 2
b
'
1.0
0.5
+
Rectangle
'- '-'
'
~12
ea/2
o/2
b/2
'\
-~---~
1.5
(b)
in which
b = width of the foundation (parallel to the axis of rotation for rocking)
" ~"(I"
11
''>
Fi ure 6 .14. Displacement functions for vertical. vibration. of rigid squar~ an~ rectangular
fo!tings. (After Richart, Halk and Woods, 11 Vibrat1ons of Sm~s and Foundations, 1970, P
212. Reprinted by permission'-of Prentice-Hall, Englewood Chffs, New Jersey.)
1.5
1.0
0.5
( 6.58a)
roo/= ro
..............................
1T
and
(6.58c)
236
For footings with length to width ratios greater than 6, an ideal twodimensional condition can be assumed and the footings treated as strip
footings which can be analyzed by applying Quinlan's (1953) method.
The above discussion implies that a footing of any shape whether it is a
circle or a rectangle, will respond similarly as long as the areas of the
footings are the same. A footing having an area of 8.0 m 2 will have an
equivalent radius of 1.6 m for translational oscillations regardless of its
shape, which may be a circle with a diameter of 3.2 m or a rectangle with
length of width ratio of 4.0. However, the actual response of these two
footings may not be the same.
It has been found that two footings of different shapes will not behave
identically, even though the equivalent radius based upon equal areas for
translational modes are the same (Chae, 1969). In an accurate analysis,
footing shape must be taken into account. Based upon his experimental
observations (Chae, 1969) suggested that the concept of equivalent circular
areas may be used to predict natural frequencies but that the perimeter
characteristics should be taken into account for reasonable predictions of the
amplitudes.
The problem of vertical vibrations of rectangular footings has also been
studied by Dasgupta and Rao (1978), who used a three-dimensional finite
element model and three different vertical pressure distributions at the
footing soil interface. However, their model is too complex for the design of
ordinary machine foundations. Besides, no comparison with actual observations has been reported.
It is a common practice to transform area of any shape to an equivalent
circle of same area (for translational modes) or equivalent moment of inertia
(for rocking or torsional modes) (Richart and Whitman, 1967; Whitman and
Richart, 1967). Dobry and Gazetas (1986) and Dobry et a!. (1986) have
suggested that this procedure of using the concept of equivalent radius has
limitations and the foundation shape defined by the aspect ratio a/ b has a
significant influence on dynamic stiffness and damping values, especially in
cases of long foundations.
6.6
Vertical Vibrations
In elastic half-space theory it is assumed that the medium 'is homogeneous. Actual soil deposits are layered and in certairi" cases, the response of
a footing may be affected by the stiffness or rigidity of underlying layers of
soil. The problem of a vibrating footing on a layered medium has received
the attention of several investigators (Reissner, 1937; Warburton, 1957;
Arnold eta!., 1955; Bycroft, 1956). It is assumed that the footing rests on
the surface of an isotropic, homogeneous, elastic material of thickness H
that extends to infinity horizontally. This layer rests on a semi-infinite body
of infinite rigidity.
237
0,2
(kz)I,;,,I~
Y...... __(k,)oo
(kz}o;, =
'
4Gr0
(I - ,)
-----------OL__L__j2___L__4L_~--~6~-L--~8~_L~~~--~~~
H
'o'
Figure 6.15.
Static displacement and spring constant for vertical loading of a rigid circular
238
of elastic material fixed at the base, free at the top, and restrained against
lateral deformations on the side. In this condition, it behaves like a rod of
elastic material. The conditions involving the vibrations of such a column of
soil have already been discussed in Chapter 3 (Section 3.1). Vibrations in
higher modes are possible for such a case. For a footing which has a certain
weight in which B, > 0, the amplitudes are finite at resonance, but are
amplified by the underlying hard layer. The increase in amplitude at
resonance occurs because the underlying hard layer obstructs the transmission of the wave energy away from the vibrating footing and reflects back a
part of this energy into the layer. This results in reduced geometrical
damping. The energy is finally dissipated by transmission in a horizontal
direction. Kuhlemeyer (1969) discussed the transmission of wave energy
into a layered medium. An estimate of the amplitude magnification at
resonance for a vertically vibrating footing on anelastic layer is given in
Table 6.1. The magnification factor, ML in Table 6.1 is defined as
( 6.59)
in which (Z,) 1 =dynamic amplitude of the elastic layer and (Z,)oo =static
deflection (elastic half-space). The term (Z,)oo is given by
(Z) = (1- v)P,
s oo
4Gro
239
It may be noted here tbat a hard rock underlying a relatively thin layer of
elastic soil may cause large amplification of the vertical amplitudes because
of the reflection of energy back into the soil. Special care must be taken m
the design of a machine foundation for such a case.
Torsional Vibrations
(6.60)
= l)
ML for
H
ro
Rigid
b=O
1
2
3
00
00
00
00
00
b=5
b = 10
b =20
b =30
5.8
8.0
4.7
3.4
11.4
16.1
9.5
5.9
20.5
30.6
23:7
15.6
28.9
40.8
36.0
27.9
1.21
1.60
2.22
2.72
""
figure 6.16. lntertia ratio vs. dimensionless frequency at resonance for torsional vibrations of
a rigid circular footing on an elastic layer. (After Rycroft, 1956.)
240
6.7
241
Pz sin wt
P, sin wt
The linear elastic weightless spring method is sometimes used for analysis
of machine foundations and utilizes the concept that the displacement of a
loaded foundation resting on the surface of a soil can be determined by
simulating the soil with a set of independent linear elastic springs that can
produce equivalent reactive forces to the displacements developed. This
concept commonly known as the elastic subgrade reaction theory has been
described by Hayashi (1921), Heteyni (1946), and Terzaghi (1943, 1955).
The idea of using elastic springs was extensively developed by Barkan
(1962) for the purpose of predicting the dynamic response of machine
foundations. His concept is based upon the following simplifying assumptions:
m
/
Ia I
(b)
Pz sin wt
2.
3.
4.
5.
For the purpose of computation, consider a situation in which a foundation block rests on the surface of the ground and is excited by the vertical
unbalanced force P,(t) generated by the operation of a machine (Fig.
6.17a). Let the unbalanced force be represented by
P,(t) = P, sin wt
and the idealized equivalent spring-mass system by Fig. 6.17b. If the center
of gravity of the foundation and machine and the centroid of the base area
of the foundation in contact with the soil lie on f vertical line that coincides
with the line of action of the exciting force P,, then the foundation will
vibrate vertically only. Because the foundation block is assumed to be rigid,
its displacement may be defined by the displacement of its center of gravity,
and the vibrating mass may therefore be considered to be a concentrated
point mass. This assumption justifies the model shown in Fig. 6.17c. The
problem of a vertically vibrating foundation is thus reduced to the analysis
lei
figure 6.17. Vertical vibrations of a rigid block: (a) actual case, (b) soil replaced by equivalent
spring kz, and (c) equivalent model.
position;
~::
k,
C,A
( 4.27)
242
243
in which
Px sin wt
Px sin wt
c A]'/2
~
rad/sec
(6.63a)
or
/,
nz
1 [cmA]'
=-
27T
-"-
lei
1
'
Hz
Figure 6.18.
(6.63b)
in which
Therefore, Eq. (6.65a) may be written as
w," =The circular natural frequency (undamped) of the soil foundation
mi +
c';tf =
PX sin wt
(6.65b)
(CA)
m
wnx
/,
=-
112
rad/sec
-'-
(6.66a)
(6.64a)
or
(6.64b)
1 (C,A)
27T
m
nx
--
112
Hz
(6.66h)
in which
=The circular natural frequency of the sliding vibrations in radians/
sec and
=The
natural frequency of the sliding vibrations in cycles/sec or Hz.
/,nx
wnx
Sliding Vibrations
(6.65a)
in which
px
m(w nx - w )
(6.67)
The expressions for frequency and amplitude in sliding are thus similar to
the expressions for vertical vibrations.
Rocking Vibrations
244
245
M, denotes the moment acting in the XZ plane (Fig. 6.19a). The footing is
symmetrical about the Y axis, and the center of mass of the foundation and
the machine and the centroid of the base area lie on a vertical line and in the
plane of the moment. The displaced position of the foundation is shown in
Fig. 6.19a, and its rotation is cf>. The equation of motion may be obtained by
applying Newton's second law of motion as explained below.
Because the displacement angle cf> is small, tan cf> = cf> in radians and the
moment
L = the distance between the center of gravity and the axis of rotation,
and
W =the weight of the foundation.
M=-M
;;..
1
mo<f-'
(6.68)
in which
Mmo is the moment of inertia of the mass of the foundation and machine
with respect to the axis of rotation.
2. Moment Mw occasioned by the displaced position of the center of
gravity of the foundation is given by
Mw = WL tan cf>
(6.69)
(6.70)
in which
(6.71)
c.zq, dA
in which
C =the coefficient of elastic nonuniform compression. The reactive
" moment dM R occasioned by the soil reaction dR is given by
Initial position
2
If the foundation does not lose contact with the soil, then the soil reaction
will be as shown in Fig. 6.19b, and the total reactive moment MR against the
foundation area in contact with the soil is given by
MR =-
(a)
I"
r c,/cf>
dA =- c.q,
I I'
dA = - c,)cf>
(6.72)
in which I is the moment of inertia of the foundation area in contact with the
soil with respect to the axis of rotation.
"~(
4. The exciting moment My(t) = M, sin wt. The equation of motion may
therefore be written as
- Mm,;j,
(b)
Figure 6.19. Rocking vibrations of a rigid block: (a) Block under excitation due to an applied
moment (b) Soil reaction below the base.
or
(6.73)
246
C I- W)112
"'M
rad/sec
mo
(6.74a)
247
in which h is the height of the point above the base where amplitude is to be
determined. It may be further noted that for a footing that rocks about Y
axis and has dimensions, a and b along the X and Y axis, respectively, I is
given by
or
ba 3
12
(6.74b)
in which
w"'" =circular natural frequency of rocking vibrations (rad/sec)
fn</> =natural frequency (Hz)
n</>
=(CI)II'
M
mo
(6.74c)
By comparing Eq. (6.73) with Eq. (6.61), and neglecting WL one obtains
k1 =
c1 I
(6.79)
(6.75)
in which
=
</>
Mz sin wt
is given by
MY
Mmo(w~</>- w 2 )
(6.76)
(6.77)
in which a. is the dimension of the footing perpendicular to the axis of
rotatmn. Stmtbriy, the contribution of rocking, towards the horizontal
amphtudes ts given by A x)
(b) Plan
(6.78)
(a)
248
the soil will thus be a nonuniform shear, which may be defined in terms of a
coefficient of elastic nonuniform shear C1,. As for rocking vibrations, the
equation of motion for torsional vibrations may be expressed as
(6.80)
in which
M m< = mass moment of inertia of the machine and foundation about the
249
assumed that the center of gravity of the machine and foundation and
centroid of the foundation base area are located on a vertical axis. Figure
6.21 shows a foundation that is excited by the following forces and moments , referred to the combined center of gravity of the foundation and the
macQ.ine:
1. Vertical force, P"(t) = P" sin wt,
2. Horizontal force, PJt) = P, sin wt, and
3. Moment, My(t) =MY sin wt
If the origin of coordinates is located at the center of gravity, 0, the
following displacements of the foundation need to be considered (Fig. 6.21):
1. Displacement in the vertical direction z,
2. Displacement in the horizontal direction x 0 at the base and
3. Rotation of the base </>
or
!,,<
1 (
-2
71"
(6.81b)
-mi + Z,=O
(6.85)
-mi+X,=O
(6.86)
-Mm'
-"+M=O
1
(6.87)
(6.82)
in which
A,,= M
M"
( 2
mz WmJ!- W
2)
( 6.83)
Ah
rA,1,
(6.84)
Displaced position
in which
r = horizontal distance of the point on the foundation from the axis of
yawing
_l__
Figure 6.21.
250
251
(6.93)
M 2 = C,AL(x
L</>)
( 6. 94)
mi + C.Az = P,(t)
z,
mx + C,Ax ~ C,AL</> =
2. Soil reaction
occasioned by settlement of the foundation under the
action of tbe static weight W:
( 6.88)
in which
(6.96)
Px(t)
(6.97)
( 6.98)
;!c':~
Equation (6.96) contains only the terms of z, and in no way depends upon
Eqs. (6.97) and (6.98). Hence it follows that the vertical vibrations of the
foundation occur independently of any other motion. Equations (6.97) and
(6.98) contain both x and q, and are interdependent. Therefore, sliding and
rocking are coupled modes. Because the vertical vibrations of a foundation
occur independently of any other vibrations, the treatment given earlier in
this article for vertical vibrations will hold in the present case also. A
solution for simultaneous rocking and sliding vibrations will now be obtained.
Natural Frequencies of Coupled Rocking and Sliding. The system that is
considered here is a two-degree-of-freedom system. The solutions for natural frequencies are obtained by considering the free vibrations of the system,
and, therefore, the forcing functions in Equations (6.97) and (6.98), may be
replaced by zero. From this, one obtains
(6.90)
in which
X0
( 6.99)
is given by
and
X 0 =X~
(6.91)
L</>
L)
(6.100)
(6.92)
'ii'J:.
X sin (w t +a)
(6.101)
(6.102)
X=
and
252
!n
';hich Xd: <1> and " are arbitrary constants whose values depend upon the
mttta1 con thons of motion.
. Bdy substituting Eqs. (6.101) and (6.102) into eqs. {6.99) and (6.100) and
d 1v1 mg by sm (w, t + "), one obtains
2
253
2
4 _
C,A ( C.;IMm
+ m
WL)J
(6.109)
By definition, the quantity (Mm + mL 2 ) is the mass moment of inertia of the
foundation and machine about an axis that passes through the centroid of
the base contact area and is perpendicular to the plane of vibrations. This is
denoted by Mmo. Thus,
or
(6.103)
and
(6.110a)
Further, by letting
Mm
Mmo
-- =
or
(6.110b)
(6.104)
(6.111)
X=
C,AL<P
C,.A- mw~
However,
(6.105)
<1>[-c;A'L'+(C.;l-WL+CAL'-M
w n2 )(CAr
m
7
C,A
C.; I- WL
')]-O
-
Mmo
(6.106)
2
Th~ term w,: which represents the natural frequency in combined sliding
an rockmg, IS the only unknown in Eq. (6.107), which can now be solved
'+'
"
/11
(6.74a)
= wn<l>
(6.107)
(6.66a)
and
mwn
For a nhontrivial solution, <1> cannot be zero. Hence the expression within the
parent eses must be zero. This leads to
----;;;:-- = W nx
(wnx
+
'Y
wll</:>) wn2 +
wnxwn<f>
'Y
=0
( 6.112)
11
w'
nl.2
(6.113)
254
255
(6.120)
2
CAL
+ ClWL- Mmw A
"
,,
A X~
C"AL
(6.54b)
Also
(6.121a)
2
2)
(C"AL 2 +C 4,J-WL-M"'w )(C"A-mw A -CALA ~P
.p
r
<f>
x
C"AL
(6.114)
2
2
w,l
11
w,z
q, W 11 x
(6.115)
and
which gives
A,~~
Wnl- W,z
1 [( W"<l>
2
2 )2
+ Wnx
y
=-
4 YWn<f>Wnx
2
2 )]1/2
C"AL
(6.116)
Amplitudes of Vibration
----::---:c_.::.C~,A:.::L::..__ _ _--: P,
Having determined the natural frequencies of the system, one may now
compute the amplitudes of vibration for the following three cases:
Case I. If only the horizontal force Px sin wt is acting, Eqs. (6.97) and
(6.98) may be rewritten as follows:
mi + C"Ax - C"AL</>
Px sin wt
m Mm [
2 + w'
wnxwn,P- "'- ( wnx
n<fl
) + w' J
(6.121b)
By substituting from Eqs. (6.114) and (6.115) into Eq. (6.12lb), we get
C"AL
A </> ~ mMm[wnlw,z-w
2 2
2( 2 +
Wnl
(6.117)
2 )
w,2
and
+ w 'l
p
X
(6.121c)
(6.118)
Let
(6.122)
x=Axsinwt
</> ~
Thus,
A 1 sin wt
in which Ax and Aq, are the maximum sliding and rocking amplitudes,
respectively. By substituting these solutions into the above equations, one
obtains
(6.119)
and
_ C"AL P
A,- t.(w2) x
(6.123)
256
Case II. If only moment MY sin wt is acting. then Eqs. (6.97) and (6.98)
may be rewntten as
nVi + C~Ax-
C~AL<f> = 0
(6.125)
and
257
(6.126)
(6.131)
b.(w') MY
(6.127)
and
in which the radius vector p is the ratio of amplitudes in sliding and rocking,
respectively. It can be seen from Eq. (6.131) that when w is very small,
p "' L and the foundation rotates about an axis that passes through the
-centroid of the base contact area, and sliding in absent.
As w increases up to W112 , (w!x2 ) is greater than zero, and p is
therefore greater than L, and Ax and Aq, have the same sign. It means that
during vibrations at frequencies w < w112 , when the center of gravity is
displaced >m a result of sliding.Jn,. the positive direction of the x axis, the
rotation of the foundation is also positive and the sliding and rocking are in
phase. This form of vibration is shown in Fig. 6.22a. In such a case, the
foundation will undergo rocking vibrations with respect to a point at a
distance p from the center of gravity of the foundation. The value of p is
given by the absolute value of expression after substituting "'nz for win Eq.
(6.131).
It can be seen that when w = wnx, p ~co and the foundation experiences
only sliding vibrations. When the frequencies w > wnx, p becomes negative,
and the axis of rotation shifts above the center of gravity. The sliding and
rocking then occur out of phase by 180". This form of vibration is shown in
Fig. 6.22b.
.
w!
( 6.128)
Case III. If both the unbalanced force Px and moment M are actin ,
the amplitudes of motwn are determined as follows:
Y
g
and
A= (C~AL)Px + (C~A- mw 2 )Mr
q,
b.(w')
(6.129b)
'
' I
(6.130a)
r---
and
/
/
_.--..-"\
\
\
_,
(6.130b)
in which h = height of the top of the foundation above the combined center
of gravity.
opposition.
.... ..--
0
(}
Figure 6.22.
(b)
Simultaneous rocking and sliding (a) in-phase with each other; (b) in-phase
258
In the analysis so far, it has been assumed that the center of gravity of the
mass of the. foundatwn and machme and the centroid of the base area lie
along a vertical axis. An eccentric distribution of machine mass may occur
when a machme and a generator or a motor are coupled on the same shaft.
Sometimes an. eccentricity in the mass distribution is caused by asymmetry
of the foundatwn because of the presence therein of cavities and openings.
Such asymmetry can often be ehmmated by adjusting the centroid of the
foundatwn area that is in contact with the soil. Sometimes when this cannot
be d~ne, one has to take into account the asymmetric distribution of the
m~ss m ord~r to compute the foundation's vibrations. In such situations, the
soil foundatwn system will behave as a three-degree-of-freedom system and
should be analyzed accordingly.
While developing the basis for linear weightless spring theory, several
Simphfymg assumptions were made. The effect of these assumptions on the
computed response of a foundation will now be evaluated.
1. Rigidity of the Foundation. The assumption concerning the rigidity of
a foundatwn IS defimtely verified in practice, because a concrete block can
be considered infinitely rigid in comparison with soil.
2. Soil U~derlying the Foundation Is Weightless. This assumption is not
v~hd m a stnct sense, because a certain mass of soil will oscillate in phase
With a v1bratmg foundation. Pauw (1953), Balakrishna (1961), and Hsieh
(1962) suggested methods for estimating this soil mass. Barkan (1962)
estimated that the sml mass beneath a vertically vibrating footing does not
exceed 23% of the foundation's mass and may be accounted for if desired.
However, the effect of this additional soil mass if included in the calculatwns will reduce the computed frequencies by about 10% from those
denved when the soil mass has been neglected. Also, the spring constant
may be so defined that the effect of the soil mass is offset. The correction for
the effect. of soil mass on the response of foundations for machines is
neglected m all the analyses being followed at the present time (1988).
3. Lmear Elastic. Behavior of Soil. The stress-strain behavior of soils
under combmed static and dynamic loads has been discussed in Chapter 4
(Sect~ons 4.2 a~d 4.3). The magnitudes of dynamic loads associated with
ma_chme operatton generally do not exceed 10% of the combined static
Weights of the found~tion and machine (Prakash and Puri, 1969). Thus, for
259
up only for the first few cycles of loading and unloading, and subsequently
the soil may be considered to behave elastically.
4. Damping. It cannot be assumed that damping can be neglected
because every soil-foundation system that vibrates results in dissipation of
energy into the supporting medium. The actual amount of damping varies
with the vibration parameters, namely, the frequency and amplitude, the
mode of vibration, and the geometry of the foundation, and the nature of
the soil. Methods for determining the amount of damping were discussed
earlier in Chapter 4 (Section 4.8). Damping affects the computed natural
frequency as well as the amplitudes of vibration of a foundation.
If the damping gin a system is known, the damped natural frequency can
be computed from
(6.132)
for g = 10%, wnd = 0.995 wn
and g = 3\)%, wnd = 0.953 wn
The effect of damping on naturaffrequencies is therefore generally small.
It is known from theory of vibrations (Chapter 2) that vibration amplitudes are significantly affected by damping. Even a small amount of
damping can considerably reduce the amplitudes of vibration, especially for
systems subjected to forced vibrations near their natural frequency.
The effect of damping on the amplitude of vibration can be taken into
account as discussed earlier in Section 6.4.
5. Embedment of Foundation. A surface footing is only an idealized
concept. All footings are founded at some depth. Embedment affects a
foundation's response as follows:
1. The weight of overlying soil acts as a surcharge and affects the value of
260
6.8
So far the methods of analyzing block foundations (Sections 6.4 and 6.7)
and design requirements of foundations for reciprocating machines have
been considered. Two approaches currently being used for the design of
foundations for reciprocating machines are:
l. Elastic half-space approach (Richart et al., 1970).
2. Linear weightless spring approach (Barkan, 1962).
Machine Data
Soil Data
The following information about the subsurface soil should be known:
a. Soil profile and data (including soil properties generally for depth
equal to twice the width of the proposed foundation or up to hard
stratum).
b. Soil investigation to ascertain allowable soil pressures and to determine the dynamic properties of the soil.
c. The relative position of the water table below ground at different
times of the year.
261
3.
For a preliminary design, the soil constants can b~ obtained. from. the
procedure given in Chapter 4 (Section 4.7). For all Important JObs, 1t IS
recommended that dynamic soil properties should be determmed. m the
laboratory and in the field for at least three different stram levels: Th1s pomt
should be kept in mind when conducting soil explora~wn. A particular value
may be selected for an anticipated strain level m a g1ven design problem. A
correction for the effective confining pressure and shear stram levels must be
.
applied before proceeding with the design.
Often it may be desirable to select a range of sod constants and to work
out limiting values of the natural frequencies and motiOn amphtudes for th1s
range of the values of soil constants selected.
,.~~,
5.
Centering the Foundation Area in Contact with Soil and Determining Soil
Pressures
Determine the combined center of gravity for the machine and the foundation in the x, y, and z planes and check to see that the_eccentricit_y alongx
or y axis is not more than 5 percent. This is the up~er hmtt f.or this ty_pe of
analysis. If eccentricity exceeds 5 percent, the add1t10nal rock1~g occasiOned
by vertical eccentric loading must be considered in the analysis.
262
The values of the exciting forces and resulting moments may now be
determined with respect to the combined center of gravity of the system. If
the vertical unbalanced force acts at some eccentricity, it will give rise to a
moment. Similarly, if the horizontal unbalanced force acts at a certain
distance above the top of a block foundation, the magnitude of the moment
occasioned by the horizontal force equals the product of the horizontal force
and the distance between the center of gravity of the combined system from
its point of application. The nature of the unbalanced forces and moments
should give the investigator an idea about the nature of the foundation's
vibrations.
7.
[
f
(6.136)
(6.137)
I
B. Noncircular Foundations
f
M mo =Mm +mL
A. Circular Foundation
For Rocking Vibrations:
I. = IY = I, moment of inertia of the base area about an axis passing
through centroid of the base contact area and perpendicular to the plane
of vibration
7TY
Mm =
'H'Ycfo'
1Tro
4g
I,= J, = ab
8.
I
m
(a + b
12
(6.138)
~Mass
M = 1rr:H
(r: + H')
g'Yc4
3
(6.110a)
(6.134)
Mmo
(6.133)
I x = yI = I =4-0
263
(6.135)
Steps 1 through 7 give the information which will be used for computing the
natural frequencies and amplitudes of vibration. This information _is common and subsequently the dynamic response may be calculated either by
Elastic Half-Space approach or by Linear Weightless Spring approach.
These steps of calculation for both these approaches are given below:
264
265
(6.23c)
Torsional Vibrations
(6.41a)
(6.58a)
For rocking vibrations
and
(6.58b)
r
o~
6w
(6.58c)
(ii) Determination of Mass Ratio, Spring Constants, and Damping Factors. The values of mass or inertia ratio, spring constants, and
damping factors can be computed from Table 6.2. Damping ratios
can also be determined from Fig. 4.40.
(6.37)
(iii) Natural Frequencies and Amplitudes of Vibration in Uncoupled
Modes.
Vertical Vibrations
(6.20)
Table 6.2. Mass or Inertia Ratio 8, Damping Factor {;, and Spring Constant k for
Rigid Circular Footing on a Semi~lnfinite Elastic Half~Space
Mode of
Mass (or
Damping
Vibration
(1)
inertia) ratio
(2)
factor
(3)
Vertical
Sliding
B,
B
x
(1- v) _!'!...
3
4
pro
(7-8v) m
32(1- v) pr!
3(1- v) Mmo
8
pro
--,
Rocking
s.
Torsional
B,. =M"'"
pr"'
0.425
0.2875
'
(4)'
k, = 4Gro
B,
0.15
g.=
(1
+ s.JVB:;
0.5
g'1' = 1 +2B
(t)n1,2
2
, l
1 . [(wnx
Z'to/
+ wn>
1- v
_ 32(1- v) G
kx- 7-Sv
ro
B,
k = 8Gr~
3(1- v)
16
'
k.;, = 3 Gro
Source: Richart, Hall, and Woods, "Vibrations of Soils and. Foundations," 1970, p. 382.
Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. "'From analog solution.
, 2 1
4 ywn<P(J)nx
(6.54b)
x
and
_Y
Mm
2 112
2 )2 + (2 <
[( wnx
sx>nx ) ]
A(w 2 )
(6.55a)
266
22
2 112
[(w~x- w ) + (2gxw""w) ]
~(w')
(6.81a)
(6.55b)
and
~(w2) =
{(
W~x)
267
(6.83}
+ 4(g
')'
+ gq,w,i>w
'Y
n<b
(w2 - w'))'}I/2
nx
(6.56)
Sliding and rocking are coupled modes of vibration. The natural frequencies
are determined as follows:
(6.66a}
_ ~Cq,I-WL
M
wn<P-
(6.74a)
mo
and
( 6.57a)
The amplitudes of vibration can be computed with the following equations:
and
2
Wnx ( wnx
+ 4"~XW 2)1/2
~(w')
(6.63a)
(6.64b}
Ax=
and
Torsional vibrations
(C"AL 2
(6.57b)
Aq,
2
(C"AL)Px + (C"A- mw )My
~(w')
(6.129a)
(6.129b)
in which
A = linear horizont<\1. amplitude of the combined center of gravity
Ax = the rotational a;;,plitude in radians around the combined center of
1 f
gravity.
the foundation as
a
2 A,,
(6.130a)
(6.130b)
A"= A,+
268
269
EXAMPLES
_j_
0.15
I
2
~~~05;
~===~-----4.0
m
Ia)
0.5 m
/:~
' I'
3.0 m
2.0 m
1.5 m
ly
0.5 m
'
L'
0.5 m
-L
3.0 m
0.5 m
(b)
Figure 6.23.
Assume that the dynamic shear modulus G = 500 kg/cm , .v = 0.33, 3 the
density of the soil y = 1.65 t/m 3 and unit weight of concrete !S 2.4 tim
Determine the following:
a. The natural frequ.r.ncy of vertical vibrations and
EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 6.9.1
respect to the foundation. The weight of the engine is 1.1 t. The vertical
unbalanced force due to operation of the engine is given hy P, = 0.2 sin wt.
Solution
1. Machine data
Weight of engine= 1.1 t
Operating speed of the engine= 600 rpm= 62.83 rad/sec
270
2. Soil data
G ~ 500 kg/cm 2 ~ 5000 tim'
v ~ 0.33, x ~ 1.65 t/m 3
oz
~ (A
v-;
W0 ,~
~
~
(AJd
(6.18)
~ \10_
+ (2
0.598
62.8/124.2) 2
58340tim
0.425
58340V[I- (62.8/124.2)
EXAMPLE 6.9.2
5000 X 1.9544
tim
(1 - 0.33)
,, '-IIi:
0.2
2 2
]
( 6.17)
Spring Constant, k,
99.55 rad/sec
0.5045
WIZZ
(fnJd ~ 15.84 Hz
(6.58a)
!4X3 ~ 1.9544 m
k ~ 4Gr0 ,
z
1- v
\j---;;-
pr!
(6.20)
7r ~ 19.76 Hz
2
Damped natural frequency can also be determined as follows:
fn,
B~1-v.!'!._
fif
~ ~ 58340 X 9.81
37.1
~ 124.2 rad/sec
271
EXAMPLES
(6.22)
2. Soil data
G ~ 600 kg/cm 2 ~ 6000 tim'
v ~ 0.33, -y, ~ 1.65 tim 3
272
3. Foundation data
Density of concrete 1', = 2.4 t/m 3
Weight of the foundation= 36.0 t (as calculated in Example 6.9.1)
Total weight of foundation and machine= 36.0 + 2.5 = 38.5 t
Area of the foundation= 4.0 x 3.0 = 12.0 m 2
273
EXAMPLES
Mmo
Mm + mLz
=4.7051+
The values of soil constants, i.e., springs and damping will be obtained
using G = 6000 !1m 2 and v = 0.33
5. Centering of the foundation area
The height of combined center of gravity L above the base is given by:
Lm;
(6.110a)
38.5
2
2
_ (0.9344) =8.1316tmsec
9 81
Mm
Mmo
y = - =0.5786
4'
4
I=3 x - =16m
12
Sliding Vibrations
rox:~
(6.58a)
~ = 1.9544m
Mass ratio, Bx
6. Unbalanced Exciting Loads and Moments
7-8v
W
Bx = 32(1- v) - ,
(6.25)
'Ysr ox
(7- 8 X 0.33)(38.5)
= _
0 6356
3
32(1- 0.33) X 1.65 X 1.9544
~:l
(2.15- 0.9344) +
1 -
X0
2
)
+ (z 1 - zoJ) 2 ]
2
X ~.;ll~\~ .4
3X2X1.5X2.4
2
9.81
(1.25- 0.9344)
4 X 3 X 0.5 X 2.4 ( 42 O ,)
9.81 X 12
+ .5
(3
+ 1.5
=
X
2
)
32(1- v) G
7-8V
YOX
0.288
~
0 288
= 0.36 or 36%
vo.6356
(6.28)
274
275
EXAMPLES
Rocking Vibrations
(6.37)
ro<l
( b')
3:
11
'
(3x4')
2.1245m
3(1- v)Mmo
<I
'Y,
~228990
8.1316
167.81 radlsec
-rot/>
(121.21 + 167.81
.w,0.5786
)w'" + 121.210.5786
x 167.81
2
(6.54a)
or
8Gr! 0
3(1- v)
(6.34a)
_7.406x10'( +I _4x7.1505x10
1
1
42
"'"''2
- \1
(7.406 X 10 )
2
I
8 X 6000 X 2.1245
3(1- 0.33)
t m rad
228990 t m I rad
2
wn1,2
?;"'
(1 + s.)~
(6.36)
[, 1
7 .4 6 X 104 (1 0 6917)
2
.
w~ 1 = 6.264
"'"' =
0.15
(1 + 0.2806)\1'0.2806
4
10 , w~ 2 = 11414
250.2 radlsec
39.82 Hz,
"'"' =
[, 2
106.8
17.0 Hz
9.81
38.5
121.21 radlsec
(6.57)
276
{[
167.81 X 121.21
+
0.5786
+ 4[
lz
A"ftf
2
]'
112
2.0m
= 6.3558 X 108
0.5 X y/(121.21 2 ) 2 + (2 X 0.36 X 121.21) 2
. . Ax=
4.7051 X 6.3558 X 10 8
oo(ij
__ J
1
- t"Tw'"'"
/ -t
k~'
---
\!I
l __
~ 0.9334m
---
X
a.
---J
;rl
=2.0m
MY Y(w~x- w ) + (2gxwnxw)
Mm
A(w 2 )
2 2
(6.55b)
---
A,=Ax+hA
(6.130b)
Vertical amplitude, A,
a
4
-6
3
A=2A=2X2.19x10 x10 mm
I
I
I
"'ilg:.
I
\
EXAMPLE 6.9.3
"'
'
I
I
I
I
-(b)
Figure 6.24.
E
1 6 9 2 and 6.9.5. (b) Examples
Illustrations for Problems 6.9.2-6.9.6. (a) xamp es
278
Solution
1. Machine Data. The weight of the machine is not given in the problem
and is therefore negl~cted.
Operating speed w =10Hz= 62.83 rad/sec
Horizontal unbalanced moment M, = 0.5 sin wt t m
279
EXAMPlES
Mm,
B =
(6.38)
"Y 5
-roof!
5 434- - = 1.0182
65
5
1.
X 1.9973
9.81
-:-c::-_.4_-
2. Soil Data
3
= 16 x 6000 x (1.9973) t m/rad
3
= 254965 t m/rad
Damping. coefficient, I;
~''
o's:
!;
Natural frequency, wn
_Jk;
Wnl/1-
Mass moment of inertia around the Z axis= Mm, (see Appendix 4),
= (4
X0
2
)
+ (y,-
)< 4, + 3,) + ( 3
yoJ 2]]
2 X 15 X 2.9
9.81 X 12
(6.41a)
'/Af:
~ ~254965
5.4434
= 216.42 rad/sec
(6.138)
(6.42)
1 + 2B,,
0 5
=0.165
- 1 + 2 X 1.0182
Mm, = [
(6.40a)
fn = 34.44 Hz
)< 3
+ 2,)
Amplitude, A"
(6.41b)
= 5.4434 t m/sec2
Mass (Inertia) Ratio, Spring Constant and Damping
Equivalent radius, ro.p
2
r m/'
= [
ab(a + b
= [ 4x3
67T
(4'+3')]1/4
6
112
114
1T
(6.58c)
254965
[(
1-
( 62 83 )')'
216.42
+ 2 X 0.165 X
62.83 )']
216.42
f h f f
"E" Figure 6 24b is,
Horizontal displacement of the edge o t e oo mg
'
.
280
A = rA"'
(6.48)
10- 6
= 5.25 x 10- 6 m
= 0.00525mm
Examples 6.9.1-6.9.3 can be conveniently solved using the computer program giVen m Appendix 1.
EXAMPLES
281
EXAMPLE 6.9.5
EXAMPLE 6.9.4
area.
Solution
Solution
1. Machine Data
Weight of compressor = 2.5 t
Operating speed = 450 rpm = 47.12 rad I sec
Horizontal unbalanced force, Px = 0.2 t (along the X axis)
Point of application of the horizontal unbalanced force above top of
the foundation
block= 0.15 m
.
;::~-
;~/if"
2. Soil Data
2
4. 2 Soil Constants. Because t~e area of the foundation's base is more than
10m , the value of C" for 10m will be used
5. Natural Frequency and Amplitude
Natural frequency
w
n<
~CuA
m
= ~5000
(6.63a)
12 X 9.81
37.1
= 125.95 rad/sec
X
Az
3. Foundation Data
Density of concrete y,= 2.4 t/m 3
Weight of the foundation= 36.0 t (As calculated in Example 6.9.1)
Total weight of foundation and machine= 36.0 + 2.5 = 38.5 t
Area of the foundation= 4.0 x 3.0 = 12.0 m 2
fu, =20Hz
Amplitude of vertical vibration A
'if'J:.
'
P,
2
2
m(wn,- w )
0.2
2
37.1
2
9.81 ((125.95) - (62.83)
(6.64b)
t'
e=e=O
X
y
1.2156 = 0.243 t m
282
283
EXAMPLES
i-
1.!',. .
(6.122)
=
Mm = 4.7051 t m sec 2
Mmo = 8.1316 t m sec'
1' = 0.5786
I= 16 m 4
38 5
X 4.7051(49018.98- 47.12')
9.81
X (7634.91- 47.12
= 4.679 X 10
2
)
Amplitude A,
(C.J- WL
Ax=
(6.66a)
_
Wnq,-
y/3x10
X12x9.81
.
= 95.775 rad/sec
38 5
/C<I>I WL
"V
M
1
[(12 X 10 3 X 16-38.5 X 0.9344
9
4.679 X 10
2
+ 3 X 103 X 12 X 0.9344 2 -4.7051 X 47.12 )0.2
5
(6.74a)
=
a. Natural frequencies in combined rocking and sliding
(6.113)
1
5786
[(95.775 + 153.646 )
Y(95.775
:.''c
Amplitude, Aq,
1
A , = --2 [(C"AL)Px+(C"A-mw')M,]
Ll.(w )
X 0.
(6.129a)
Ll.(w')
mo
(6.129b)
1
[(3 X 103 X 12 X 0.9344)(0.2)
4.679 X 109
38 5
2
+ .(3 X 103 X 12- 9.81
X 47.12 )0.2431
Therefore,
= 1.431 x 10- 5 m
w., 1 = 221.40 rad/sec,
!,,, = 13.9 Hz
Check
= 0.01431 ..:
Vertical
A,=
87.37 < 95.775 < 153.646 < 221.40
Amplitudes of vibration
(6.130a)
:z A 0
284
285
EXAMPLE 6.9.6
Using the line~r weightless spring approach, compute the dynamic response
of ~e found~l!on flock m Ex~mple 6.9.3 in torsional oscillations. Assume
C"- 6.0 x 10 tim for a 10m area.
Amplitude, A.p
M,
A,1, = M
Solution
1. Machine Data. (Refer to Figs. 6.23 and 6.24 and to Example
6.9.1). The we1ght of the machine is not given in the problem and is
therefore neglected.
Operating speed = 10Hz
mz Wnof!
(6.84)
13.75 x 10- m
=0.01375mm
EXAMPLE 6.9.7
P; = r; = 0
= P~ = P~ = 0
Vertical primary force=
= 165 kg
Vertical secondary force =
= 40 kg
Horizontal primary moment = M; = 185 kg m
Horizontal secondar~ moment = M; = 0
Vertical primary moment= M~ = 1750 kg m
Vertical secondary moment = M; = 450 kg m
Permissible amplitude (peak to peak) = 0.025 mm
r;
r;
J,=25m 4
8. Natural Frequency and Amplitude
Natural frequency of torsional vibration w
no/1
(6.81a)
(6.83)
')
(t)
05
5.4434(143.76 2 - 62.83 2 )
( , _
~4.5 X 10
X 25
5.443 4
2. Solid Data
286
EXAMPLES
287
Solution
3000-----+~----3000-----1-:
--.--
Amplitude of vibration=
500
~25
= 0.0125 rnrn
0.0125
_
x
= 2.1 x 10 6
6 1000
Plot C in Fig. 4.47 gives the values of G versus y, at 2.4 rn depth, and
the value of
G, corresponding to y0 = 2.1 X 10- 6 is found to be
2
1080 kg/ crn at a mean effective confining pressure of 1.0 kg/ crn 2 The
h
. I
S ear stram eve!
r, =
~.---r----,,-,-
l!LI
500
4000
1----
1255~-l+' - - 1 7 4 5 - - - + ! 1
T
~
-f~
I'r--t- . 3: .
+Motor
ci.
-r--
1106
3oo~\oo
~ "-'-+----:~ ~
375
375
r----;...x
z
L__..,L
3oo
f---a5o~t----s5o--j
4000
2894
Compressor
axis
r Motor
- - - - . - Motor axis
500
400
1300
+
Figure 6.25b.
___ (2K 3+ 1)
0
ao- av
5000
Figure 6.2Sa.
millimeters.
Section of the foundation for Design Example 6.9.7. All dimensions are in
0'01 = 300
iiv 2 = 4q/
288
289
EXAMPLES
Here
1.13
C, =
m=
3 = 1.33, n = 3 = 1
= 294.8 g/cm 2
(see Step 5)
2 X 8076(1 + 0.33) 1 I 3
(1 - 0.33 2 )
v'IO t m
= 8614.5 t/m 3
uo = .839
I
I
( 2 X 0.5 + 1)
= 0.5593 kg/cm 2
3
"
= 8076 t/m
1
nHiss of element
':'~ i.:,:
x,, y,, z, = coordinates of the center of gravity of the element with
reference to the X, Y, Z axis.
The details of the computations of the mass of the various elements
of the machine and foundation and the products m;X;, miyi, and miz;
are shown in Trible 6.3, columns 2-11.
- 58.6326
- 43.2718
Y=
.4
= 4.0642 m
X= .4
=2.9994m
14 265
14 265
14.8583
Z= L=
.4
= 1.0299 m
14 265
mi =
1.13
(1- v 2 ) VA
_ 1.13(2G(I + v)) 1
(1- v 2 )
VA
Because the area of the foundation is larger than 10m2 the value of C
2
"
for a 10 m area will be used in design
I
!.
1:
-----'----'~=:::c_.::.:.::::_--~~------11. -~-------::--::-----------~lements
ffsystem
::Ompressor
notor
I
3
4
5
6(-)
Mass
1
2
(tm- sec )
Coordinates of
Center of Gravity
ofElementm
Xoi
m,.x,.
m,y,
,1.
m,z,
(i- i,)
(m)
Yo;=
(Y- y,)
(m)
Zo;
m,(y!, + z~;)
(tmsec2 )
(i- z,)
(m)
m,('
')
IT
ay, + a",
15
16
31.4370
13.3429
0.3831
0.0558
2.0148
-0.0087
47.2249
5.8266
1.0692
3.5955
0.2509
0.9148
0.1143
1.9594
-0.2140
13.5167
m1 ( 2
2 )
12 a..,,+ aY,
(tmsec 2 )
m,(xot +Yo;)
(tmsec 2 )
~--------=-----------
m,
x,
y,
z,
10
11
12
13
14
0.9174
0.2038
5.8715
4.4036
0.8372
0.1669
2.0857
-0.0596
14.4265
1.93
3"805
3.0
3.0
1.93
2.78
3.805
1.93
4.044
4.369
4.0
4.0
4.044
4.044
4.369
4.044
3.55
3.3
0.25
0.80
2.075
1.85
1.95
2.925
1.7705
0.7754
17.6145
13.2108
1.6157
0.4639
7.936
-0.1150
43.2718
3.7099
0.8904
23.486
17.6144
3.3856
0.6749
9.1124
-0.2410
58.6326
3.2567
0.6725
1.4678
3.5228
1.7371
0.3087
4.067
-0.1743
14.8583
1.0694
0.8056
0.0006
0.0006
1.0694
0.2194
0.8056
1.0694
0.0202
0.3048
0.0642
0.0642
0.0202
0.0202
0.3048
0.0202
"
2.5201
2.2701
0.7799
0.2299
1.0451
0.8201
0.9201
1.8951
r
'
K
I
17
18
48.9291
22.3849
0.2450
0.0256
2.0148
-0.0111
73.5883
1.04953
0.1512
0.0242
0.01830
0.9577
0.0082
1.9893
-0.0682
4.1302
290
EXAMPLES
(~- 2.9994)100
Eccentricity ex =
. .
E ccentnc1ty
eY
6/2
291
( 4.0642- 4.0)100
_
= 1.605%
40
<5%
(6.138)
The design of the foundation will first be evaluated by the elastic half
space approach. Steps 1 to 7 are common with the solution by linear spring
approach as well.
(6.110a)
=75.0786 t m sec 2
Mm
60.7416
")' = Mmo = 75.0786 = 0.8090
(6.110b)
= 60.7416 + 14.4265(1.0299)
f-
M mo =Mm +mL 2
ab(a + b )
12
8 6 2
2
4
J, = ~ (8 + 6 ) = 400 m
J
'
Mm
I = ba = 6(8) = 256 z
x
12
12
m
=0.02%
48)112
= ( -;
=3.9088m
(6.58a)
1- v mg
-4--,-
( 6.17)
Mass ratio B,
1-v m
B=---,z
4 pr oz
'Y_~T oz
292
= 4Gr
293
3
0,
ro<P
l- v
-x 37T
,,
VB;
~' =
0.425
\1'0.1936 = 0 "965
(6.22)
(6.34a)
8076 4 2493
X
= 2465757.9 t m/rad
3(1- 0.33)
3(1- v) -Mmo
8
5
pr oq,
Broy=
(A)Iiz = 3.9088 m
7r
.-
3(1- 0.33)
8
(6.58a)
32(1- v)Gr
oy
7- 8v
Damping ratio,
(~:~~ )<4.249)
(6.26)
d. Torsional Vibrations
Equivalent radius, r0 ~,
2
rm~
(ab(a + b
.
61T
114
2
)
=( 8 x 6 ~7T+ 6
Damping ratio ~Y
~ = 0.2875
YVB;
(6.36)
0 15
= 0.551
(1 + o.o651)v'0.0651
(6.25)
0.15
(1+ Bq,)VB;,
~. =
Mass ratio BY
7-8v ~
3
32(1- v) pr oy
= 0.0651
~.
(6.32)
(75.0786)
Spring stiffness kY
B =
=4.249m
8Gr!.
= ~---"''-:3(1- v)
8
b. Sliding Vibrations
114
k =
114
(ab )
37T
(6 8')
8076 X 3.9088
= 188462.5 tim
1 _ 0 _33
Equivalent radius
EXAMPLES
Inertia ratio B
(6.58c)
'l)I/4
=3.9947m
~:.
0.2875
= \1'0.235 = 0.587
c. Rocking Vibrations
Equivalent radius ro4> by interchanging a and b in Eq. ( 6.58b), we get
(6.38)
77.7185
_ ___:_cc..:..:...::=.:::..._ = 0.3656
G:~~)(3.9947)'
294
295
EXAMPLES
_ !k; =
wny-
16
1155230.8
\j "J:i
(6.30)
\j 14.4265
103.73 rad/sec
Damping ratio, I;
0.5
!;
= 1 + 2B
,,
(6.42)
=
~2465757.9
181.22 rad/sec
75.0786
0.5
= 1 + 2 X 0.3747 = 0 2888
natural
frequencies
a. Vertical Vibrations
(6.54a)
W0 ,
4 _
w0
= ~ = p88462.5
w"'
\1-;:;
'(
w0
w:-
!\'
I
I
'
i.
((0.165 + 0.04)
2.265 x 10- 6 m
2.265
0.965 X 42.41)
114.29
+ ( 103.73
181.22
0.8090
2
))
=O
or
= 114.29 rad/sec
1(
(6.20)
14.4265
42.41 )')' (2
(188462 .3 ) \j 1 - ( 114.29
+ .
103.73 + 181.22
0.8090
'
Wol,Z-
5.3894
5.3894 X 10
2
10 4 w~
+ 4.3678 X 108 = 0
1 - \j
(5.3894
10 4 ) 2
w~ 1 = 4.3955 X 10 4,
W 01
w~ 2 = 9938.0,
= 99.68 rad/sec,
02
209.65 rad/sec
fo 1 = 33.36 Hz
foz
= 15.86 Hz
lI
I!
I
(6.56)
296
Ll.(w2) =
_ 4 X 0.587
0.551 X 103.73
0.8090
2
+ 103.73 X 181.222] 2
0.8090
.
X
+ 0.551
= 4.5049
(A )
M [(w2
'
"Y
(6.41a}
=
_x
. /2745665
'V 77 .7185
2
2
(181.22 - 42.41 )
112
181.22 X 42.41
2
2 ]'}
0.8090
(103.73 -42.41 )
(6.41b}
10 8
+ (2 < w )']'12
'Y
"Y
ny
0.185
(6.55a)
2745665 [( 1- ( 42.41
. )')' + ( 2 X 0.2858
187 95
8
;,'f" 7.30 X 10- rad :;.r;
o:.yWnyW
(6.55b)
= (3 2 + 42 ) 112
2.2
[(103.73 - 42.41 2}2 + 4 X 0.587 2 X 103.73 2 X 42.41 2] 112
60.7416
4.5049 X 108
= 4.30 x 10- 7 rad
7.300
10- 8
103 mm
= 3.65 x 10- 4 mm
<0.0125mm
B. Linear Elastic Weightless Spring Approach
(A,)= (A,)+~ (A 1 )
X
( 6.84}
(Ah}d = r(A}d
= 2.265
2 112
42.41
)
]
.
187 95
Ll.(w 2 )
Mm
10- 3 + 4.530
(6.130a)
X
10- 7
103
Natural Frequencies and Amplitudes
= 187.95 rad/sec
/, = 29.91 Hz
(A ) =
297
181.22)
MmLI.(w'}
2
2.2
(103.73 + (2 X 0.587 X 103.73) 2] 112
60.7416
4.5049 X 10 8
Y d
EXAMPLES
+ h(A 1 )
a. Vertical Vibratio'"ris
(6.130b}
10 3
e. Torsional Vibrations
/8614.5 X 8 X 6
.4
= 169.2993 rad/sec
14 265
fu, = 26.95 Hz
=
m{l
[C"A]t/2
m
'V
(6.63a)
298
299
EXAMPLES
2
Undamped amplitude, A,
wn!,2-
= 9.0328 X 10
2
(6.64b)
(0.165 + 0.04)
-7
5 29 10
2
2
14.4265((169.2993) - ( 42.41)) = x
m
w!
7.6773
10
wn 1
= 0.000529 mm
fn!
Check
w ~2 = 13558.23 ,
fnz
~C;,A
C,=
2 C" =
wny
8614.5
3
- =4307.25t/m
2
6
1 0. 69981
=277.079rad/sec
= 44.09 Hz
= 116.439 rad/sec
= 18.53 Hz
(6.66a)
/4307.25 X 8
.4
14 265
'1
4 X 1.0406 X 10
(9.0328 X 10 4 ) 2
Undamped amplitude
Wnz
42.41
0 25
169.2993 =
I1 -
9.0328 X 10 [1 +
2
-
(6.122)
'~;,~o.:r
14.4265
= 7.7267
60.7416(277.079
10
42.41 )(116.439
2
-
42.41
2
)
11
= M~
+ M~
= 119.7126 rad/sec
fC.;I- WL
'V
wncf> -
( 6. 74a)
mO
/177229
Wn<l-
256
(14.4265 X 9.81)
75.0786
1.0299
= 4307.25 X 48 X 1.0299
11
7.7267 X 10
= 242.3732 rad/sec
d. Coupled Rocking and Sliding. Undamped natural frequencies in coupled rocking and sliding are given by
w4- w2
n
wny
+ (J)ncf> + wnywnc/>
'Y
'}'
0.8090
w~- w~(9.0328
0.8090
X
10
+ 1.0406 X 10 = 0
10
_7 m
iS.:.
_ [C,A- mw
A.,~(w2)
(4307.25
2.2 = .
6 062
= 6.062 x 10- 4 mm
2
]
(6.112)
(6.128)
Y
300
OVERVIEW
Ah
(6.130a)
10- 4 + 4 X 5.147
5.29
f.
AY + hA"
6.062
10- 7 X 103 mm
(6.81a)
w,~,
/6460.8 X 400
= 182.353 rad/sec
.
77 7185
29.02 Hz
= 'I
fn~ =
M,
~'-M[2
(6.83)
m,wn,~-w)]
0.185
77.7185[182.353 2
=
rA.,
(6.84)
(3 2 + 42 ) 112
7.567
10- 8
103 mm
<0.0125mm
Torsional Vibrations
= 3.7835 x 10- 4 mm
10- 7 X 10 3 mm
301
42.41 2 ]
The maximum horizontal displacement occasioned by yawing occurs at the corner of the foundation farthest away from the vertical
6.10
OVERVIEW
Two methods for the analysis and design of foundations for reciprocating
machines have been discussed: the linear elastic weightless spring method
and the elastic half-space method. The effect of the soil mass participating in
the vibrations and the nonlinearity of the soil have not been included. The
effect of embedment is examined in Chapter U; and pile-supported machine
foundations ar~,considered in Chap!er_ 12.
Damping has' not been considerea'Jn the discussion of tbe linear elastic
weightless spring method, but in the elastic half-space method it has been
seen that radiation damping affects amplitudes, particularly at resonance.
In tbe linear elastic weightless spring method, it has been assumed that
the soil can be simulated by elastic springs. The assumption is in keeping
with the small amplitudes of motion that are associated with the operation
of a machine supported on a well-designed foundation. In the elastic
half-space method, analogs have been established as spring-dashpot systems. Both the spring and the damping in the elastic half-space method can
be defined in terms of the elastic constants of the material, the geometry of
tbe problem, and the mode of vibration of the foundation. Fortunately, for
the practicing engineer, these analogs yield satisfactory answers. Solutions
for simultaneous rocking and sliding have been based upon the analogs
derived from the theory of an elastic half-space; however, if sliding and
rocking response frequencies differ by a factor of three or more, the two
motions can be analyzed independently and the amplitudes of motion
~uperimposed (McNeill, 1969).
The response of the soil--'foundation system can also be computed by
using the concept of comJ?liance-impedance function. This method is discussed in Chapter 11 (Sec'ti.on 11.5).
The mass of the soil spring has not been included in the foregoing
analysis. The mass-spring system in Fig. 2.16 has a spring of weight w per
unit length. With regard to the length of the spring, it is shown in Chapter 2
(section 2.8) that the natural frequency is defined by:
w~~-
kg
W+~wl
(2.70b)
302
That is, one-third of the mass of the spring can be assumed to be concentrated at the center of the vibrating mass. Pauw (1953), Balakrishna and
Nagraj (1960), and Balakrishna (1961) and Hsieh (1962) attempted to
compute the effective in-phase soil mass (or mass moments of inertia of the
soil) (Table 6.4). However, Richart et al. (1970) recommended that even tf
the "in-phase mass" could be determined satisfactorily, this information
would not lead directly to an evaluation of the vibration amplitude. Also, in
fixing the quantities of the analog, the in-phase soil mass (or mass moment
of inertia) has not been considered. Therefore, an in-phase soil mass may
not be considered at this stage in the analysis, but the problem may be
realistically analyzed in the future.
The effects of the nonlinearity of a soil on a foundation's response have
been studied by Novak (1970), Funston and Hall (1967), and Ehlerchritof
(1968), but such effects may be insignificant in the design of ordinary
machine foundations, because after the first few cycles of operation, the soil
behavior essentially approaches that of linear elasticity for the small amplitudes of motion. However, nonlinear effects may be significant for radar
installations and missile launching facilities.
Table 6.4. Effective Mass and Mass Moment of Inertia for Soil below a Vibrating
Footing
Vertical translation
Horizontal translation
Rocking
Torsion (about vertical
axis)
= 1/4
v = 1/2
l.Opr~
0.2pr~
2.0pr~
O.lpr~
not
computed
0.3pr~
v
0.5pr~
0.2pr~
0.4pr~
0.3pr~
0.3pr~
(1981) have found, however, that better correlations between computed and
observed values of amplitudes are possible if the values of the sot! parameters are selected to be consistent with the effective confining pressures and
shear strain amplitudes. Based on the results of small-scale field experiments, Novak (1985) pointed out that the elastic half-space theory grossly
overestimates the values of geometrical damping. Further investigations are
therefore needed to be able to arrive at methods for predicting realistic
values of damping. Also the stiffness as well as damping are significantly
influenced by an underlying hard stratum and this fact must be carefully
considered while designing the foundations for the machines and also while
evaluating its observed performance (Dobry and Gazetas, 1986; Novak,
1985).
Based on an evaluation of the performance of a reciprocating compressor
foundation Prakash and Puri (1981b) stressed the importance of conducting
'
.
.
suitable in situ dynamic soil investigations and properly mterpretmg the test
data to arrive at the design values of soil parameters. Moore (1971) and
Prakash and Puri (1981b) observed that there is relatively little field
confirmation pf the accuracy of commonly used design methods. Thus, there
is a great need to monitor the pe,fformance of prototype machine foundations. Such efforts will be meaningful if necessary geotechmcal mvestigations of the sites are conducted simultaneously.
'
REFERENCES
303
REFERENCES
Data on the performance of machine foundations are scant. The procurement of such data will increase confidence levels in the design. Based upon a
limited number of observations, Barkan (1962) found good agreement
between the computed and the observed natural frequencies of vertically
vibrating foundations designed on the basis of the linear elastic weightless
spring method. His computed amplitudes, however, were not in agreement
with observed amplitudes. Richart and Whitman (1967) compared model
footing test results with solutions based on the elastic half-space method.
Their computed amplitudes for the vertical vibrations ranged from 50%
below to more than 50% above the observed amplitudes. Prakash et al.
Arnold, R.N., Bycroft, G, N., and Warburton, G. B. (1955). Forced vibrations of a body on
an infinite elastic solid. Trans. ASME 77, 391-401.
Balakrishna, R. H. A. (1961). The design of machine foundations related to the bulb of
pressure. Proc. Int. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng., 5th, Paris Vol. 1, 563-568.
Balakrishna, R. H. A., and Nagraj, C. N. (1960). A new method for predicting natural
frequency of foundation-soil systems. Struct. Eng., 310-316.
Barkan, D. D. (1962). Dynamics of Base and Foundations. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Bycroft, G. N. (1956). Forced vibrations of a rigid circular plate on a semi-infinite elastic space
and on an elastic stratum. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London, Ser. A 248, 327-368.
Chae, Y. S. (1969). Vibrations of non-circular foundations. J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., Am.
Soc. Civ. Eng. 95 (SM-6), 1411-1430.
Dasgupta, S. P., and Rao, N. S. V. K. (1978). Dynamics of rectangular footings by finite
elements. J. Geotech. Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 104 (GT-5), 621-637.
Dobry, R., and Gazetas, G:'~i(1986). Dynamic response of arbitrarily shaped foundations. J.
Geotech. Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 112 (GT-2), 109-135.
Dobry, R., Gazetas, G., and Stoke, K. H. (1986). Dynamic response of arbitrarily shaped
footings. J. Geotech. Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 112 (GT-2), 136-159.
Ehlerchritof, O.M. (1968). Non-linear parameters of vibrating foundations. J. Soil Mech.
Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 94 (SM-6), 1190-1214.
Elorduy, J., Nieto J. A., and Szekley, E. M. (1967). Dynamic response of bases of arbitrary
shape subjected to periodic vertical loading. Proc. Int. Symp. Wave Propag. Dyn. Prop.
Earth Mater., Albuquerque, NM, 105-121.
jU4
Funston, N. E., and Hall, W. J. (1967). Footing vibrations with non~linear subgrade support. J.
Soil Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 93 (SM~5), 91-211.
Hall, J. R. (1967). Coupled rocking and sliding oscillations of rigid circular footings. Proc. Int.
Symp. Wave Propag. Dyn. Prop. Earth Mater. Albuquerque, NM, 139-148.
Hayashi, K. (1921). "Theorie des Tragers auf Elastischer Unterlage." SpringerNerlag, Berlin
and New York.
Heteyni, M. (1946). "Beams on Elastic Foundations." Univ. of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor.
Hausner, G.W., and Castellani, A. (1969). Discussion on the paper, Comparison of footing
vibration tests with theory by F. E. Richart, Jr. and R. V. Whitman. J. Soil Mech. Found.
Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 95 (SM-1), 360-364.
Hsieh, T. K. (1962). Foundation vibrations. Proc. lnst. Civ. Eng. 22, 211-226.
Kobori, T. (1962). Dynamical response of rectangular foundation on an elastic half space.
Proc. Jpn. Nat!. Symp. Earthquake Eng., 81-86.
Kuhlemeyer, R. L. (1969). Vertical vibrations of footing embedded in layered media. Ph.D.
Dissertation, University of .California, Berkeley.
Lamb, H. (1904). On the propagation of tremors over the surface of an elastic solid. Philos.
Trans. R. Soc. London, Ser. A 203, 1-72.
Lysmer, J., and Richart, F. E., Jr. (1966). Dynamic response of footing to vertical loading. J.
Soil Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 92 (SM~1), 65-91.
McNeill, R. L. (1969). Machine foundations, soil dynamics specialty session. Proc. Int. Conf.
Soil. Mech. Found. Eng., 7th, Mexico City, pp. 67-100.
Moore, P. J. (1971). Calculated and observed vibration amplitudes. J. Soil Mech. Found. Div.,
Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 97 (SM-1), 14!-158.
Novak, M. (1970). Prediction of footing vibrations. J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ.
Eng. 96, (SM-3), 837--861.
Novak, M. (1985). Experiments with shallow and deep foundations. Proc. Symp. Vib. Frob.
Geotech. Eng., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., Annu. Conv., Detroit, 1-26.
Pauw, A. (1953). A dynamic analogy for foundation soil systems. ASTM Spec. Tech. Pub[.
STP 156, 90-112.
Prakash S., and Puri, V. K. (1969). Design of a typical machine foundation by different
methods. Bull. Indian Soc. Earthquake Techno!. 6 (3), 109-136.
Prakash, S., and Puri, V. K. (1980). "Design of a Compressor Foundation-Observations and
Predictions," Mach. Found. Des. Anal. Lect. Notes. University of Missouri-Rolla, Rolla.
Prakash, S., and Puri, V. K. (1981a). Dynamic properties of soils from in-situ tests. J. Geotech.
Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 107 (GT-7), 943-963.
.
Prakash, S., and Puri, V. K. (1981b). Observed and predicted response of a machine
foundation. Proc. Int. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng., lOth, Stockholm, Vol. 3, 269-272.
Prakash, S., Puri, V. K., and Horst, W. D. (1981). Some aspects of machine foundation design.
Proc. Int. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng., 10th, Stockholm, Vol. 4, 868-871.
Quinlan, P. M. (1953). The elastic theory of soil dynamics. ASTM Spec. Tech. Pub!. STP 156,
3-34.
Reissner, E. (1936). Stationare Axialymmeterische durch line Schuttelnde Masse Erregte
Schwingungen lines Homogenen Elastichen Halbraumes. 'lng. Arch. 7 (6), 381-396.
Reissner, E. (1937). Freie und Erzawungene Torsionschwingungen des Elastichen Halbraumes.
Ing.-Arch. 8(4), 229-245.
Reissner, E., and Sagoci, H. F. (1944). Forced torsional oscillations of an elastic half space. J.
App/. Phys. 15, 652-662.
Richart, F. E., Jr. (1962). Foundation vibrations. Trans. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 127, Part I,
863-898.
305
REFERENCES
F E J
d Wh"tman R. v. (1967). Comparison of footing vibrations tests with
Rtchart, . ., r., an
1
,
.
( M 6) 143 168
theory. J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Clv. Eng. 93 S - ,
Richart, F. E., Jr., Hall, J. R., and Wood~, R. D. (1970). "Vibrations of Soils and
Foundations." Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Sung, T. Y. (1953a). Vibrations in semi~infinite solids due to periodic surface loading. ASTM
Spec. Tech. Pub/. STP !56, 35-63.
. .
.
Sung, T. Y. (1953b). Vibrations in semi-infinite solids due to penodtc surface loadmg, S. D.
Thesis, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
.
Terzaghi, K. (1943). "Theoretical Soil Mechanics." Wiley, Ne~ York.
. K (!955) . Evaluation of coefficients of subgrade reaction. Geotechmque, 5, 297-326.
1,
.
erzag
h
T
Thomson, w. T., and Kobori, T. (1963). Dynamical compliance of rectangular foundattons on
an elastic half space. Trans. ASME 30 579-584.
Warburton, G. B. (1957). Forced vibrations of a body upon an elastic stratum. Trans. ASME
24, 55-58.
't
R v and Richart F. E. Jr. (1967). Design procedures for dynamically loaded
Wh1 man, .,
'
'
(
6) !69 193
foundations. J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Clv. Eng. 93 SM- ,
!.
307
METHODS OF ANALYSIS
There are several types of machines that produce transient dynamic loads of
short duratiOn that may be characterized as impacts, shocks, or pulses.
Examples of shock producing machines are the hammers, presses, crushers,
and mills. Ha'?mers are most typical of impact machines and are of many
types. Accordmg to their functiOns, they may be classified into forging
hammers (proper) and drop hamm~rs. Drop hammers are used for a variety
of purposes such as forgmg, stampmg, and ore breaking.
The hammer-foundation system consists of a frame, a falling weight
known as "tup," the anvil and the foundation block as shown in Fig. 7.1.
The. fra'?e may be mounted on the foundation block (Fig. 7.1a) or on the
anvil (F1g. 7.lb).
The anvil is a massive steel block on which material is forged into desired
shape or br?ken by the illlpact of repeated blows of the tup. The anvil may
be fixed or 1! rna~ move m a manner similar to the tup. An impact machine
Ill WhiCh the anvil also moves is known as a counter-blow hammer.
Impact machines are rated according to the nominal weight of the tup or
the droppmg parts and the height of the drop. The tup's movement is
me.asured by the number of blows or impacts it makes per minute. The
weight of the tup may vary from 0.25 to 10 tons. The height of the drop may
range from 0.3 to 2.0 m or more. Steam or air pressure may be used to lift
the tup, which 1s then allowed to fall freely. This class of hammers is known
as drop hammers. The forging P?wer of the hammer may be enhanced by
~ncrea_smg the velocity of drop wtth compressed air-or steam. The hammers
m which steam or air pressure acts on the tup, both during the process of
hemg lifted or dropped, are known as double-acting hammers. A part of the
Impact energy IS used up in causing plastic deformation of the material being
(a)
(b)
Figure 7.1. Typical arrangement of a hammer foundation resting on soil. (a) Frame mounted
on foundation
blo_fJ<;
operation on the foundation itself, and also on the adjacent structures and
machines and people in the vicinity.
The foundation for a hammer generally consists of a reinforced concrete
block. In case of small hammers, the anvil may be mounted directly on the
foundation block (Fig. 7.2a). To reduce the transmission of impact stresses
to the concrete block and the frame, an elastic pad consisting of rubber, felt,
cork, or timber is generally provided between the anvil and the foundation
block (Fig. 7.2b). In case of high capacity hammers, special elements such as
coil springs and dampers may be used in place of elastic pads (Fig. 7.2c).
The foundation block is mostly designed to rest directly on soil (Figs. 7.2a,
b, c). When the soil conditions are poor, the foundation block may be
supported on piles. The foundation block may have to be supp?rted on
elastic pads or spring absorbers, if necessary, to reduce transmission of
vibrations to adjoining facilities (Figs. 7.2d, e).
7.1
METHODS OF ANXLYSlS
forged and conversiOn mto heat, and the remaining energy is transmitted to
the foundation and the soil. A proper design of the foundation for the
hammer IS therefore essential to avoid any harmful effects due to hammer
306
Anvil and
/
foundation block
Foundation
block
resting
on soil
Elastic
pad
below
anvil
Anvil and
-tr-
~1
foundation
block
(b)
(a)
Air gap
(a)
Spring
absorbers
~jt:[}i];'11r'"r.;.nrnr~t~
~Tup
llft0Jf~J~6~f,ht
Anvil
Damping
in pad
~Tup
Spring k3 of pad
below anvil
Foundation block
resting on soil
(d)
(c)
Anvil
Damping in
absorber
Foundation
I
Spring k2 of
block
Trough
Foundaf1on
Foundation
block
elastic pad
~1
L"""'----,,---r:-oii'amping in
the pad
block
Spring absorber
below foundation
block
Damping in soil
(e)
(d)
(c)
(c) anvil on spring absorbers; (d) foundation block on elastic pad; (e) foundation block on
. h
-foundation-soil systems: (a) single~degree
Some models f?r repre_sentm~re:~~e:ee~oMreedom model (eccentric impact); (c)
of~freedom model (central mpact), (b)l '.
I)~ (d) three~degree~of-freedom system (central
two-degree-of-freedom system (centra lmpac ,
springs.
impact).
Figure 7.2. Schematic diagram showing different arrangements for supporting anvil and
foundation block: (a) anvil resting directly on the foundation block; (b) anvil on the elastic pad;
Figure 7.3.
309
308
311
FOUNDATIONS FOR IMPACT MACHINES
310
will undergo only vertical vibrations and rna y be modeled as a single-degreeof-freedom system, as shown in Fig. 7.3a.
When the impact is at an eccentricity, the same system of Fig. 7.2a will
undergo not only vertical vibrations, but also rocking (rotation) in a vertical
plane and sliding (horizontal translation) and may thus be modeled as shown
in Fig. 7.3b. For cases when the anvil rests on an elastic pad and the
foundation block rests directly on soil (Fig. 7.2b, c), the foundation soil
system may be modelled as shown in Fig. 7.3c. If the impact is central, the
system of Fig. 7 .3c can be analyzed as a two degree freedom system
undergoing vertical translation. If the impact is at an eccentricity, each of
the masses" m 1 and m 2 (Fig. 7.3c) will have three degrees of freedom
consisting of vertical translation and coupled rocking and sliding resulting in
an overall system with six degrees of freedom. When the foundation block
rests on absorber (Fig: 7.2d), the system can be modeled as shown in Fig.
7.3d and will have three degrees of freedom for central impact and, overall,
nine degrees of freedom when the impact is at an eccentricity. As the
stiffness of trough (Fig. 7.2d) is usually very high compared to tbat of the
pad below the foundation block, the trough may be assumed to be rigidly
supported on the soil (Novak, 1983) and a two-mass model will be sufficient
for all practical purposes. The eccentricity of impact is generally avoided by
suitably controlling the geometrical layout of the foundation, and proper
alignment of the tup and frequent maintenance, and most practical cases can
thus be analyzed by using a two-degree-of-freedom model (shown in Fig.
7.3c). The computations can be further simplified by making the following
assumptions:
1. The anvil, foundation block, frame, and tup are rigid bodies.
2. The pad and the soil can be simulated by equivalent weightless, elastic
springs.
3. The damping of the elastic pad and soil is neglected.
4. The time of impact is short compared to the period of natural
vibrations of the system.
5. Embedment effects are neglected.
Validity of the Assumptions
Assumption 1 about the rigidity of the anvil, foundation block, tup and
frame is practically correct. The pad material and' soil cari be considered to
behave elastically (assumption 2) for small amplitudes of vibration. As the
pad between the anvil and the foundation block becomes older, it may start
losing its elasticity and should be replaced after regular intervals of operation. Assumption 3 about neglecting the damping in the pad and the soil is
not correct. The foundation block supporting the anvil undergoes vertical
vibrations and a significant amount of geometrical as well as material
METHODS OF ANAlYSIS
Foundation
block
I
L-!:===t====~?ss~o,ll spr"m-it'~f
I
:::wk//ffff~//////,/,1,/I///,?/
f h
d
d ampmg are assoc1
the elastic pad has a finite damping depending upon the matenal o t e/-a
The duration of the impact (assumption 4) is generally very sma11 an l(s a
(N ovak , 1983) The embedment . effects as
conservative assumptiOn
.
sumption 5) can be neglected if an air gap or a trench filled w1th sawdust IS
constructed around the foundation block, otherwise the embedment may
significantly modify the frequencies and amphtudes (Novak, 1970). 'b .
These assumptions simplify the process of computatmn o~ VI ratton
characteristics of the hammer foundation, which can be ldeahzed as an
undamped two-degree-of-freedom system, as shown Ill F1g. 7 .4.
Equations of Motion
,.
m1
+ k 1z 1 + k,(z 1 - z 2 )=0
m 2i
in which
+ k 2 (z 2 - z 1) =0
(2.95c)
(2.95b)
312
m 1 =mass of the foundation and includes the mass of the backfill and the
frame (if mounted on the foundation block as in Fig. 7.1a)
m, =mass of the anvil (and includes the mass of the frame if it is
mounted on the anvil as in Fig. 7.1b)
k 1 = equivalent soil spring below the foundation block for vertical vibrations
k 2 = equivalent spring of the pad below the anvil
z 1 = displacement of the foundation
z 2 =displacement of the anvil
The value of the equivalent soil spring k 1 may be ~htained either by using
the elastic half-space method (Richart and Whitman, 1967; Richart et al.,
1970) or from the linear spring approach (Barkan, 1962). The value of k
1
from the elastic half-space method is obtained as
= k = 4Gr0
k
1
'
(1- v)
METHODS OF ANALYSIS
313
nl,
~ m: m
1
(2.99a)
and
(2.99b)
(6.18)
~'
''- ,;,.'f'
(7.1)
(7.2a)
in which
(7.2b)
(7.3a)
(7.3b)
""+:.
Natural Frequencies
The two natural frequencies w, 1 and w, 2 of free vibration of the system of
Fig. 7.4 may be determmed from the frequency equation given below:
(2.98)
in which
and
314
315
METHODS OF ANALYSIS
The contribution of the higher of the two natural frequencies ' wnl and w n2'
towards the amplitude of motion is small (Barkan, 1962) and may be
neglected for all practical purposes. By neglecting the terms of sin wn 1t (in
which wn 1 > w" 2 ) in Eqs. (7.4a and b), the maximum displacements
(sin w" 2 t = 1) of the foundation and anvil become
(7.5a)
The initial velocity of the anvil just after the tup's impact can be determined
by using the law of conservation of momentum. The impact of the tup on
the anvil may be central or eccentric (Fig. 7.5). In cases of centrallffipact,
the initial velocity V" may be computed by assuming that the impact takes
place in a vertical plane through the centroid ~f th~ foundal!on. The
centered impact will result only in translatiOnal vtbrauons m the verl!cal
direction and only linear momentum need be considered. The momentum ?f
the tup before impact is (W)g)VT,. The anvil is initially at rest, and tts
mo1Uentum before impact is zero. The momentum of the tup and anvtl after
impact is given by
-"v+--'V
g 1
g a
and
(7.5b)
The values of amplitude of anvil and foundation can thus be determined
from Eq. (7.5a, b) by substituting the values of wnl, wnl Wnz and V,. The
initial velocity of anvil motion can be determined by considering the impact
of the tup on the anvil and the velocity of the tup at the time of impact.
in which V is the velocity of the anvil after impact, W2 the weight of the
anvil (including the frame if it is mounted on the anvil), and V, the v~locity
of the rebol!Ild of the tup after im,pf!Cl. Accordmg to the pnnctpal of tmpact
for rigid bodies, the momentum' before and after the impact in a conservative system is constant. Therefore,
gTI
For a single-acting drop hammer, the initial velocity of the tup VT, at the
time of impact after the !up's free fall is
(7 .6)
_ov.=-"V +-'V
gt
ga
(7.8)
Equation (7.8) has two unknowns, V1 and V,. A second equation may be
l'
Tup
I
:
Anvil
Ch
e.G.\
Elastic pa d
Foundation
Wa =the gross weight of the dropping parts, including upper half of the
die
p = steam or air pressure
A P = the net piston area
block
i
I
316
317
METHODS OF ANALYSIS
(7.9)
From Eqs. (7.8), (7.12), and (7.13), the values of V, and, are obtained as
(7.10)
follows:
(7.14a)
and
. _
"'"- (1
s(1 + e)r
V: .
2
2
+ s)(r +e)- r n
(7.14b)
in which k' is equal to Mm 2 g/W0 When r is zero, i.e., for central impact,
Eqs. (7.14a) and (7.14b) yield
va =
1+e
1+ s
VTi
(7.1la)
in which
(7.1lb)
z, A+ z,
(7.15)
Fdyn
k,Z,
(7.16)
318
7.2
DESIGN CRITERIA
319
With~n the permiSSible values specified by the manufacturer. If these specificatiOns from ~he manufacturer are not available, the values of maximum
7.3
Maximum Amplitude, mm
Anvil
Foundation Block
(!)
(2)
(3)
<1
2
1.0
2.0
>3
1.2
1.2
1.2
Design Data
Obtain all the necessary information pertaining to the machine, soil conditions, and layout of the floor pla~; ..9f the shop.
Machine Data. All data pertaining to the size and the weight of various
components of the drop hammer, method of supporting the frame, height of
movement of the tup, and weight of the upper and lower parts of the die
should be obtained. Information on the permissible amplitudes of the anvil
motion and the foundation block should also be obtained. If this information is not available, the amplitudes of motion given in Table 7.1 may be
considered as limiting values.
Soil Data. For drop hammers of up to 1-ton capacity, soil data should
generally be collected to a depth of 6 m. For heavier impact machines, it is
preferable to investigate soil conditions to a depth of 12m or to a hard
stratum. If piles are to be used, the investigation should be conducted to a
suitable depth.
Layout Plan. The layout plan of the shop in which the drop hammer is
to be installed should be obtained, and the position of any precision
machines in the vicinity and adjoining structures that may be adversely
affected by the hamm~'s operation should be ascertained so that vibration
isolation measures may be incorporated at the design stage, if necessary.
2
Soil Constants
The values of the dynamic soil constants should be determined following the
procedure suggested in Chapter 4 in a manner that is consistent with
320
321
k,
4Gr"
1- v
(6.18)
EA 2
(7.1)
k,= -b3
Select the trial dimensions of the anvil, foundation block, and size and
thickness of the pad below the anvil. The guidelines given below may be
followed in determining the trial dimensions.
The area at the base of the foundation block should be such that
the safe loading intensity of the soil is never exceeded while the drop
hammer is operating.
Area.
in which
G = dynamic shear modulus of the soil
r o = equivalent radius of the foundation
v =Poisson's ratio
E =Young's modulus of pad material
A = area of the anvil
2
'1
b = thickness of pad below the anv1
Thickness of the Elastic Pad. The thickness of the elastic pad below the
anvil and the foundation block (if necessary) depends on the material of the
pad and should be ascertained by analysis.
5 Velocity of Tup and Anvil
4
and
W 01
[
W 01
'
as
Vn=
11Y2g(W" + pAP)h
W
(7.7)
(2.99a)
in which
(2.99b)
in which
k 1 =equivalent soil spring
k 2 = equivalent stiffness of elastic pad below the anvil
m 1 =mass of the foundation block
m 2 =mass of the anvil (including mass of the frame if attached to it)
_l+ev
V,- l+s Ti
(7.lla)
322
323
DESIGN EXAMPlE
7.4
EXAMPLE
(7.5a)
For the anvil,
(7.5b)
';'y-
uP=
k 2 (z 1 - (-z 2 ))
A
(7.15)
__ .,~
The details of the suggested foundation are shown in Fig. 7 .6. The depth
of the foundation is 2.4 m below the natural ground level. The allowabJe soil
pressure at the base of the foundation was determmed to be 25 t1 m . The
data on dynamic soil properties is as giVen m Example 4.9.3, (Chapter 4).
Assume unit weight of reinforced concrete equal to 2.4 tim and the umt
weight of soil equal 2.050 tim'. Check and comment on the adequacy of the
foundation shown in Fig. 7 .6.
(7.17)
in which u represents the stress in the soil, and A 1 the contact area of the
foundation block with soil. The stress in the soil should be less than 0.8
times the allowable stress in soil when static loads alone are supported.
A computer program for calculating the dynamic response of a hammer
foundation using the above listed design procedure is given in Appendix 2.
Solution
Design Data
Machine Data.
Smz oata. The allowable soil pressure is given as 25 t/m FThe 4data
47
on dynamic soil properties is given in Example 4.9.3. Plot C m 1g.
l.Okg/cm
325
DESIGN EXAMPLE
324
Floor
Anvil
}oo
Foundation block
.
.
Shear stram level=
l.O
1 66 10- 4
x 1000 = . x
4
From Plot C in Fig. 4.47 the value of G corresponding to 'Yo= 1.66 x 102
and U = 1.0 kg/cm 2 is found to be 535 kg/cm
The0 mean effective pressure below the foundation is now calculated
~-----------8000--------~..1
(a)
Anvil
fc-(J"v2
2400
4q[
in which
2
1--------oOOO------~
(b)
Figure 7.6.
section.
Layout of the foundation (Example 7.4.1). (a) Longitudinal section and (b) cross
Assume Ko = 0.5
(j
w.,,=~
w.,,
(2.99b)
326
10 4
_
0 60
X
4 = 33.3
33.3 X 10
wnlz =
= 7.186
_
4 62
2
w~ 1 = 8.471
10 4 t/m
10 /sec
10 /sec
w! 2 = 0.3346
I k,
'Y m I + m 2
(2.99a)
10 4/sec
/ (Wo + pAP)h
_
k = 4Gro
r" =
(7.7)
'1 = 0.65,
148 =3.908m
V-:;;
Vnc;=
4 X 4600 X 3.908
( 1 0 _33 )
= 107324 17 tim
0.65~2 x 9.81
2
107324.17
2
wnl, = 27 _2 + _ = 3370.74/sec
4 62
h=0.75m
and
:?~2x 0 14 )
v.
1+e
v. =
p = 70 tim'
W0 = 2.0 t,
AP=0.14m
Assume v = 0.33
kl =
'1\j2g
VTi-
1-
wnz = 57.84/sec
wn1 = 291.36/sec
327
DESIGN EXAMPLE
(7.11)
1 + s Vn
05
+ (6.056) = 0.382 m/sec
45.5
1+-2-
Amplitudes of Vibration
+ (1 + 0.1705)(7.186
w~- 8.8056
_
wnl.z2
w 111
_
-
X
X
8.8056
10 4)(0.337074
4
10 w~ + 2.8345
Y(8.8056)
8.8056 8.1363
2
10/sec
-2
Wnlz(wnl
z )
~ Wnz Wnz
V
"
(7.5a)
4 X 2.8345]
2
[
Z1 =
10 4 ) = 0
X 10 8 =
2
2 )( 2
2 )
(wnl2- Wnz Wnlz- Wnl
Z
X 10 4/sec 2
2 -
wn/2-wnl
2
2)
V
"
(7.5b)
328
REFERENCES
329
The stress in the soil is computed by Eq. (7 .17) and is less than
(0.8 x 25 t/m 2 ).
models with two or more degrees of freedom are to be used (Novak, 1982,
1983, 1985a; Novak and El Hifnawy, 1983).
The uplift of the anvil may be a serious problem in many hammer
installations. Uplift takes place because in most systems the mass of the
anvil may be too small to eliminate tension in the anvil pad. The occurrence
of the phenomenon of uplift was confirmed in a full-scale experiment
conducted on a large hammer installation (Novak, 1985b; Harwood and
Novak, 1986). The inclusion of the uplift phenomenon in design will
necessitate a very involved analysis. The uplift of the anvil adversely affects
the performance of the hammer. The uplift of the foundation block is less
common.
The above ex~mple was also solved using the computer program given in
Appendtx 2. A hstmg of the input data and the results is shown in Appendix
REFERENCES
_ k (2 1 - (-22 ))
2
A
(7.15)
(J"P-
33.3 x
w (0.99 + 1.04)
( 1000)( 4 )
_
,
,
-169.16t/m <400t!m
2.
7.5
OVERVIEW
331
/'i.
Top deck
level
Figure 8.1.
8.1
I
r
332
pressure stage in case of a multistage turbine). The isometric view in Fig. 8.1
shows the layout for a typical 110-MW T.G. unit supported on reinforced
concrete frame foundation.
333
1000 kg/m 2 to 3000 kg/m 2 (200 psf to 600 psf) are accounted for in design
depending upon the size of the T.G. unit.
Condenser Loads
8.2
During the service life of the power plant, a T.G. foundation is subjected to
a variety of loads. The design of the turbogenerator and the plant layout
determine the nature of the loads imposed on the foundation. In general,
the loads acting on a T.G. foundation may be divided into two main
categories:
1. Loads due to normal operation of the plant.
2. Loads due to emergency conditions.
Condenser loads are transmitted to the foundation due to (a) weight of the
condenser and (b) vacuum in the condenser.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Live load.
Condenser loads.
Thermal load.
Pipe load.
Unbalanced loads due to machine.
Torque load.
Dead Load
The self weight of the foundation components, weight of turbine and
generator, bed plate and equipment such as control valve, interceptor valve,
and boiler feed pump comprise the dead load. The self weight of foundation
components is estimated from section details and unit weight of the material. Information on dead weight of machine and equipment, as well as
their point of application, is furnished by the machine manufacturer.
Live Load
The live loads act on the foundation during installation and repairs necessitated by maintenance operations. Codes of practice generally lay down the
values of live loads from floor slabs and galleries and usually live loads of
(a)
Figure 8.2. Schematic arrangement of supporting condensers: (a) condenser on rigid supports;
(b) condenser on spring supports.
334
When the condenser rests directly on the rigid supports, the entire dead
weight of the condenser unit is transferred to the foundation mat. When the
springs are provided between the condenser and the base mat, the load is
transferred partly to the base mat and partly to the deck slab. The spring
stiffness determines the proportion in which the load is shared between the
base slab and the deck. The stiffness of the springs may be specified by the
manufacturer of the turbine or condenser.
33S
stresses in concrete. Heat buildup in turbine casing and bed plates induces
thermal loading on the foundation. The expansion of the casing and bed
plate of the machine relative to the concrete deck results in frictional loads
on the slab that are internally balanced (resulting in local effects but no net
resultant load).
It is difficult to estimate precisely the magnitude and direction of thermal
loads since they depend on a number of factors, such as the distance
between the points where bed plates are held down with anchor bolts,
friction between the bed plates and concrete, and the load on the bed plate.
An approximate estimate of the thermal load may be made by using Eq.
(8.2):
(8.2)
where
F r = thermal load
p. = coefficient of friction between material of bed plate and material of
deck'
.,.....
Thermal Loads
Tbe heat emitted by pipes carrying superheated steam, circulation of steam
or hot gases through the turbines and operation of the machine itself give
rise to temperature changes that result in temperature gradients between
Pipe Loads
The term pipe load includes self weight of pipe, dynamic effect of fluids in
pipe, and thermal effects. The magnitude of pipe load and its distribution on
the foundation depend upon pipe material, size, insulation, and layout
details. The magnitude of pipe load is specified by the manufacturer.
bearing levels. The unbalance is specified as the distance between the axis of
the shaft and mass center of gravity of the rotor, and is known as effective
eccentricity. The operation of the machine causes unbalanced forces that
~xpansion
336
Torque Loads
The torque considered here is different from that due to unbalanced loads
(moments due to machine operation). Forces due to steam in each turbine
section impose a torque on the stationary turbine casing in a direction
opposite to the direction of rotation of the rotor. The normal torque on the
generator stator acts in the direction of rotor rotation. The magnitude of the
torque depends upon the operational speed and power output capacity of
the turbines. The turbine manufacturers provide the information about the
magnitude of this torque. This torque is applied to the foundation as a
couple acting through the machine bed plates.
For a T.G. unit having a multistage turbine Fig. 8.3, the torque may be
calculated as follows:
10.48PA
TA=
N
tm
(8.3a)
337
in which
TA =torque due to high-pressure (H.P.) turbine (t m)
T 8 =torque due to intermediate-pressure (I.P.) turbine (tm)
8.2.2
These loads are not associated with the normal operation of the turbogenerator unit, but are imposed on the foundation under extraordinary
conditions apd include the followi11g:
-~.~-4
'"
(8.3b)
(8.3c)
The loads due to earthquake depend upon the seismicity of the area in
which the plant is located. The magnitude of the lateral force due to
earthquake may be determined from codal provisions (Uniform Building
Code, 1985). The lateral force may be calculated [see Eq. (8.4)] (Uniform
Building Code, 1985, ASCE 1987):
(8.4)
(8.3d)
where
'if,J~
---BGenerator
338
DESIGN CRITERIA
8.3
339
DESIGN CRITERIA
plitudes for
H~h-Speed
Speed of
M"
rW, t m
(8.5)
Rotary Machines
Permissible Vibration
Amplitude, microns
Machine, rpm
Vertical
Horizontal
3000
1500
20-30
40-60
40-50
70-90
1962
340
DESIGN CONCEPTS
Turbogenerator foundations are generally designed as low-tuned or undertuned foundations of concrete or steel. Low tuning implies that the fundamental natural frequency of the foundation is lower than the operating
speed of the machine (Fig. 1.2). When foundations are designed on the
low-tuned concept for turbines operating at 1800 rpm, as is the case in some
nuclear power plants, it may become necessary to support the machine on
springs.
T. G. foundations have also been conventionally designed using large
supporting columns with cross beams to provide a rigid frame. The lowtuned concept is generally preferred because of additional volume of space
below the deck which becomes available when slender columns are used and
cross beams are omitted. The additional space results in easier access for
maintenance and more flexibility in layout of accessories. In any case, the
design is made to ensure favorable vibration characteristics under normal
operating conditions. For the case of emergency loads, it is ensured that the
foundation will not suffer any permanent damage during the short period of
ti':'e . for which the machine operates under abnormal loads by installing
tnppmg relays so that the machine is automatically shut off as soon as the
emergency conditions, such as a strong-motion earthquake or short circuit,
develop.
The methods for analysis used in designing frame' foundations will now be
described.
8.5
METHODS OF ANALYSIS
METHODS OF ANAlYSIS
341
1. Simplified methods.
2. Rigorous methods.
In the simplified methods, a number of assumptions are made and the
analysis is carried out on frame-by-frame basis. A single-degree-of-freedom
or a two-degree-of-freedom model is adopted for computing the natural
frequencies and amplitudes. The role of the soil below the base is generally
neglected.
In rigorous methods, the frame fouodation is modeled as a threedimensional space frame and analyzed as a multidegree freedom system.
Rigorous solutions accounting for the three-dimensional nature of the
problem are, however, complicated and simplified analysis may be used to
obtain practical solutions. Both the simplified and the rigorous methods are
described below.
8.5.1
Simplified Methods
The natural frequencies and amplitudes of vibration in vertical and horizontal direction are computed by using a single spring-mass system. A singledegree-of-freedom model has been used earlier (Rausch, 1959) to compute
342
343
METHODS OF ANALYSIS
Pz sin
~--2a
Baseslab
ends
11
.u
-;.;-
~
~k
a'
~
gj
0!
7//7]/////,
(b)
L_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _.: ___ _j
assumed
fixed
Figure 8.4.
l!
,- l /~~m"'7
V
Column
(a)
vibrations~
which w is the total load on the frame and !J.z is the total vertical
.
deflection at the center of the beam due to bending actwn
of bearn and ax!'al
compression in column.
The total load W is given by
Ill
(8.7)
in which l is the effective span.
The value of effective span [ depends upon the rigidity of the corner
sections of the frame and whether the haunches have beeen provided at the
corners (Fig. 8.5). The effective span can be defined in terms of the lengths
1 and [ as shown in Fig. 8.4a, in which /0 ~center-to-center distance
1
between the columns and /1 ~clear distance between the columns.
"""
,---r--+-----"
1
_j
I
(8.6)
-l
lo
1. Frame columns are fixed at their lower ends into the rigid base slab.
wt
b-4
figure 8.5.
344
For perfectly flexible connection between the beam and columns at their
ends, the effective span length I will be the same as the center-to-center
distance between the columns 10 . For perfectly rigid end connections, the
effective span will be equal to the clear span 11 . For other cases, the effective
length is determined depending upon rigidity of corner sections. The rigidity
of corner section of a frame can be defined by the ratios b/10 and h 0 /l 0 in
which h 0 is the height of the column from the top of the base slab to the
center of the frame beam (Fig. 8.4a) and b is one-half of the column width
for a frame without haunches (Fig. 8.4a) or the distance as shown in Fig. 8.5
for a frame with haunches.
The effective span is calculated as
(8.8)
345
METHODS OF ANALYSIS
1959) as follows:
(8.10)
in which
Ll.z = vertical deflection of beam due to the concentrated load W m
1
Ll.z = vertical deflection of beam due to the distributed load q
2
Ll.z, =
(8.9)
Wm/ 2K + 1
96I,E K + 2
(8.11)
in which
I = moment of inertia of the beam about the axis of bending
in which a is one-half of the depth of the beam for a frame without haunches
(Fig. 8.4a) and the distance shown in Fig. 8.5 for frames with haunches.
The values of effective span and height are used to calculate deflections in
the frames due to applied loads.
The magnitude of deflection Ll.z in Eq. (8.6) may be calculated from the
available solutions for rigid frames (Kleinlogel, 1949, 1964; Leontovich,
I,, h
K=-I" I
(8.12)
5K + 2
Ll.z, = 384EI, K + 2
(8.13)
(8.14)
(8.15)
0~---J----~-----L-----L----~~
0.04
0.08
0.12
0.16
0.20
bllo
in which
346
The model for computation of the natural frequency of the frame is shown
m Ftg. 8.4b.
The natural frequency of vertical vibrations of the frame may then be
obtained as in Eq. (2.11) as follows:
w
nz
rr;g
\JW
347
Horizontal Vibration. The vibration characteristics in horizontal vibrations can also be calculated by an equivalent single degree of freedom
model. Such an analysis is based upon the following assumptions:
L Columns are fixed into the rigid base slab at their lower ends.
""
is given by
(8.16)
~n ~J:ich Wnz~, wnzz are the natural frequencies of vertical vibrations of the
md!Vldual frames.
The average value of the amplitude of vertical vibration may be computed as
(8.17a)
in which
A, = amplitude of vertical vibration of the foundation
Pv =total vertical unbalance force
!; = damping expressed as percent of critical damping
Wr
= Total weight of
machine
(8.18)
\-
Px sin
1 Wr
/4M --,1--1
I
I
I
I
I
!.,;
(8.17b)
In case the difference between the natural frequen~y of vertical vibration
and operatmg frequency is smaller than 30%, Eq. (8.17b) should be used to
compute A,. The amplitude of vertical vibrations of any individual frame
can be calculated by usmg Eq. (8.17) with values of vertical spring stiffness
natu~al fr~quency, and vertical unbalanced force for the frame unde;
cons1derat10n.
Deck slab
wt
JI
I
I
I
(.Deflected
f
Colum n....-
I
I
I
I
///. 1'///
shape of
column
Kht is combined
lateral stiffness
of all frames
I
/r
349
METHODS OF ANALYSIS
FOUNDATIONS FOR HIGH-SPEED ROTARY MACHINES
348
(8.19)
in which
k =combined stiffness of all the transverse frames in bending
kx1, kx2' , =lateral stiffness of individual transverse frames
Wr =total weight of deck slab and machine.
1- Columns are fixed at their lower ends into the rigid base slab.
2- The effect of longitudinal beams on vertical vibrations of the trans-
columns is negligible.
4. The role of soil below the base slab can be neglected.
=
X
121" (6K + 1)
h3
3K+2
(8.20)
A=~k~.V7~(1~~(w=l~w=".~~~~]~2 =+~(~2=fw=l=w=",~,)2
(8.21a)
These assumptions have been gi.:;cussed already for the case of vertical
vibrations using a single-degree-of-freedom system. They enable a frame-byframe analysis to be carried out for the case of vertical vibrations. No
assumption has been made about the rigidity of the end connection between
the transverse beam and the columns. The vibrations of beams and columns
of a transverse frame can therefore be represented by a two-degrees-offreedom system, as shown in Fig. 8.8. In Fig. 8.8a, tbe beam undergoes
tp,
,,
sin wt
m)
"
(8.21b)
----
2
\
m]
Direction of
.!'!.....\
2
mz
rvibmtion
columnsof
\
\
\
'~!;~
0!
I
I
I
~kj
(o)
Figure 8.8.
5.~kz
1!'!.
I 2
Two-Degrees-of-Freedom System
mz
~
(b)
system. (a)
Vertical vibrations of a cross frame as a two-degree-of-freedom
350
forced vertical vibrations due to flexural bending, and columns vibrate along
their axial direction. The equivalent spring mass model for this system is
shown in Fig. 8.8b. The forces in the columns are developed due to their
axial deformation and spring k 1 in Fig. 8.8b, represents the stiffness of the
column in loading along the axial direction. The spring stiffness k 2 represents stiffness of the transverse beam in bending.
Vertical natural frequency. The vertical natural frequency of the system
shown in Fig. 8.8b may be obtained as follows:
Mass m 1 acting on the column is given by (Barkan, 1962)
mI
WL
+ 0.33W, + 0.25WB
g
351
METHODS OF ANALYSIS
_ 13 (1 + 2K)W
~z- 96Elb(2 + K)
+ 31W
(8.25)
8GAb
in which
G = shear modulus of the beam material
(8.22)
(8.26)
k, = ~z
in which
WL =load transferred by the longitudinal beams to the columns including
self weight of the longitudinal beams
W, =weight of the two columns constituting the transverse frame
W8 = weight of the transverse beam
Mass m 2 acting at the center of the cross beam is given by (Barkan, 1962)
(8.23)
The equations of motion for the spring-mass system shown in Fig. 8.8b are
(8.27a)
m,z, + k,(z,- z
1)
= P, sin wt
(8.27b)
Equations (8.27a, b) are similar to Eq. (2.95a, b). The tw? natura~ frequencies of the system may therefore be obtained by solvmg the requency
equation given below:
(2.98)
EA,
in which
(8.24a)
(2.99a)
in which
(2.99b)
E =Young's modulus of the material of the columns
A c = cross-sectional area of a column
h =effective height of the column
m,
p,=-
m,
(8.27c)
and
352
z -
''-
Ll.(w
2
)
(l + p,)w~l1 + p,w~r2- W 2
'-
m,LI.(w')
P,
METHODS OF ANALYSIS
bending in the frame columns, which thus offers a lateral resistance to the
horizontal motion of the deck slab. The lines of action of the exciting and
the resisting forces are not the same. As a result, a horizontal couple is
generated which induces torsional vibrations in the deck slab, as shown in
Fig. 8.9. Torsional vibrations are also excited due to unsymmetrical distribution of unbalanced loads on the deck, the resultant of which may not be
passing through the mass center. The deck slab thus undergoes combined
horizontal and torsional vibrations under the effect of horizontal exciting
loads. The overall motion of the deck slab may be represented by a line
diagram shown in Fig. 8.10 in which the deck slab has been replaced by its
center-line A 1B 1 in the initial position. This sketch depicts a typical two-bay
frame. The load carried by each transverse frame including its self weight,
dead loads, weight of machine, and the load transferred by the longitudinal
beams may be represented by a point load; 33 percent of the weight of the
columns is also added. Thus the mass m 1 is the equivalent mass representing
the load shared by this particular transverse frame including 33 percent of
the weight of columns of this frame. Similarly the masses m 2 and m 3
represent th({masses for the otherJ~ansverse frames. Dis the mass center of
m 1 , m 2 , m 3 (Fig. 8.10). The lateral stiffness of each transverse frame has
been replaced by an equivalent spring. The spring stiffness k, 2 thus represents the lateral stiffness of one transverse frame. The value of lateral
stiffness for any of the frames may be calculated by using Eq. (8.20). Point
C in Fig. 8.10 represents the stiffness center, that is, the centroid of spring
stiffness k, 1 , k, 2 , and kx 3 It is shown in Fig. 8.10 that the deck undergoes
horizontal displacement parallel to itself (from A 1 B 1 to A 2 B 2 ) and also
rotates about the vertical axis through the mass center (of gravity) D. The
(8.27d)
Vibrations.
d Horizontal
The horizontal vibrations of the frame founatiOn. are also analyzed by a two-degrees-of-freedom system based on the
followmg assumptiOns.
l.
2.
3.
4.
353
The columns are fixed at their lower ends into the rigid base slab.
Effect of elasticity of the soil below the base can be neglected.
Deck slab ts rigid in its own (horizontal) plane.
Elastic resistance of the columns to axial deformations is relatively
much larger co~pared to thetr elasttc reststance in bending in the
transverse duectwn.
dec~
Centerline of
slab (initial) ... ~ ,_ _
Final position
(after coupled
translation and
L_7 ___ _
Displacement due to
horizontal translation
Fb'gure 8.9 .. Vibrations of the deck slab due to combined translation along X-axis and rotation
a out Z ax1s.
~kx3
rotation)
f
r
A1
C
D
B
._-----'--i-f=---,+--L-----_.
1
m1
m2
m3
A3.__ _ _ _ _
A,---~r-~~--~~~~----~,,---eB 2
Due to horizontal
displacement
Due to
tra~tion
--
-e 83
and rotation
Figure 8.1 0. Spring-mass model for combined horizontal and rotational vibrations of the deck
slab.
354
355
METHODS OF ANAlYSIS
(8.30c)
final displaced position of the centerline of the deck slab is sbown by line
A 3 B 3 (Fig. 8.10). The distances of the different masses from the mass center
D are shown as a 1 , a2 , and a3 and the distances of the stiffness center Care
shown as b 1 , b 2 , and b 3 , respectively. The procedure for computing the
natural frequencies and amplitudes of horizontal vibrations is now described.
2:" Rj =
kh(x
(8.30d)
+ elj;)
j=l
in which
m.X + L Rj = Px sin wt
(8.28a)
j=l
The moment M about the mass center due to a force on the mass mj is
I
given by
"
Mm,~ + L Mj = M, sin wt
(8.31a)
(8.28h)
j=I
(8.3lb)
in which
in which
(8.32)
k is the equivalent torsional spring for the frame columns.
Substituting for ER and EM from Eqs. (8.30d) and (8.31b) respectively
I
I
in Eq. (8.28), one obtains,
(8.33)
(8.34)
Mmz
For a given frame at a distance
force R j is given by
ai
"
= j=l
2: mia~
(8.29)
The set of Eqs. (8.33) and (8.34) are similar to the equations o~ motion
discussed in Chapter 6 (Section 6.7) for coupled rockmg and shdmg. The
frequency equation in this case may be written as Barkan (1962)
Wn- (awnx
2) ,
+ Wno/
Wn
, _
+ Wnx{t)n~' 0
(8.35)
-il-o:
(8.30a)
The value of k,j may he obtained from Eq. (8.20). The displacement xj is
due to horizontal movement plus rotation and is given by
(8.30b)
in which xis the displacement of the mass center. Therefore, Rj is given by
in which
(8.36a)
(8.36b)
356
AX =
e
[ zwnx+wn"'-w
r
z] ~-wnxM
Px
z Mz
m
mz
~(w')
(8.37)
357
METHODS OF ANALYSIS
on the basis that significant response of the system takes place in the
fundamental mode. The higher modes of the system are neglected. In the
case of under-tuned foundations, some of the higher-modes may be near the
operating speed and cause instability in the system and may c~use excessive
vibrations. The effect of longitudinal beam on vertiCal v1bratwns of transverse frames and the role of soil below the base slab has been neglected.
These considerations make the computed vibration response approximate. In a realistic analysis, the structural fr~me should be analyzed as
a three-dimensional space frame and the mteracllon of s~1l belo': the base
should also be taken iuto consideration. Methods of analys1s for th1s purpose
are now discussed.
8.5.2
Rigorous Methods
and
2
e z --(w
Px
z -w z) M,-w
rz
nx
nx
Mmz
~(w2)
A"'=
(8.38)
interaction effects of soil below the base slab. For example, the case of
vertical vibrations may be analyzed by the model shown in Fig. 8.11. The
mathematical model in Fig. 8.l;l.J1as been obtained by assuming the ba~e
slab to be rigid and lower ends tif columns fixed into the base slab. Th1s
model is a modification of the single-degree-of-freedom model shown m Flg.
8.4b. For vertical vibrations the effect of vertical stiffness of soil at the base
has been replaced by an equivalent soil spring k 1. The damping in soil and in
the structure can also be included. This model can be analyzed as a
two-degrees-of-freedom system.
(8.39)
where
Pz sin
wt
e2
a=l+r 2
,,
(8.40)
r=
~M,;;,
(8.41)
01: ....--
~
~
kz = Vertical stiffness
of frames
(8.42)
in which a is the distance of the point at which the amplitude is being
calculated from the center of gravity of the system.
The methods of computing the natural frequencies and amplitudes of
vibration by treating the frame foundation as a single-degree or a twodegrees-of-freedom system have been discussed above. These methods work
01.
0!~
ki = Vertical soil
spring
01.
w.ifbmh
358
METHODS OF ANAlYSIS
359
Px sin wt
Deck
slab
1. The frame columns are considered fixed at their lower ends. The
kh = Horizontal stiffness
of frames
Base slab
m)
r~/~~1~------r-----~
~
k
kx = Equivalent
soil spring
in sliding
Figure 8.12.
= Equivalent soil
spring in rocking
effects.
2500'-~t<---- 3600,--~+---2500
4800
.t--+-t --
2000
2800
Hollow
2000
1000
1200
1200
3100
(e)
Figure 8.13.
A typical frame foundation: (a) plan of the deck slab; (b) longitudinal section; (c)
cross section; (d) lumped-mass model with columns assumed fixed into the base slab; (e)
lumpedwmass model including interaction effects of soil.
600
400
miO
400
Line memb
represent
spr~~s
1000
4800----
900'r-----
DO
1000
mg
5400
1000
8600
(d)
(b)
m,,
Hollow
600
400
I
I
400
1000
1000
5400
3600
Columns
~============~~~============-IJJOOO
6800
(c)
Figure 8.13.
360
(continued).
361
362
DESIGN PROCEDURES
(8.43)
in which
[M] ~ mass matrix
[ K] ~ stiffness matrix
[ C] ~ damping matrix
{ Z} ~displacement vector
{ Z} ~ velocity vector
{ Z} ~ acceleration vector
{ F(t)) ~applied load vector
The equations of motion [Eq. (8.43)] may be solved by direct integration
to obtain the response of the system. Alternatively, they may be uncoupled
into a set of linear equations and the solution obtained by the normal mode
method. The normal mode method is generally preferred, since it offers the
facility to obain the natural frequencies and mode shapes. The total
response can be obtained by modal superposition (Section 2.14), in which
case the maximum response at any frequency can be calculated from the
displacements resulting from each mode. This makes it possible to calculate
the amplitude of vibration not only at the normal operating speed of the
machine, but also at all speeds through which the turbine passes during
starting and shutdown. Amplitude frequency plot showing the vibration
amplitude for different speeds of the turbine can thus be obtained. A typical
amplitude-,frequency plot is shown in Fig. 8.14. From the values of tbe
..
363
8.6
DESIGN PROCEDURE
The methods for analysis of frame foundations have been discussed in the
previous section. A stef;cby-step design procedure will now be given. The
design will consist of two stages:
1. Preliminary design.
2. Detailed design.
Operating frequency (rpm)
Figure 8.14.
Before attempting the design, the machine, soil and seismic data and
foundation details listed below should be procured.
364
8.6.1
Design Data
Machine Data
All data pertaining to the machine should be procured from the manufacturer of the machine. These data should consist of the following:
1. Layout of the machine and auxiliary equipment, including their fixing
details.
2. Information on openings, depressions, and projections, including any
other requirement for the machine.
3. Weight of machine.
4. Capacity and rated output of the machine.
5. Operating speed of the machine.
6. Weight of rotor and eccentricity.
7. A complete loading diagram showing the magnitude and point of
application "of all loads that are to be accounted for in design. The
information on various loads should include:
Dead loads
Live loads
Construction loads
Thermal loads
Load due to condenser weight and due to vacuum (depression) in
condenser
Pipe loads
Unbalanced loads due to machine operation
Torque loads
Loads due to short-circuit current
Loads due to bending of rotor
Loads due to missing bucket
8. Permissible vibration amplitudes.
DESIGN PROCEDURES
365
Seismic Data
Proportioning of the foundation includes deciding the layout of the foundation and selection of sizes of the different components for preliminary
analysis. In deciding the layout of the foundation, the following points
should be considered.
1. The layout of the foundation should as far as possible be symmetric
with respect to a vertical plane through the longitudinal axis of the machine.
2. The machine bearing should be located directly on the transverse
frames. The columns and transverse frames should be exactly in planes
perpendicul&'J: to the longitudinaL,a]<is of the machine.
3. The foundation should be so "dimensioned that the resultant force due
to weight of machine, top deck and columns (including intermediate slabs if
any) and the base slab, together pass through the center of gravity of the
base contact area. The eccentricity should in no case exceed 3 percent.
4. Overhanging cantilevered sections should be avoided. If they are
unavoidable, they should be designed to ensure rigidity with the main
frame.
Depth of the Deck Slab and Longitudinal and Transverse Beams. The
depth of the transverse and longitudinal beams should be one-third to
one-quarter of the clear span. The depth of deck slab usually ranges from
0.60 m to 1.5 m. The deck slab should be rigid in its own plane.
Column Size. The columns commonly used are sized so that the ratio of
height to width generally varies from 2 to 10. Adequate haunches should be
Soil Data
achieve a uniform soil reaction so as to maintain the deck slab in a plane and
should be ascertained).
Base Slab.
The
b'ri~e
keep the shaft alignment intact. Also the slab thickness should be enough to
satisfy the condition of fixity of columns at their lower ends. The thickness
of the base slab may be taken as 0.07 L 413, where L is the average of
adjacent clear spans in m. A minimum thickness of 1m is generally
366
367
DESIGN PROCEDURES
~'
1'(1 + 2K)W
3/W
96Eib(2 + K) + 8GAb
(8.25)
in which
Dynamic Analysis
The preliminary analysis may be carried out by using a two-degrees-offreedom model for the case of horizontal and vertical vibrations, by
following the steps given below:
Vertical Vibrations
Spring Stiffness k 1 and k 2 The spring stiffness k 1 (Fig. 8.8) is given by
k
=
J
2EA,
h
(8.24b)
10
(8.8)
2ab
Ib h
( l
(8.12)
K=--
in which
E =Young's modulus for concrete
A, = cross-sectional area of the columns
h =effective height of the column given by Eq. (8.9)
h=h 0 -2aa
'
(8.9).
in which
a =coefficient given in Fig. 8.6
a = one-half of the depth of the beams for frames without haunches and
the distance shown in Fig. 8.5 for frames with haunches
h 0 = height of the column from top of the base slab up to the center of
the beam
(2.99a)
(2.99b)
and
k,
aw
'
(8.26)
Mass m 1 is given by
mJ =
WL
+ 0.33W, + 0.25WB
g
(8.22)
368
369
DESIGN PROCEDURES
in which
WL ~load transferred by the longitudinal beams on one column
W, ~ weight of the two columns constituting the transverse frame
x~
Mass m 2 is given by
m ~ Wm + 0.45WB
2
g
(8.23)
L:wx
I I
L:Hj
(8.44)
(8.27c)
(8.29)
in which
aj
mj
:, - .-~'
[''
and
A
=
,z
b.(w
z =
z
(1 + JL)w!fl + f.LW~/2m,b.(w')
w2
P,
1)
k . ~ 12EI, ( 6K +
X]
h3
3K + 2
(8.27d)
(8.20)
Horizontal Vibrations
(8.7)
in which
Wm ~ weight of machine and bearing transferred to a transverse beam
q ~ uniformly distributed load on the transverse beam including its own
weight
WL ~ load transferred by longitudinal beam on one column
and
l ~ effective length
(8.45)
in which
"%:.
X, ~ distance of point C from A 1 (not shown in the figure)
X,i ~ distance of center line of transverse frame j from the end A 1 (not
L:Hj
m~--
e ~x-x,
(8.46)
370
EXAMPLES
371
center.
11~1
is
(8.36b)
(8.35)
in which a is given by
e'
r
a=l+--,
r = radius of gyration =
(8.40)
~ M,;;,
The limiting
(8.36a)
The limiting natural frequency of torsional vibrations
(8.42)
(8.41)
(8.37)
8.7
EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 8.7.1
in which
is
"'
(8.38)
372
373
EXAMPLES
multidegr~e heedom system without considering the effect of soil and also
I,=
= 0.03645 m
Solution
The dimensions of the frame and the various loads acting on it are shown in
F1g. 8.13 (a, b, c).
~2 9 '
06
I, lz_
I, l
K = 0.036
0.03645
5.5335 = O 9786
5.589
.
Horizontal stiffness kx
=
k,
12EI,
h3
k = 12
(6K
+ 1)
3K+2
6
3 X 10 X 0.03645 ( 6 X 0.9786 + 1)
(5.5335) 3
3 X 0.9786 + 2
(8.8)
(8.9)
wn, = \j
/2
fnx =
(8.20)
'
10780.3 X 9.81
_
= 50.46 radisec
83 04
50.46
z:;;:= 8.03 Hz
10 =5.7m
Multi-degrees-of-Freedom System Neglecting Effect of Soil
h 0 =5.7m
a= 0.30.
Assnme the columns to be fixed in the base slab and consider one longitudinal frame. The lumped-mass model is made for plane frame analysis
following the specific program manuals. i"
The natural frequencies were obtained by using a computer program. The
values of the first eight natural frequencies obtained are shown in Table 8.2.
b
0.45
/;, = 5.7 =0.0789
h
5.7
-0= - = 1
10
5.7
f = 5. 7- 2
0.185
0.3 = 5.589 m
h = 5.7-2
0.185
0.45 = 5.5335
The values of the soil springs k"' kx and k were obtained by using the
procedure in Section 6. 7Ior the base area of the foundation. The values of
these springs are for the base area of the foundation are:
k, = 103044.7 tim
k, = 84874.8 tim
t There are several computer codes currently available in the market. The choice among these
commercially available codes should be based on the 'specific requirements of the problem (see
Appendix 3).
374
Table 8.2. Computer Output: Plane Frame Analysis, Soil Interaction Neglected
Mode
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Eigenvalue
3 .464487D
1.981161D
2. 779605D
1.202309D
3. 747028D
5.200198D
1.074382D
1.631767D
03
05
05
06
06
06
07
07
Frequency Hz
9 .367850D
7.084030D
8.390967D
1.745133D
3.080803D
3.629363D
5.216747D
6.429091D
00
01
01
02
02
02
02
02
Period sec
!.067481D-C1
1.411626D-02
1.191758D-02
5. 730223D-03
3.245907D-03
2.755304D-03
1.916904D-03
1.555430D-03
375
REFERENCES
(l
b) "En ineering User's Manual. Vol. 2. Additional Design and
1 979
ICES STR~DL .rl. . , S h. I
Civil Engineering Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
AnalysiS Fac1 1ttes.
c oo
'
Cambridge Massachusetts.
~~einlogel (1.94~). "Rahmenformeln." Springer~Verlag, Berlin and New York.
Kleinlogel (1964). "Rigid Frame Formulae." Frederick U~gar Publ. Co., New York.
t . h V (1959) "Frames and Arches." McGraw-Hill, New York.
. ,
L
eon ovJc '
. _ .
A
nd Design " Akademiai Ktado,
Major, A. (1980). "Dynamics in Civil Engmeenng: na1ysts a
.
of
Budapest. Vol. 3.
B k
Rausch, E. (1. 959 ). "Maschinen Fundamente und Andere Dynamisch Beanspruchte au on.
_.
structionen." VDI Verlag, DUsseldorf.
N E (1975) Natural frequencies of a turbme foundat1on. Proc.
ShenSt~~t~De~~~~:~n;~we~ Pian-ts Fa~ilities Conf., New Orleans, Il-~02 to 11-.311. . .
nternational Conference of Buildmg Officmls, Whittier,
Uniform Building Code (1985). I
California.
Table 8.3. Computer Output: Plane Frame Analysis, Soil Interaction Included
Mode
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Eigenvalue
5.455556D
6. 768874D
1.594582D
8.922416D
1.357772D
4.283156D
1.387527D
1. 728597D
03
03
04
04
05
05
06
06
Frequency Hz
1.175547D
1.309419D
2.009759D
4. 754028D
5.864538D
1.041603D
1.874740D
2.092509D
01
01
01
01
01
02
02
02
Period sec
8.506678D-02
7.636974D-02
4 .975722D-02
2.103480D-02
1.705164D-02
9.600583D-03
5 .334072D-03
4. 778952D-03
REFERENCES
ADINA System (1981). "ADINA User's Manual." ADINA Engineering Inc., Watertown,
Massachusetts.
American Society of Civil Engineers (1987). "Design of large steam turbine-generator foundatiOns." ASCE task committee on turbine foundations.
Arya, S. D., O'Neill, M., and Pincus, G. (1979). "Design of Structures and Foundations for
Vibrating Machines." Gulf Publ. Co., Houston, Texas.
Arya, S.D., and Drweyer, R. (1977). Mathematical modelling and computer simulation of
elevated foundations suppbrting vibrating machinery. Trans. -fMACS 19, No. 4.
Barkan, D. D. (1962). "Dynamics of Bases and Foundations." McGraw-Hill, New York.
Hurty, W. C., and Rubinstein, M. F. (1964). "Dynamics of Structures." Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
ICES STRUDL II (1979a). "Engineering User's Manual. Vol. 1. Frame Analysis." School of
Civil Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
-?--
:" ..
9
Foundations for
Miscellaneous Types of
Machines
This ~hapter deals with the design of foundations for the following types f
machmes:
o
2. Motor generators have a larger unbalance compared to turbogenerators, whicb are well-balanced machines. Even at low speeds of
operation, the motor generators produce large unbalanced forces and
moments.
For motor generators operating at low speeds (less than 300 to 450 rpm),
it is advisable to design a high-tuned foundation in the form of a rigid
concrete block. For motor generators operating at 1200 to 1500 rpm, both
massive concrete or frame-type foundations may be provided depending
upon soil conditions and the space required for equipment and other
accessories.
>. ,.rr
t,:
Design Criteria
Static Loads.
9.1
This class includes rotary machines operating at Jess than 1500 rpm M t
generators, centrifugal pumps, fans and blowers, crushing mills, and ro~i~~
mills are some examples of low-speed rotary machines For these machines
both the massive-block-type and frame-type foundatio~s are used. Principle~
gover~mg the design of foundations for this category of machines are
essentially the same as discussed in Chapter 6 for block -type foundations
(for reciprocatmg machines) and in Chapter 8 for frame foundations
Appropnate design procedure should be followed depending upon type of
foundation selected. In some cases, it may be necessary to use a pilesupported foundation. Concepts developed in Chapter 12 may b
d
such
F
d
.
e use m
_cases. oun atton destgn for some of these thachines wil1 0
b
descnbed.
. ow e
Motor Generators
377
Dynamic Loads.
Operating Speed
750 rpm or less
750 rpm to 1500 rpm
0.06 to 0.12
0.06 to 0.04
378
379
Machine Data
2. Weight of rotor for (a) motor and (b) generator and the effective
eccentricity for each. If information on unbalanced forces and moments is available, data on eccentricity is not needed.
3. Weight of flywheel.
4. Operating speed.
5. Short-circuit moment.
6. Geometric layout of the machine units, anchoring details, and openings required for accessories and inspection.
i
Soil Data
1. Soil profile and data on soil characteristics up to three times the
foundation width or hard stratum.
2. Realistic dynamic soil properties consistent with confining pressures
and strain amplitude as discussed in Chapter 4 (Section 4.7).
3. Position of water table.
These pumps operate at low speeds. The foundation size provided from
considerations of geometry of the pumping installation is large enough and
vibration problems usually will not arise. There are two main sources of
vibration for which the foundation response must be checked:
1. The forces due to unbalance in the rotating unit known as impeller.
2. If the clearance between the impeller and the casing is inadequate, the
pressure surges increase and the ensuing waves propagate through the
water to the casing and to the foundation. The frequency of such
waves is given by (Judd, 1955)
Nn
t= 60
in which
(9.1)
Design Criteria
Machine Data.
foundation:
2.
3.
4.
5.
..,. '
Operating speed of the pump.
Number of impeller vanes.
Frequency of pressure surges.
Unbalanced forces due to pump operation.
foundatl~m.
Soil and machine data necessary for foundatiOn design IS the same as
discussed earlier for motor generators.
380
<l
of discharge of primary
""'
air fan unit
381
Foundation
block
<t
of primary air
fan foundation
(9.2a)
Retaining wall
in which
(a) Plan
~Grout~
Covered~ch
16
Lr.=
~
~. v
+
Figure 9.1.
:P ,,,
rb
J
_1J T
ur~
Reinforcement
bars as per design
(b) Section XX
(concrete not shown)
in which
Crushers are used for pulverizing ore. Crushers may be classified in three
categories:
1. Jaw crushers.
2. Gyratory crushers.
3. Rotary hammer crushers.
or
(9.2c)
This force Facts in the plane of rotation of the crushing cone, which is a
horizontal plane and may be resolved into two mutually perpendicular
383
Px
II
II
wt
(9.3a)
PY= Fcos wt
(9.3b)
Fsin
The forces Px and PY will also give rise to exciting moments Pxh and PYh
in which h is the height of point of action of Px and PY above the top of the
foundation. These moments act in vertical planes and induce rocking of the
foundation.
The nature of the unbalanced forces associated with jaw crushers (Table
9.1, column 3) and gyratory crushers [Equation (9.2c)] is similar to those
associated with operation of reciprocating machines.
Rotary Hammer Crusher
382
384
385
Centerline
<t
I
Crusher Inlet
([ of oil
drain
Radial hammer
Pocket for
anchor bolt
([of pulverizer
unit
Circular binders
,c.Jop of structural
,-
Radial bar
steel
Outlet
'.
Reinforcement
bars
~~oc:=:==fi=s=,:~:"':~d:~:~c:"u"'sh"',"',""""""""J;;;;;;;: Outlet
I
Top of
concrete
vLL'--~
Centerline
Figure 9.2.
raft
Sand filling
A typical foundation for a crusher pulverizer is shown in Fig. 9.3. Frametype foundal!ons can also be provided for crushers. Data required for design
IS as follows.
Machine Data
1. Layout of crusher and motor.
5. Anchoring details.
6. Permissible vibration amplitudes.
Soil Data.
and 8.6.
-,..:.
Design Criteria
The criteria for static and dynamic stability should be satisfied as for any
machine foundation. The limiting vibration amplitudes should not be exceeded. If information on limiting amplitudes is not available, an upper
386
387
C,----(D
The process of rolling is used to convert molten ingots of steel into structural
sections by passing them through a set of rollers. During the rolling
operation, variable loads are transmitted to the foundation, resulting in
foundation vibrations and transfer of dynamic stresses to both soil and
foundation.
A rolling mill consists of following components:
E
0
:< A
K
H
Time (sec)
(a)
I. Driving motor.
2. The ingot is gripped by the rollers and forced through them and
simultaneously the rollers accelerate. The torsional moment increases
as indicated on Fig. 9.5a by line BC.
3. Rolling then proceeds at constant speed. The torque stays constant as
shown by line CD.
Adjusting screw
Adjusting screw
~ rn1~ +-Rolling-~:tl~'"';'\>jl
(b)
Time
Time
Ingot exit
lcl
Figure 9.5. MomenHime history of pulse du~ing r~lling operation. ~a) S~~ematic. diag~am for
one passage of ingot, (b) idealized momenH1me d1agram, and (c) smphf1ed des1gn dagram.
4. Towards the end of one rolling pass, the rollers slow down resulting in
diminishing torque as shown by D EFG.
5. The ingot then exits, torque diminishes along line GH.
6. The exit of the ingot is marked by sudden unloading of the system as
shown by lines HIJ.
7. One pass of the ingot is completed and torque gradually falls to zero
along line JK. ,.,
Roll stand
Roller
Figure 9.4.
An ingot passes through the rollers several times before the finished
section is obtained. The shape of "torsional moment" vs. "time" diagram
for each roller pass is similar. The maximum torsional moment on the shaft
and consequently the maximum exciting moment on the foundation are
developed at the end of the acceleration stage as shown by C, and this
moment varies slightly during the rolling process. It may reasonably be
assumed that the absolute change (decrease) in torsional moment during exit
388
of the ingot is of the same order as the change in moment (increase) when
the ingot is gripped by the rollers. The design diagram for torsional moment
variation for one pass of rolling may be simplified to that shown in Fig. 9.5b.
Further, the exit of the ingot is followed by a decrease in torsional moment
and the stresses in the foundation can exceed those during the process of
steady rolling when the torsional moment is maximum. The loading diagram
may therefore be further simplified to that shown in Fig. 9 .5c.
The torsional moment will induce rocking vibrations of the foundation.
The stress induced in the soil will be the sum of the stress due to static load
and rotation of the foundation and may be obtained as follows [Eq. (9.4)]:
(9.4)
in which
I
I
to the
and a
by an
unit is
(9.5)
389
The roller stand provides support to the bearing and transmits the forces
arising during rolling process to the foundation.
The gearbox houses the gears that drive the rollers. A torque equal to the
torque on the shaft of the drive motor acts on the gearbox. The foundations
for the gearbox should therefore be designed in the same manner as for the
driving motor.
When the drive-gear and working stands are mounted on a separate
foundation, not tied to that under the driving roll motor, the dynamic effects
of external loads on the foundations are evaluated separately but similarly.
Drive-gear stand, working stand, and driving roll motor may be mounted
on a common foundation, the drive-gear stand is then subjected to the
action of a torsional moment whose sign is opposite to that of the moment
acting on the stator of the driving roll motor. The sum of all the external
dynamic loads transmitted to the foundation and soil in this case equals
zero, and the foundation will be under the action of internal torsional
moments whqse magnitude equal~ t:!Je moment of the shaft of the motor, as
well as under the action of the (;quipment weight. These loads should be
considered in the stress analysis of the foundation and its components.
For designing foundations for a rolling mill, the data as given below
should be obtained:
Machine Data
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Soil Data. As for other foundations (Sections 6.8 and 8.6). The drive
roll motor is usually supported on a separate block foundation.
The motor generator may be supported on massive-blocks or a frametype foundation.
~-q'
in which
dNI d.t =rate ,of change of speed, which varies from 3 to 10 cycles (per
sec.) (Barkan, 1962). The value of the design moment should
be taken as 2Mi to account for the most unfavorable conditions.
390
391
Grinding mills are of two types: (a) drum mills and (b) tube mills.
The tube mill has a narrow diameter and larger length. The diameter and
length or height of a drum mill are comparable .
A tube mill has an outer shell that is rotated by a motor. The tube
contains a charge of steel balls that impinges upon the material being
ground. Drum mills work on the same principle as the tube mills. The
grinding mills may be used both for dry and wet grinding.
For design of foundation for grinding mills, the following data should be
procured (Major, 1980):
1. Layout details of the mill equipment.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Dynamic analysis is generally 'n'cit needed for the design of mill foundations. Soil stresses must, however, be checked and ensured to be below
the permissible values for the loading conditions given below:
1. Weight of machine.
2. Weight of foundation.
3. The horizontal component of the centrifugal force in the direction of
motion of the bottom generator of the tube. The magnitude of the
horizontal component should be taken as 10 percent of the weight of
the mill (W) for mills with short drums and 20 percent of W for tube
mills. Weight W is the weight of the mill without ball charge and
material to be ground. Permissible values of the soil stresses are
generally reduced to 80 percent of those under static loads. Weight W
is considered to be uniform over the two supports of the drum.
0.00
When the soil conditions are good (permissible soil stresses 3.5 kg/ cm 2 or
more), separate foundations may be provided for intake and discharge ends
of the mill and also for driving motor and the reduction gear. When soil
2
conditions are not favol\(lble (allowable soil stress <1.5 kg/cm ), the entire
mill should be placed on a common foundation.
9.2
(b)
Fig~re 9.6. Foundation for a light steel rolling mill. (a) Roller stand, and (b) driving gear. (After
MaJor, 1980.)
Machines such as lathes, milling, drilling, and boring machines are known as
machine tools. A dynamic analysis for foundations for machine tools may be
392
9o3
Presses are commonly used in practice for stamping, forging, and punching
purposes. A press is assigned a name depending upon the specific operation
for which it has been designed. A press consists of a crosshead, a bed plate
and columns. The bed plate rests on a base that is anchored to the
foundation. A schematic sketch of a press is shown in Fig. 9.7. The bed
plate can also be directly anchored to the foundation depending upon the
type of the press. The crosshead moves up and down and has a fixed travel
known as stroke. The base plate can be adjusted and fixed at any desired
elevation. The desired process of forging, stamping, or punching may be
performed by attaching the appropriate tool to the crosshead. For stamping
purposes, the stamping dye is attached. Likewise for forging operations a
forging tool of the required size and shape is attached. The punching
operation is performed by fixing a suitable cutting tool to the crosshead. It
should be noted that the forging operation in a press is performed by
applying a compressive force through a suitable tool to the red hot metal
piece and differs from the forging under impact done with the forging
hammers.
II
Columns I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I II
:: ! : :
I i
Crosshead
"'%~
Adjustable
--bed plate
~///~/:;~~;>/ _L
Base/
W=
A =
h=
E=
II I
(9.6)
in which
I : I
ii
"'
Wh
us-= EA
F=--
393
I I
I I
stored in the metal piece will be released suddenly as the punch cuts through
Figure 9.7. Schematic sketch of a hydraulic
press.
395
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE
394
The data required for designing foundations for presses will now be
discussed.
Design Data. The data giVen below should be obtained for designing
foundations for a press.
Layout of machine installation.
Maximum force exerted by the press.
Stroke of-the press.
Weight of the press.
Weight of material to be forged or pressed.
Load-time characteristics of the pulse or the dynamic loading effects
due to stamping or forging, including dynamic torque for friction
presses.
7. Data on soil profile and its static and dynamic characteristics.
Foundation
block
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
9.4
Figure 9.8.
I.
Figure 9.9.
is felt that the performance of some existing machines resting on floors and
vibration response of floors and adjoining structural elements needs to be
monitored so that thf~ topic may be given a sound design basis.
9.5
EXAMPLES
396
W, = (6
steel balls Wb = 45 t.
the material to be pulverized (capacity) W, = 10 t.
accessories at discharge end= 5.0 t.
motor and gear Wm = 35 t.
4. Weight of
5. Weight of
6. Weight of
7. Weight of
397
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE
0.5]2.4 t
= 223.78 t
4. Weight of foundation block at discharge end is Wd.
= 294.91 t
A sketch of the proposed foundation is shown in Fig. 9.10. The soil
investigations at the site of the mill indicated that the safe allowable soil
pressure may be taken as 2.0 kg/ cm 2 Check the suitability of the proposed
foundation. Assume that the unit weigbt of concrete is 2400 kg/m3.
Solution
It is proposed to provide separate foundations for the inlet and discharge
ends. The motor and other machinery will be supported on the same
foundation as for the discharge end.
l. Weight of machine, balls, and material being pulverized
w, + wb + w, = 95 + 45 + 10 = 150 t
1T
1
1
Plan
1800
~
6000
l----3000
3600
'
ll
36
]+---
t-
6000
i
3000
30004
1800
1000 1800
(b)
1
l
I1000
I
All dimensions
'm mm
Figure 9.10. Foundation for a grinding mill: (a) inlet end and (b) discharge end. (See Example).
Dynamic
Moment due to horizontal centrifugal force = 35.15 t m
2
35.15
Stress due to moment= 1
2 = 0.81 t/m
6 X 8.6 X (5.5)
2
2
Total stress= 7.84 0.81 t/m 2 = 8.65 t/m and 7.03 tim
398
The stresses induced in the soil due to combined action of static and
dynamic loads are smaller than the allowable pressure both at the inlet and
discharge ends. So the foundation proposed is adequate.
REFERENCES
Barkan, D. D. (1962). "Dynamics of Bases and Foundations." McGraw-Hill, New York.
Judd, S. (1955). Vibration in hydroelectric power plants. Proc. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 81.
Major, A. (1980). "Dynamics in Civil Engineering: Analysis and Design," Vol. 2.
Akademiai Kiad6, Budapest.
Rausch, E. (1959). "Maschinen Fundamente und Andere Dynamisch Beanspruchte Baukonstructionen." VDI Verlag, DUsseldorf.
10
Vibration Absorption and
Isolation
Many times the designer is faced with the problem of designing the machine
foundations. for which the permissible amplitudes of motion are much
smaller thai( those considered n6fmally acceptable for uninterrupted machine operation. It may often be difficult to design the foundation for such
limiting amplitudes by proper selection of the mass or the foundation
contact area or by increasing the rigidity of the base. A foundation on
absorbers may provide an answer to the design problem in such a case. The
absorbers used for this purpose may be rubber, cork, felt or neoprene pads,
or steel springs. Pneumatic absorbers are also used for this purpose. A
foundation supported on spring absorbers is shown in Fig. lO.la.
There may be situations when amplitudes of vibration of the machine
may be within the acceptable limits so far as the performance of the machine
itself is concerned but the resulting vibrations may adversely affect the
performance of other machines in the vicinity or may he harmful to adjacent
structures. A vibrating footing becomes a source of wave generation in the
soil mass (Fig. 3.14). The energy transmitted by the waves may cause
vibrations of the structures in the intervening medium. The harmful effects
of these waves depend on the operating speed of the machine, the amplitude
of motion of the footing, and the nature of the intervening medium. The
adverse effects of machine vibrations on surroundings may be avoided either
by limiting the amplitudes of vibrations of foundation using absorbers or by
providing trench or pit!\' barriers. The trench barriers for screening of waves
may be provided either around the source of vibrations (active isolation) or
around the precision machine or structure sought to be protected against
vibrations (passive isolation). Sensitive eqnipment such as seismographs are
usually isolated against vibration due to traffic or machine operation by
providing trench barriers around them. In some situations, the depth of the
trenches for achieving effective isolation may be very large and may pose
construction and maintenance problems. Pile barriers may be effectively
used for vibration isolation in such cases.
399
400
Foundation block
10.1
(a)
Foundation block
+ machine
Equivalent
[f:7~~,~'""'
spring kt
ff///bm
(b)
401
(c)
z + k z + k (z z = 0
m z + k (z
z = F sin wt
Figure 10.1. (a) Schematic diagram of a foundation on absorbers (supported type). (b) Equivalent two-spring-mass model of foundation absorber system. (c) Free-body diagram.
m1
2 -
2)
1 -
1)
(2.95a)
(2.95b)
where
The process of reducing transmission of vibrations by controlling the
amplitude of vibration of the footing by use of absorbers or by providing
barriers has been extensively used in the industrial world (Adiar, 1974; Baxa
and Ebisch, 1982; Barkan, 1962; Klein and Crockett, 1953).
Amplitudes of a machine-foundation system that are within acceptable
limits at the time of its commission may increase following a period of its
operation. This may be occasioned by an increase in unbalanced loads,
402
k = k = 4Gro
I
z
1- V
(6.18)
and k, is the total equivalent stiffness of all springs in the absorber system.
The frequency equation for the system is (Section 2.13)
w;-
(w;
11
403
(2.98)
(10.2)
r =-1
w '
(10.3)
W"11
nll-
~ m k+1
1
m,
(2.99a)
and w"t 2 is the limiting natural frequency of the mass m 2 resting on absorbers
a_nd calculated on the assumption that the system below the springs has large
ngidity. w" 12 IS given by
(10.4a)
or
(10.4b)
(2.99b)
The maximum amplitudes Z 1 and Z 2 are given by
2
wn/2
(2.108)
z1 = m1 Ll.(w2) Fo
z _ (1 + !L)w; 11 + !Lw; 12 2-
m, Ll.(w2)
w2
Fo
(2.109)
in which
(2.104)
and w is the operating frequency.
The exciting unbalanced force due to a machine is proportional to the
square of the frequency of machine operation and, therefore, F0 may be
expressed as
It is seen from Eq. (10.2) that the amplitude with absorber will be small
only if the ratio r 2 is small. When r 2 , i.e., w" 12 /w is negligible, the amplitude
of vibration .Z1 is almost zero and the absorber efficiency is high. The
effectiveness of the absorber is thus maximum when r 2 = 0 and decreases as
the ratio r 2 increases. For very large values of r 2 (r 2 ~oo), the value of Z 1
approaches the value Z for the no absorber case.
From the preceding discussion, it may be concluded that for the absorbers to have a favorable effect on the amplitudes of foundation vibration,
the natural frequency of the mass above the absorbers should be as small as
possible in comparison with the frequency of machine operation. The
required natural frequency of the foundation above the absorbers may be
achieved by using absorbers of suitable stiffness and by appropriate selection
of mass above the absorbers. For machines operating at high speeds, the
required condition bet~een w" 12 and w can be easily satisfied without
significant increase in the' weight of the foundation above the absorbers. For
machines operating at low frequency, the relationship is usually difficult to
satisfy by just decreasing the rigidity of the absorber because this decrease
beyond a certain limit is not practicable due to strength requirements. In
such a case, massive foundation above the springs is necessary. A proper
choice of the type of absorber is very critical in such cases. The absorber
F0
= Sw
(10.1)
system may be designed based upon the value of r 2 , which depends upon the
required degree of absorption 1) defined by
404
405
(10.5)
The principle of vibration absorber explained above will now be used for
developing a procedure for the design of foundations on absorbers. Different types of absorbers commonly used are described first.
10.2
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Cork pads.
Rubber pads.
Timber pads.
Neoprene pads.
Pneumatic absorbers.
10.2.1
Figure 10.3. A multiple spring absorber assembly. (Courtesy Korfund, Inc. 1986).
Helical springs made of steel are the most effective elastic supports for
reducing amplitudes of vibration in machine foundations. A single spring
absorber is shown in Fig. 10.2. This type of spring absorber will be suitable
only for very low capacity machines. For machines of medium to high
capacity, absorber units having several springs are used (Fig. 10.3).
Two arrangements of mounting the spring absorbers are possible for
Spring
Suspended
inertia block
Spring
(a)
(b)
Figure 10.2. Spring absorber having only one spring: (a) without housing; (b) with housing.
406
10.2.2
Cork
Natural cork is one of the best vibration and noise absorbing materials. It
has a low unit weight, high compressibility, and is impermeable to gases and
Bolting
not required
Bolting
required
Vibracork
l"
Vibracork
(a)
407
liquids. It can undergo large compression. Cork p_ads are placed under the
machine or the foundation as necessary. The sllffness of a cork pad to
vertical compression without lateral expansion may be calculated by usmg
Eq. (7.1)
EA
(7.1)
k=-
(c)
Retaining curn
for equipment
tending to walk
or concrete
Machine base
Vibracork
(b)
(a)
(a)
(b)
(c)
machinery; (b) continuous layer of Vibracork for heavy machinery and concrete foundations
Figure 10.6. Bonded rubber pads: (a) rubber spring bond~d ~etween two metal plat~s; (b)
above the floor line; (c) Vibracork for isolation of equipment on concrete foundation below
rubber spring in the forin of hollow cylinder; (c) rubber sprang m the form of hollow cyhnders
bonded to grooved steel plates. (After Major, 1980.)
408
409
to the piston, and let i5 be the downward movement of the piston. If the area
of the piston is A, then the new pressure p 2 is given by PIA. According to
Boyle's law
(10.6)
Ia)
(b)
Figure 10.7. Timber pads with multiple layers: (a) two layers; (b) three layers.
v, =
1 0.2.4 Timber
Timber pads are commonly used below anvils in hammer foundations.
Single or multiple layers of hard wood (such as oak, pine, or beach) beams
are used for the purpose. The timber beams are arranged so that the
direction of the compressive load is across the grain. Arrangement of timber
beams in multiple layers is shown in Fig. 10.7(a, b). The stiffness of a timber
pad in compression is given by Eq. (7 .1).
The values of E for different grades of timber are available in "Codes of
V1 -
oA
Therefore,
(10.7a)
or
(10.7b)
Practice."
10.2.5
Neo11rene
Neoprene and neoprene cork pads prove very resistant to industrial environment. These are commercially available in different sizes and with a wide
range of load deformation characteristics.
10.2.6
Pneumatic Absorber
~Cylinder
(10.8)
The pneumatic springs may be the single- or double-acting type (Harris and
Crede, 1976). Pneumatic springs can be made to provide damping as well.
The load supporting area may vary with deflection. Pneumatic springs are
commercially available in different shapes and capacities. A typical convoluted air spring knowif-as "Airmount" manufactured by Firestone, Inc., is
shown in Fig. 10.9. The performance characteristics of the pneumatic
springs are supplied by the manufacturers and must be ascertained before
planning use of such systems.
When the loads are heavy and the required natural frequency of the
absorber is low, the static deflection in the usual (spring or pad) type of
absorbers will be large. However, in pneumatic absorbers, the static deflection can be controlled by adjusting the air or gas pressure to support the
load while maintaining the low stiffness necessary. Baxa and Ebisch (1982)
410
411
Blind nut
or
4Gr0
k 1 = (1- v).
(6.18)
in which
I
Figure 10.9. A typical convoluted air spring. (Airmount isolator by Firestone.)
in which m 1 = W1 /g and m 2
m;m
I
(2.99a)
2
f.L
m,
m,
f.L = -
have reported the successful use of the pneumatic absorber to control the
vibrations of a 4000-hp hammer mill operating at 600 rpm. The total weight
isolated was around 550 tons and was supported on 16 Airmounts.
(10.3)
10.3
Design procedure for a foundation on absorbers and supporting a reciprocating machine having its main unbalanced force component in vertical
where
provided).
(10.4a)
1. Design Data. Procure all design data about the machine and soil
listed in Section 6.8 and the limiting amplitudes.
412
z
]:,
T/=-
413
71
.!:_
zl
10.4
(10.5)
(2.99b)
10. Determine
w~ 12
,z =
2
2
t) 11{2
or
mzwnf2
(2.99b)
12. Select the typ~ of absorber. An absorber having total stiffness k, may
now be chosen. This selectiOn can be easily made from the information
gtven m ~anufacturers catalog about load us deformation characteristics of
commercial absorbers.
A vibrating footing results in transmission of energy through the surrounding soil in the form of waves (Fig. 3.14). A major part of this energy is
carried by Rayleigh waves, which travel near the ground surface and may
adversely effect nearby structures, precision machines, and people. One of
the possible ways to protect a structure from the harmful effect of Rayleigh
waves is to locate it far away from the source of vibrations. The amplitude
of wave motion decreases with increasing distance from the source because
of the atte!luation of wave energY,due to geometrical and material damping.
This method of isolation with dis.tance is, however, of limited significance
since its advantage cannot be practically taken without sacrificing effective
space utilization. Effective protection from harmful effects of Rayleigh
waves may be obtained by using concepts of vibration screening which is
made possible by proper interception, scattering and diffraction of surface
waves with wave barriers (Woods, 1968). The wave barriers may consist of
open trenches, trenches filled with bentonite slurry, sawdust, or sand, sheet
piles, and piles. Screening problems may be classified into two groups as
follows:
Oscillating
13. Find the amplitude of vibration Z 2 of the system above the absorbers.
m A(w 2 )
2
Fo
(2.109)
force
in which
Circular, open
trench of
radius Ro
(2.104)
and depth H.
(10.9)
vibrations~active
414
AMPLITUDE OF
SURFACE
INCOMING
RAYLEIGH
WAVE
SENSITIVE
INSTRUMENT OR
/TOOL
Figure 10.11. Schematic of vibration isolation using a straight trenchMpassive isolation. (After
Woods, 1968.)
and depth H surrounds the foundation for the machine (the source of
vibration).
Passive Isolation. The isolation is provided near the location of the
structure sought to be protected from th\, incoming waves. The wave
barriers are thus provided remote from the source of vibration but near the
site where reduction of vibration amplitudes is required. Figure 10.11 shows
an example of passive isolation in which an open trench of length L and
depth H is used to protect a sensitive instrument from the harmful effect of
waves.
The criteria for design of trench and pile barriers for effective vibration
isolation is discussed in this article. The wave barriers are considered
effective in reducing vibrations if the amplitude reduction factor (ARF) is
0.25 or less. The ARF is defined as (Woods, 1968):
ARF"'
10.4.1
(10.10)
Trench Barriers
415
series of field tests to evaluate the screening effect of trenches. The cases of
active as well as passive isolation were investigated. The effect of parameters such as the trench dimensions (length and depth), ItS distance from the
source and the frequency of vibrations, on their effectiveness as wav~
barriers was assessed. The tests were conducted at a prepared site. The soil
conditions at the test site consisted of uniform silty, fine sand (SM) up to 4ft
- 104lb/ft3, w = 7% ' e = 0 61 ' and. Vc =940ft/sec3 at surface,
_
m
d eep w1'th 'Ydand sandy silt (ML) from 4 to 14ft deep with 'Yd = 91lb/ft, w- 23-ro,
e = 0.68, and Vc = 1750 ft/sec at upper boundary. The water table was below
14 ft in depth. A small vibration exciter was used as the sourc~ of vertical
vibrations and was set up at the center of the test site. Usmg velocity
transducers the amplitudes of vertical ground motion were measured at
selected points throughout the test site before installation of the trench (no
trench condition) and after installation of the trench (after trench condition).
A comparison was made of the amplitudes of motio? for the "n? trench"
and "after trench" conditions and was used m evaluatmg the effectiveness of
the barrier. Amplitude reduction factor (ARF) defined in Eq. (10.10) was
used to give a quantitative evaluation of the effectiveness of the trench
barrier at the point of measurement.
.
The critical dimensions of the trenches used in all tests were normah~ed
with respect to the Rayleigh wave length ( AR) for the frequency of vibratiOn
used in a particular test when comparing r~sults from two or more tests at
different frequencies. The velocity of Rayleigh waves VR and the wavelength
An were determined by steady-stat~ vibration tests (Section 4.6). Thevalues
of v and A at different frequenCies used m the test program are giVen m
R
R
Table 10.1 (Woods, 1968).
.
In the active isolation tests, the depth of trenches was vaned from 0.5 to
2ft the radius R of the annular trench (Fig. 10.10) varied from 0.5 to
l.O,ft, and the an;ular dimension e was varied from 90' to 360' around the
source of vibrations. Frequencies of 200 to 350Hz were used m tests (Table
10.1). The values of scaled depth H!An thus varied from 0.222 to 1.82 ~nd
those of scaled distances R 0 / An varied from 0.222 to 0.910. Some typical
results of the investigation by Woods (1968) are shown m Fig. 10.12 m the
AR
ft
VR, ft/sec
200
2.25
450
250
300
350
1.68
1.38
1.10
420
415
385
416
417
4. Partial circle trenches having angular length 0 < 90", did not provide
an effectively screened zone.
5. Trench width is not an important parameter.
6. Amplification of vibratory energy occurred in the direction of "open
side" of the trench.
Woods (1968) also conducted passive isolation tests using open rectangular trenches and investigated the effect of trench length L, width B, depth
H, and the distance from the source R 0 . A typical layout for these tests
consisting of two vibration exciters (operated one at a time), 75 transducer
locations, and a trench is shown schematically in Fig. 10.13. The trenches
ranging in size from 1.0 ft deep by 1.0 ft long by 0.33 ft wide to 4.0 ft deep
by 8.0 ft long by 10ft wide were used in the tests. Frequencies of excitation
01.25-0.50
!:::::: l 0.50-0.25
H!An
RofAR
1.452
0.726
32,
> 1.25
1.25-o.5o
l::::::j
0.50-0.25
Hf>...n
RofAR
0.596
0.596
o.25-0.125
0.25-0.125
tw~mllld <
24'
':i'. :.<-'
7:0
o.l25
8'
20 ft
(b)
Figure 10.12. Amplitude reduction factor (ARF) contour diagrams for active isolation: (a) full
0
0
0'
/~
0
0
0
Ia I
16'
~75pick"P
benches
1. For full circle trenches (0 ~ 360"), a minimum value for HIAR of 0.6 is
required to achieve ARF equal to or less than 0.25.
2. The zone screened by a full circle trench extended to a distance of at
least 10 wavelengths (10AR) from the source of excitation.
3. For partial circle trenches (90" < 0 < 360"), the screened zone was
defined as the area outside the trench extending to at least 10
wavelengths (10AR) from the source and bounded on the sides by
radial lines from the center of the source through points 45" from ends
of the trench (Fig. 10.12b). A minimum value for HIAR of 0.6 is
required for the trench to be effective.
Figure 10.13. Schematic of the test site for passive isolation tests. (Woods, 1968.)
418
from 200 to 350Hz were used in the tests. The values of HI An varied from
0.444 to 3.64 and that of R 0 1An from 2.22 to 9.20. It was assumed in these
tests that the zones screened by the trench would be symmetrical about the
0" line. It was defined that for effective isolation, the values of ARF should
be less than or equal to 0.25 in a semicircular zone of radius of ! L behind
the trench. Typical amplitude reduction contour diagrams for one of these
.
. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .
.... .. .. .. .. .... .. .... ...... .. .
.. ...... .... .. ...... .... .... .. ....
. . . ... . .. .. .. .
c:::::::J
>
1.25
1.25-0.50
0.50-0.25
0.25-0.125
.::-::~~:-::
<
H/).R
L/).R
Roi>.R
1.19
1.79
5.96
0.125
Figure 10.14. Amplitude reduction factor (ARF) contour diagrams for passive isolation. (After
Woods, 1968.)
419
i{.. .)J?'
420
421
Pile Barriers
(10.11)
Figure 10.15. Definition of parameters for:~,~y~indrical hole barriers. (After Woods et al., 1974.)
The data from different tests was plotted in the form of nondimensional
plots of effectiveness versus Sn!AR as shown in Fig. 10.16. From these
results, Woods eta!. (1974) concluded that void cylindrical holes may act as
isolation barriers if
->-
AR- 6
(10.12a)
0.8
~
"'"'
I
~
o. 6 H-\--''r--t--''<:"'---'
0.10
0.15
figure 1 0.16. Isolation effectiveness as a function of hole diameter and spacing. (Woods et al.,
1974.)
423
422
Soil type
and
't
(10.12b)
Barrier materials
I nfinitely
,; gid pile
Two rows of void obstacles were found to be more effective and could be
used if a single row of cylindrical void obstacles spaced closely enough is not
possible or when depth is not optimal. Slurry-filled barriers were found to be
effective provided solidification of the slurry is prevented. The solid wave
barriers were also effective, but their behavior was different and needed
further investigation.
Liao and Sangrey (1978) used a two-dimensional acoustic P-wave model
to simulate in an approximate manner the passive isolation of foundations
from Rayleigh waves. Experiments in multiple acoustic scattering were
conducted as an extension of the work of Woods et al. (1974) and the effect
of diameter, spacing, and material properties of the soil-pile system on
isolation effectiveness was investigated. Their results indicated that the
earlier conclusions of Woods et al. (1974) as given in Eq. (10.12) are
generally Valid and Sn = 0.4,\R may be the Upper limit for the pile barrier to
have any effectiveness. The effectiveness of the barrier was found to be
significantly affected by the material of the pile and void holes and acoustically soft piles were more efficient than acoustically hard piles. The relative
hardness or softness was defined in terms of impedance ratio (IR) as
follows:
IR =
stee I
10 7 -
Concrete
10
'-
Gravel
Timber
Dense sand
Hard c\ay
10 5 -
Silt
Loose sand
Very soft clay
.,..,.
10
..
~;;. ;:~
Plastic foam
o3 -
,J
Void borehole
10
Figure 1 0.17. Estimated values oi Rayleigh wave impedance for various soils and pile materials.
(After Liao and Sangrey, 1978.)
(10.13)
10.5
in which
Pp = density of pile material
p, = density of soil medium
VR(p) =Rayleigh wave velocity in the pile material
VR() =Rayleigh wave velocity in the soil medium.
The piles are considered soft if IR < 1 and hard if IR > 1. The values of
Rayleigh wave impedance (pVR) for various materials are given in Fig.
10.17. Liao and Sangrey (1978) also observed that the two row barriers can
be more effective than single row barriers.
A step-by-step procedure will now be given for design of trench and pile
isolation barriers.
424
(4.9)
425
v, ~ v;
{G
or
Ar
H
(3.30b)
Assume VR = v;.
3. The distance between the source of disturbance and the structure to
be protected.
4. The size of the area over which effective vibration isolation is
desired.
(10.17)
L~
Ar ~ 2.5A~
for R 0 ~ 2AR
(10.18a)
and
(10.18b)
(4.33a)
For other values of R 0 between 2AR and 7 AR, the value of Ar may be
determined by interpolation. The minimum length of the trench
should not be smaller than the value given by Eq. (10.17) or the
length of the structure being protected.
(10.14)
12. Depth of Pile H. The minimum depth of the pile H should be 1.33AR
[Eq. (10.16)]. If the bedrock is shallow, piles may be placed on the
bedrock.
7. Location of the Trench. The trench should be located as close to the
source as possible. The distance R 0 between the centerlines of the
source and the trench should be less than AR, especially when afull
circle trench is used.
8. The length of the partial circle trench 8 (Fig. 10.12b) should be
obtained as follows: Determine the angle a subtended by the outer
boundaries of the protected area at the center of the source (Fig.
10.12b). The value of angular length 8 is then given by
13. Diameter of the Cylindrical Void (Pile) D. The diameter of the pile D
sn
-<AR
4
(10.15)
(10.12b)
15. Material of the Pile. Calculate the Rayleigh wave impedance of the
soil p,VR(.>)' Using Fig. 10.17, select the pile material so that the
(10.13)
426
16. Length of the Pile Barrier L. The length of the pile barrier L may be
determined by joining the center of the source "with the outer
boundary of the area to be protected and then placing the pile barrier
perpendicular to the axis through the source as shown in Fig. 10.15.
17. If one row ?f piles is inadequate, a second row of piles may be
provided to mcrease the effectiveness of isolation.
in which
mew 2 sin wt
(5.37)
427
Fa = unbalanced force
m = mass of the rotor
428
The structural measures are used with the object of changing the natural
frequencies of the soil-foundation system in such a way as to achieve the
largest possible difference between these natural frequencies and the frequency of operation of the machine. These consist in increasing the rigidity
of the foundation by providing piles below the foundation by method of
underpinning; by increasing contact area of the foundation with the soil; by
increasing foundation mass and by attaching suitably designed slabs to the
existing foundation. Appropriate choice of structural measure depends on
the nature of the vibrations and the relationships between the natural
frequencies and the operating speed.
It is also possible to. increase the foundation mass without inducing
changes in the frequency of foundation vibrations, resulting in a decrease in
the amplitudes of vertical vibrations. For undertuned machine foundations,
an increase in rigidity of the foundation will produce undersirable effects. In
such a case, it may be better to decrease further the natural frequency of the
foundation by increasing the foundation mass without increasing its area in
429
P:r: sin wt
Foundation
block
Attached slab
/
I
Foundation block
L rr
--:c-
ofareaA1
';?.mmmmmmmmmt!%''(,
"'
~
contact with the soil. Local condition may govern the choice in some cases.
If a vibrating footing lies close to another foundation, it may be attached to
the latter. Use. of special slabs (Fig.,.,;[0.18) attached to the main foundation
may also prove effective in reduCing vibrations in some situations. The
weight of the slab and its area in contact with the soil must be analyzed to
ensure the effectiveness of this measure.
Vibration Dampers
430
P, sin
wl
EXAMPLES
431
only for some optimum value of damping. Dampers for foundations undergoing rocking or sliding vibrations can be designed similarly.
10.7
EXAMPLES
Foundation block
EXAMPLE 10.7.1
Ia I
~I
<?..
Figure 10.19. (a) Vibration dampers attached to the foundation; (b) damper system with
dashpot.
soil below the base or the mass of the foundation. By satisfying the
condition wn 12 = w, it is theoretically possible to damp the vibrations of a
foundation and dampers with even small masses will be effective. A smaller
mass of damper necessitates a smaller value of the stiffness of the spring k 2 ,
which will result in large amplitudes of vibration of the damper mass. The
stiffness of the damper is thus governed by its strength requirements.
The damper will work efficiently if w, the Operational speed of the
machine, is constant. If the operational speed of the machine fluctuates and
comes closer to wn 12 , large amplitudes will build up. If the fluctuations in the
operational speed are large, it is difficult to design a vibration damper. The
working range of the damper may be increased by introducing damping into
the damper system, as shown in Fig. 10.19b, which results in a decrease in
amplitudes of vibration as w approaches w" 12 These effects will be possible
2. First Trial
The limiting amplitude of foundation vibrations is only 0.025 mm. Considering the limitation of 3 m x 2m on the foundation area, it will not be
possible to design a simple block foundation satisfying the criteria for
adequate design. The amplitude of vertical vibrations is 0.2024 mm as
computed subsequently. A foundation resting on absorbers must be designed.
3. Second Trial
Adopt a foundation \'rea of 3m x 2m. Let the size of the foundation
below the absorber (F~: 10.1a) be 3m x 2m x 0.3 m and the size of the
foundation block above the absorber be 3m X 2m X 1m.
Weight of foundation block below the absorber= W 1
= 3 X 2 X 0.3 X 2.4 = 4.32 t
4.32
2
Mass m 1 = . = 0.4403 t sec im
9 81
Weight of foundation block above the absorber W2 = 3 x 2 x 1 X 2.4 =
14.4 t
432
m
1.6717
R atto
o masses t-t = - 2 = ~~ = 3 796
m1
0.4403
EXAMPLES
or
k, = k,
J"!
1- (1+ t-t)r;
r 22 -
(1 + t-t)(11-1)(r; -1)
r2
433
1- (1 + 3.796)(1.0906)
(1 + 3.796)( -10- 1)(1.09062 -1)
10. Determination of w~ 12
= 1.382m
4 X 1950 X 1.382
( _ _
= 15510 tim
1 0 305 )
2
2
Wntz
Tz = - 2 -
(6.18)
or
w ~ 12 = (0.4706)(78.53) /sec
2
n/1-
wnll
~ m k+I m
I .
2
= 0.4706
wn
11
or
(2.98a)
15510
0 .443 +1. 6717 =85.69rad/sec
wn 12
= 53.87 rad/sec
.,
(2.98b)
6. Frequency Ratio r 1
85.69
rl = ~ = 78.53 = 1.0911
Wnll
'
Z=
Fo
(m 1 + m 2 )(w~ 11 - w 2 )
k 2 = 4851 tim is the total stiffness of the absorber system. Use eight
absorber units, each having a stiffness of 600 tim. The actual value of
wn 12 = "1/(8 X 600) /1.6717-53.58 rad/sec.
Step 12 is omitted since pertinent data is not supplied.
(10.4a)
13. Amplitude of Vibration of the System above the Absorber Z 2
0.5
(0.4407 + 1.6716)(85.692 -78.53 2 )
(1 + t-t)w~ 11 + f-'W~ 12 - w
z, =
m,A(w')
F0
= 0.0002024 m = 0.2024 mm
A(w
8. Degree of Absorption
11=-
zl
= w - (1 + t-t)(w~ 11 + w~ 12 )w + (1 + t-t)w~I1W~ 12
A(w 2 ) = 2.200
(10.5)
z,
0.2024
11 = O.D25 = 8.096
Adopt 17 = -10 for the design
(2.109)
(2.104)
108
2
0.000053 m = 0.054 mm
(10.5)
434
435
EXAMPLES
2
Wn/2
zl ~ mlb.(w') Fo
(2.108)
(53.58) 2
(0.4403 )( 2 .20 X 10') (0.5) ~ 0.0000148 m
Solution
1. Source Data
Operating speed of the compressor ~ 1200 rpm
1200
Operating frequency f ~ 6o ~ 20Hz
~0.0148mm
2. Soil Data
<0.025mm
EXAMPLE 10.7.2
2o
(4.33a)
Active isolation
f--20.0
m----1
~
II
I
I
I
I
I
Ct
PI
I', I
I
I
Precision \
machines \
Trench
I
I
60 .0 m
45oj /::::45'
><
>/
50~/
a
1/
CI
lal
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
.
45.0 m
I
I
I
I
I
I I
Jl
II
~c,
(b)
Figure 10.20. Layout of compressor and precision machines in the industrial building (Example
10.7.2). (a) Active isolation; (b) passive isolation.
~0.6
x 7.5 ~ 4.6m
30 m--+,-->j
(10.14)
H~0.6AR
15.0 m
\ \
!
--+--,----,-
I
I
Trench
I
I
1!:!1
I
I
I
I
I
Compressor \
p2 }
I
I
m----1
f--20.0
1!:!1
Passive isolation
1.33AR
1.33 x 7.5
9.975 m
(10.16)
436
REFERENCES
437
(10.17)
2
5.3 X 7.5
O ( )
8
9 .975 =29. 8m= 30. m say
which is also more than the distance between P 1 and P
2
10.8
FINAL COMMENTS
Indiana.
c . M . an d
Harns,
.,
G
2nd ed. Me raw-
"Korfund Vibro Isolators" (1986). -Korfund Dynamics Corporation, Westbury, New York ..
Ltao,
S., an d sangrey, D . A . (1978) . Use of piles as isolation barriers. J. Geotech. Eng. DlV.,
Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 104(GT9), 1139-1152.
.
Lysmer, J. (1970). Lumped mass method for Rayleigh waves. Bull. Setsmol. Soc. Am. 60(1),
"J E
M h
89-107.
.
Lys.mer, J., an d Wass, G . ( 1972) . "Shear Waves in Plane Infimte Structures. . ng. ec
Div. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 98(EM1), 85-105.
. ''
Major, A. (1980f:,'"Dynamics in Civil Engih~~ring: Ana Iysis. an d D estgn, Vol 2 Akademiai
,_.
.
d
t'on
Kiad6 Budapest.
May, T . W'., an d B oIt , B . A . (1982) . The effectiveness of trenches m re ucmg setsmtc mo l
Earthquake Eng. Struct. Dyn. 10, 195-210.
.
. .
McNeill R L Marganson B. E., and Babcock, F. M. (1965). ''The Role of So~l Dy~amtcs. m
De;ign. of. Stable Test Pacts." Guidance and Control Conference, ~inneapohs., Mmnesota.
reductton
of surface waves by
( M3)
621 641
Segol, G., Lee, P c y an d Abel ' J F. (1978). Amplitude
trenches. J. Eng. Mech. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 104 E
,
Sno~2~~u.S. Depart~ent
d~~a~ics.''1 . Geote~h.
Standar~s, Washmgt~n,
11
439
350
1-------Wr--1----+---j--
Dynamic Response of
Embedded Block
Foundations
In the discussion of the analysis and design of machine foundations in
Chapter 6, it is assumed that the foundation rests on the surface of the
ground. The real foundations, however, are founded below the ground
surface. For an embedded foundation, the soil resistance is mobilized both
below the base and on the sides. The additional soil reaction that comes into
play on the sides of an embedded footing may have a significant influence on
its dynamic response. The results of the field investigations of embedded
foundations by Novak (1970, 1985}, Beredugo (1971}, Beredugo and Novak
(1972}, Fry (1963), Stokoe (1972}, Stokoe and Richart (1974) and of
laboratory experiments by Chae (1971), Gupta (1972}, and Vijayvergiya
(1981) show that as a result of embedment, the natural frequency of the
foundation-soil system increases and the amplitude of vibration decreases as
compared to the response of a surface footing under otherwise identical
conditions. These conditions are illustr~ted in Fig. 11.1 by typical response
curves for a concrete block of diam'eter d, having different depths of
embedment h, and subjected to an unbalanced horizontal force. It is
observed from this figure that the natural frequency of this system increases
and the horizontal vibration amplitude A, decreases with an increase in
embedment ratio hid.
The determination of the response of an embedded foundation supporting a machine is thus of great practical importance and has been the
subject of several theoretical and experimental studies. The available
analytical procedures for computing the response of an einbedded footing
may be classified into the following categories:
1. Approximate methods, which consider the effect of the soil on the
sides of the footing separately and include extension of the elastic half-space
method for the surface footing (Anandakrishna and Krishnaswamy, 1973a;
Baranov, 1967; Beredugo and Novak, 1972; Novak and Beredugo, 1971,
438
3000
3500
--~-,pm
Fi
11 1
h~~~~s of ~ontact with surrounding undisturbed soil at the same excitation intensity. (After
Novak, 1970.)
11.1
440
solutions: (1) the footing is rigid, (2) the footing is cylindrical, (3) the base
of the footing rests on the surface of a semi-infinite elastic half-space, and
the soil reactions at the base are independent of the depth of embedment,
(4) the .soil reactions on the side are produced by an independent elastic
layer lying above the level of the footing's base, and (5) there is a perfect
bond between the sides of the footing and the soil. Assumption 1 is valid in
all practical cases. Assumption 2 may not hold in all cases. Assumptions 3
and 4 enable the reactions on the base and side to be independent of each
other. The contact between the soil and the sides of the foundation
(assumption 5) may not be perfect. The nature and extent of the contact
between soil and the sides of the foundation are affected by the nature of
the soil, the method of placement and compaction, the amplitude of
vibration under operating conditions, and temperature variations, depending upon the specific use of the machine. Assumptions 1-5 considerably
simplify the evaluation of the soil's resistance, and the elastic half-space
approach can be conveniently extended to account for embedment effects.
The vibrations of embedded block foundations in different modes of vibration are discussed below.
///////
I )
Side layer
//////T
(11.1)
in which
(11.3)
and
The displacement functions/, and/2 (Reissner and Sagoci, 1944; Sung, 1953;
Bycroft, 1956; Luco and Wes~n, 1971) depend upo? (1). the dimensionless frequency ratio, a0 = wrWfJ7G, (2) the Pmsson s ratiO v, and (3)
the stress distribution below the base. G is the dynamic shear modulus of
the medium. The dynamic soil reaction N,(t) on the side is obtained by
using
N,(t)
s(z, t) dz
(11.4)
in which s(z, t) is the time-dependent soil reaction per unit length on the
vertical side of the footing and is a functiOn of the shear mo~ulus of the side
layer c,, its mass density p,, depth of embedment h,d!menswnles~ frequency ratio a , and the quality of contact between the soil and th~ footmg. If the
0
soil reaction is considered to be independent of the depth, sIS equal to s(t),
and by Baranov's (1967) approach, its value is given by
s(t)
(11.5)
+e.G.
----=:N:c-,-(t)1-b-'----,-----I-[-N,_It)::-==G-,,-p,__
z(t)
441
..
J 1(a 0 )J0 (a 0 ) + Y 1(ao)Y0 (ao)
S, "& 21Tao
J~(ao) + Y~(ao)
lh
(11.6)
and
_ _ ...J._ _ _ _ _ - - - - _J....---
1---,o-
G,p
s, =
R,lt)
Elastic half-space
Figure 11.2. Vertical vibrations of an embedded foundation according to the elastic half-space
approach. (After Novak and Beredugo, 1972.)
J 02 (a 0 ) + Y '0( a0 )
(11.7)
in which J (a 0 ) and J1 (a 0 ) are Bessel functions of the first kind of order zero
0
442
N,(t) =
G,(S1
+ iS2 )z(t) dz
443
The natural frequency from Eq. (11.13) can be determined by trial and
error, because both C1 and S 1 are functions of the frequency ratio a0
Calculation of the dynamic response can be simplified considerably if the
stiffness parameters are C 1 and S1 taken as frequency independent, and the
damping parameters, C2 and S2 , as proportional to frequency. Therefore, by
assuming that
(11.8)
(11.16)
By substituting the values of R,(t) and N,(t) into Eq. (11.1), one obtains
.. () G [
.
G, h
]
mz t + r0 C 1 + C2 + G ro (S1 + iS2 ) z(t) = P,(t)
=
P,(e'w')
(11.9)
(11.10)
kz =
r./a
+..:a 'oh St]
Gro~
(11.17a)
in which z is the real response from Eq. (11.9). The stiffness k, and
dampmg c, are thus given by [compare Eq. (11.9) with Eq. (2.37)]
(11.18a)
(11.18b)
(11.11)
and
and
( + -G
cz = Gr
-w C
- ' -h Sz)
z Gr
(11.12)
t;,
1
= -2-vrlo_b_o
c, + s,~v (p,ipJ(a,laJ)
-y7c"",=+~(~G=,/=G=)""(h=/=ro""s,=)-
(11.18c)
~:e undamped natural frequency of the embedded footing w"" is then given
{t)nze
fk:. v(Gr
v-;::;
m
m
0 ()
cl +
"
G h
G 'o
_!..
sl )
(1l.l3)
is
(11.14)
in which the damping ratio is
t;
cX
2mwnze
(11.15)
445
8
VI
0
"'
VI
0
---Constant parameters
oo
"'"'
MM
II
-Variable parameters
c-i
VI
,f
VI
II
rc...i"'rt..JN
00
NO
v-i v-i
II II
r\.,)""n;.J'l
RR
-------
N~
II
II
IC'),..II:.-:JN
Dimensionless frequency a 0
Figure 11.3. Gomparison of vertical re.~90se curves computed with variable and constant
parameters (hi r = 0.5, b0 :;:: 8.1, piPs= 0':75, and G.fG = 0.5.) (After Novak and Beredugo,
0
1972.)
"'0
<---<>
<'10
v-i v-i
II
II
u"'v('l
Side layer
0
..,
,.o
GS> Ps
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
'f(
i
I
I
I
H - h
. /,1'/// 10'/
~N,(t)
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
x(t)
~
\--,o--1
Rx(l)
Elastic half-space
G, P
Figure 11.4. Sliding vibrations of an embedded foundation according to the elastic half-space
approach (After Beredugo and Novak, 1972.)
444
446
Table 11.2. Stiffness and Damping for Half-Space and Side Layers for Sliding
Vibrations
(11.20)
in which G is the dynamic shear modulus. The parameters C, and C,
1
depend upon the displacement functions /, 1 and fx 2 for sliding as well as2
upon the dimensionless frequency a0 = wr0VPfG, the Poisson's ratio v, the
frequency of excitation w, and the mass density p of the half-space (Bycroft,
1956). The horizontal reaction N .. (t).,_~~ layer is give\!__12Y_{J':Iovak
and Beredugo, 1971; Beredugo and Novak, 1972)
'' --
Poisson's
HalfRSpace Functions
ratio v
C,,
0:S:a 0 <2.0
10.39a
0
c,, = 5.333- 1.584a, + a,+ 6.552
0.5
C, 2
= 2.923a 0 -
= P,(t)
Parameters
89.09a
0.1345a 0
C, 2 = 2. 536a, - a, _ 1. 923
(11.21)
Constant
Range
0
= 4.571- 4.653a 0 + a,+ 19 .14
0.0
-~-------~------
Validity
0.1741a 0
a,_ 1.927
Q:s:a 0 <2.0
(11.22a)
or
0.0
3.609a 0
S,,
= 0. 2328a, + a, + 0.06159
S, 1
= 150.3a 0 -
3630a~
s,, = 3.60
+ 3948a;
- 1934a~ + 348Sai
0.8652a,
By comparing Eq. (11.22b) with Eq. (11.9) for the case of vertical
vibrations and Eq. 2.37 one obtains
4.320a~
Sxl
= 2.474 + 4.119a
0 3
S, 1
= 1.468vU; + 5.662ya;;
'
+ 2.057 a0 - 0.362a 0
(11.23)
0.25
and
f
(11.24)
Both k, and c, are frequency dependent. Beredugo and Novak (1972)
established that the values of k, and s_may be approximat<e.!:Ll>.)C.1n;q]lency_!.ndepen4wsa1!Jes_J2!.Jlll practical purposes by the substitutions
----------------
(11.25)
(11.26)
0.2!5a 0 o52.0
s,, = 4.00
41.59a,
ft
I'I
0 -
5.539a~
4
+ 2.445a 0 - 0.394a 0
0.4
s" = 4.10
448
449
The values of C,p cx2 sxl> and sx2 are also given in Table 11.2. Therefore,
the frequency-independent value of k, is given by
.---.....
My(t)
(11.27)
H! h
f//////
+
lL~ r
(11.28)
and
(11.29)
I
I
I
I
I
1'
'
I
I
ioltl
l
'//uu
Nq,(t)
~I
Side layer
Gs, Ps
'o----i
~
R<l>(t)
~
G,
Elastic half-space
(11.30)
Figure 11.5.
(11.31)
h' h C
and C
oc~si~~ed
Table 11.3. Stiffness and Damping for Half-Space and Side Layers for rocking
v
Half-Space Functions
c _ 2.654 + 0.1962a 0
1. 729a; + 1.485a;
- 0.4881a~ + 0.03498ai
c. = 0.000025a0 + 0.01583a; + 0.20~5a,3
' + 1.202a~ 1.448a: + 0.4491a,
(11.32)
(11.33)
reacti~m
(11.34)
0.0
in which M mo is the mass moment inertia of the block about the axis of
rotation. The resisting moment about the center of gravity of the system
occasioned by the resistance of the soil at the base is (Beredugo and Novak,
1972)
half-spac~ ~ycr~ft,
c. = 2.50
c.,= 0.43
Any value
Source:
s. = 2.50
s., 1.80
=
450
The values Sft and So/ 2 are independent of v, are functions of the
dimensionless frequency a0 , and are shown in Table 11.3. The values for Sxt
and Sx, are shown in Table 11.2. The equation of motion then is
(11.35)
451
(11.42h)
in which M is the mass moment of inertia about an axis that passes through
the system~ center of gravity and is perpendicular to th~ plane of the
vibrations. The values of the soil's reaction, RxCt), and reststmg moment on
the base, Rf(t), are (Beredugo ati<l,tNovak, 1972)
G
- )}
kf = Gro'{ eft+
a' ( -h ) (Sft + -h2 Sxt
'o
3r 0
(11.43)
and
(11.38a)
Cq.
, cr; { -
= v puro
c</>2
G, h (-
+ G ro
so/2
1 h
+ 3 r~
- )}
sx2
(11.38b)
Elastic half-space
G, p
(11.41)
Figure 11.6 Coupled rocking. and sliding of an embedded foundation according to the elastic
half-space approach. (After Beredugo and Novak, 1972.)
452
The values of horizontal soil reaction, Nx(t), and resistance moment, Nq,(t),
of the side layer are (Beredugo and Novak, 1972)
453
By substituting for x(t), x(t), <f>(t), and (t) from Eqs. (11.49a,b) into
Eqs. (11.47) and (11.48) and rearranging, one obtains
(11.50)
(11.45)
and
and
Nq,(t)
(!!___- L)(s
'o Zro 'o
+ _!_
2
2)
+( h2
3'o
h~ + L:)(sx, + iSxzl]<t>(t)
ro
ro
+iS )x(t)}
xt
(11.51)
(11.46)
x2
The parameters ex,, Cx 2 , Sx,, and Sxz have been defined for the case of pure
sliding vibrations and are given in Table 11.2, and the parameters Cq, 1 , C<l''
Sq, 1 and Sq, 2 have been defined for the case of pure rocking vibrations and
are given in Table 11.3. By substituting the values Qf Rx(t) and Nx(t) into
Eq. (11.42a) and of Rq,(t) and Nq,(t) into Eq. (11.42b), one obtains
kq,
h
L
hL] }
[-+--- S
3r~
(11.52)
r~
~/'!fa
(11.53)
xl
and
(11.54)
=P
eiwt
(11.47)
and
Mm(t)
+ r~[o,!!._ ( 2h
'o
'o
(11.55)
-
'o
(L)'
G,)( roh )s"''
;:;; ex,+ (G
h+L
hL] )
G)(h)[ 3r~
+ (G
r~ - r~ Sxz
or: (
Cq, =--;;;-- c.,+
[<s., +iS.,)
+ ( -h 2
3 'o
hL
-,
'o
'o
'o
Yo
( Cx 1 + iCxz) } <f>(t)
(11.48)
Particular solutions of above equations can be found by substituting
(11.49a)
and
(11.49b)
in which Ax and A <I> are complex displacement amplitudes.
(11.56)
and
(11.57)
The terms kxq, and ex</> represent cross co~pling stiffness ~nd damping terms
respectively. Undamped natural frequencies may be obtamed by makmg ex,
c and C
P (t) and M (t) equal to zero in Eqs. (11.50) and (11.51). This
<b'
x</>' x
y
leads to
(11.58)
454
and
455
and
(11.59)
(11.70)
(11.60)
Beredugo and Novak (1972) suggested that the parameters CxP Cxz Sx 2 ,
c</>1> c.,, s<f>l and s., may be replaced by their frequency-independent
values _cxl' cxz, xl' sxz, ~4>1' co/2' ~!fld s4>2' by ~ubstituting ~xl = cxl'
c,t = 9</>t' Sxt = Sxl' S<l>t = S<t>t' Cxz = Cxzao, Cct>z = Cq,zao, Sxz = Sxzao, and
s., ~ Sq, 2a0 , respectively as discussed earlier for the cases of pure sliding
and rocking.
With these substitutions we get frequency-independent springs
or
(k x -mw 2 )(k o/ -Mm w 2 )-k2xo/ ~o
(11.61)
(11.71)
kq, =
G
G(h);:;
Sq,r
G
G(h)
;:;
(11.72)
and
(11.73)
(11.63)
Frequency-independent damping is given by
and
(11.74)
(11.64)
{-c.,+ (L)'L - -,
hL)- ]}
- Cxz + (h)
- \1rp;a;[_
~ -r.:G s., + (h'
-3 + -,
2
in which
c<f> = VPGro
a1
2 (MY)
k
(k </> - M m w -
px
ro
ro
sx2
(11.75)
(11.65)
(11.66)
2.
px
{3 1 ~ k x -mw - M kxc/>
(11.67)
and
ex</>=
(h)rp;a;( h)-]
-v"--=z[p(iro LCX, + ro \1 '{;' G L- 2 sx2
(11.76)
(11.68)
E1
(11.69)
The frequency-independent values ex~> ex,,_ SxP _and ~xz are gi~en in Table
11.2. The frequency-independent values of C.;~> C1 ,, S.;~> and S.; 2 are given
in Table 11.3. The use of frequency-independent values for stiffness and
damping makes it possible to calculate natural frequencies and amplitudes
by hand.
457
and
c.,=!'!frt +f'!fr2 ,
c.,=!''''t +f'l/lz
in which f.; 1 and f.;z are the displacement functions (Reissner and Sagoci,
1944; Bycroft, 1956).
The side reaction N.p(t) is given by
(11.80)
(11.77)
in which s and s are parameters for the side layer and are functions of
1
the dimen~lonless f~equency ratio. By substituting the values R,;(t) and
N,;(t) from Eqs. (11.78) and (11.80) into Eq. (11.77), one obtams
in which
.P = angle of rotation
R.p(t) =moment of the resistive force at the base of the footing about z axis
N.p(t) =moment of the resistive force on the sides of the foundations about
z axis
M m = polar mass moment of inertia of the foundation about z axis
(vertical axis about which the torsional vibrations take place).
The value of
R~,(t)
(11.79)
MmJ;(t) +
Gr~[ C.; + ~ (
1
:Js.,
+ ;(
(11.78)
(11.82)
and the frequency-dependent damping constant is given by
z
Mz(t)
(11.83)
H- h
Y.
w,., =
Jl""~
Gs,
{li-
(11.84)
Ps
~'O
Figure 11.7.
approach.
(11.85)
G, p
R;(t)
I
r
in which
458
459
(11.86)
{11.90)
Novak and Sachs (1973) suggested that the frequency-independent constant
values of the spring and d~mping may be used. The frequency-independent
values may be obtamed With the following substitutions:
in which
B "'
(11.87)
c,,,
s,,
(11.88)
and the damping constant is given by
(11.89)
The damping coefficient is given by
Table 11.4.
Constant
Parameters
Validity
Range
Half-space
c,,
C"' 2
= 0.486a~
Side layer
- 2. 76a: + 0.495a;
s>JI2=9.04a~
3
.72ao
S !/12 -7
.Sao - 0.455 + ao
s., ~ 12.4
s., ~ 10.2
s., ~2.0
s"'2 =5.4
ratio
mertta
(6.38)
We will now discuss the extension of linear weightless spring method for
calculation of dynamic response of embedded footings.
11.2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Assumptions 1-4 are the same as for the surface footing (Section 6.7).
Assumptions 5 and 6 make it possible to separate the soil reactions on the
base and sides and determine them separately. Assumption 7 is the same as
assumption 5 in Section 11.1 and its relevance is discussed there.
On the basis of the,preceding assumptions, solutions for vertical and
horizontal vibrations, c~upled rocking and sliding, and torsional vibrations
are presented below.
Mmz
pro
= -5 =
11.2.1
Vertical Vibrations
460
PAt)
_ _ _ _ _a_ _ _ _ _
llc,J
(11.91b)
C,ah,
in which A equals ab, the area of the base of the foundation block in contact
with the soil.
The vertical soil reaction on the faces of the block occasioned by sliding
between the bloc]< and the soil F, is
Crsbhz
_JT
CuAz
z(t)
(a)
461
or
P,it)
+T
(11.92)
in which C" is the coefficient of elastic uniform shear of the soil on the sides
of the block.
The equation of motion may be written as
(b)
P,lt)
mi!
(11.93a)
mi!
(11.93b)
or
1c.,
<'////,
(11.94)
A,
(')
Figure 11.8. Vertical vibrations of embedded foundations (linear elastic spring approach). (a)
(11.95)
the vertical axis through the block's center of gravity. Under the action of
the dynamic load, dynamic soil reactions develop on the base and sides of
the block, as shown in Figure 11.8b.
.
The equation of motion of the foundation may be obtained by considering the equilibrium of the actuating and resisting forces and applying
Newton's second law. The various forces acting on the foundation are
l. The applied vertical force P,(t).
2. The inertial force mi!, in which m is the mass of the foundation and z
is the displacement at any time.
3. The vertical soil reaction at the base Rb, and
4. The vertical soil reaction (frictional force) on the sides F,.
cue=
=
+ 2C"(a + b )h
ab
c" + 2c"(~ + ~)
(11.96a)
(11.96b)
(11.97a)
(11.91a)
or
4&2
(11.97b)
The amplitude of vibration of the embedded foundation A, is given by
P,
A, = m ((J)nzez
the applied external force, Px(t), the inertia of the block, mx, the horizontal
soil reaction at the base R x, and the horizontal reaction on all the four sides
of the block, R,.
The magnitude of horizontal soil reaction at the base is given by
(11.101)
(11.98)
z)
(11.102)
(11.100)
From Eqs. (11.96) and (11.100) for h > 0, C"' is greater than C", and the
overall spring stiffness of soil is more than that for a surface footing.
11.2.2
4&3
Sliding Vibrations
(11.103b)
in which C, denotes the value of equivalent coefficient of elastic uniform
shear and is given by
(11.104a)
zt
Px(t)
(11.104b)
----.---
lJ- h
"
I
I
I
I
C.,.s a hx
Gus bhx
(11.105a)
I
J -:;._X
a
or
Cr A x
Figure 11.9. Sliding vibrations of an embedded foundation according to the linear elastic
spring approach (a) Actual case, (b) Soil reactions on sides and base.
(11.105b)
464
465
(11.106)
(Cq,zrf>) X
bdz
For a circular block embedded to a depth h, the soil reaction against the
vertical face may be replaced by a net force of uniform compression on the
projected area of the face on a vertical plane, and the equation of motion is
mJi
+ C, 1rr 2x + Cu,2rhx = 0
(11.107)
and
(11.108a)
~-------------a------------~
Ia)
or
C,
= (
C, + ; C"'
~)
(11.108b)
It will be noted from Eqs. (11.104) and (11.108) that when h > 0, C, > C,
and hence the overall stiffness of the equivalent soil spring for an embedded
foundation undergoing sliding is higher than that for a surface footing.
11.2.3
Rocking Vibrations
T+
u
(b)
r'r;r
---
I
I
dz
Fore e on elementary
area d ue to nonuniform
shear = C.;,(z>)(adz)
lf---z
-/
I
0
Figure 11.1 o. Rocking vibrations of an embedded foundation according to linear elastic spring
approach: (a) block under excitation; (b) non-uniform compression on faces parallel to Y-axis;
(c) non-uniform shear on faces perpendicular to Y-!lxis.
(6.68)
M,_~
(6.69)
4. The moment occasioned by- the soil's reaction at the base M R:
(6.72)
(Cq,,zc/>)(b dz z) = c.,,cf>
bh 3
(11.109)
466
the soil, MN. The shearing displacement of any height z above the
base equal to z<f>. The shearing resistance of an elementary area of the
face of the block is c,,(z</> )adz.
The moment about 0 occasioned by this resistance is given by
Therefore the total moment due to nonuniform shear for the two faces
is given by
=2C
M
Ft/J
if's
(<f>ah')
3
(11.110)
467
= ~(C.,,I-
WL)
M mO
(11.114a)
or
fnq,,
= J__ ~( Cq,J2-rr
WL)
M mO
(11.114b)
MY
..
bh 3
ah 3
Mmo<f> + Cq,l</>- WL</> + Cq,, 3 </> + 2C,, 3 </>
2
.
+ Cn'P_,_ -a bh
- =MY sm wt
(11.112a)
Mmo<l>.. + [ Cq,I +
c,, 3bh
M,
+ 2C1, (ah')
3 + C"' (a'bh)
- 2 - - WL ] </>
=0
(11.115)
J: c.,,(2r
rh')
( 23 c,,
dz z</>z)
(11.116a)
(11.116b)
(11.112b)
and
or
(11.112c)
in which
M F<
The value of
(11.113a)
bh
ah
(11.117)
"%:
c., therefore, is
(11.118)
a bh
=C+-----~----=--
(11.113b)
The natural frequency and amplitude of the rocking for a circular footing
can then be obtained using Eqs. (11.114) and (11.115).
468
469
in which
2
2
.6.(w 2) = mMm ( wne1w 2)( Wne2w 2)
(11.122)
Mmw')Px
(11.123)
and
(11.124)
(11.119)
Equation (11.119) is a quadratic in w~, and will yield two roots, (w,,) 2 and
2
(w"' 2 ) , which are the two natural frequencies of the embedded foundation.
The amplitudes of vibration may similarly be obtained as follows:
(11.125)
:.:.,->~
and
(11.120)
Aq,, =
and
(11.126)
(11.121)
11.2.5
Torsional Vibrations
'
(11.127)
1---------a--------1
Figure 11.11. Coupled rocking and sliding of an embedded foundation according to the linear
elastic spring approach.
470
<::.b
~!
l~ _/JG
L
L
(11.132a)
and
I Ms.;,
c_p
I
(11.132b)
'----M-:;;::-+--;=---,~_j~x
C"(hrh )(n/l)r
(27rC"hr 3 )1f;
(11.129)
(11.130a)
or
(11.130b)
in which Mm is the mass moment of inertia of the foundation about the
of rotation.
axts
(11.131a)
'TrY
-;:
t.;'. ')
(J)
mpe -
(11.133)
(t)
Thus far, the method for analyzing the response of an embedded block
foundation in different modes of vibration have been discussed with regard
to the following two methods:
1. Elastic half-space method (Novak and Beredugo, 1971, 1972; Novak
and Sachs, 1973); and the
2. Linear elastic weightless spring method (Barkan, 1962), which is
extended to include embedment effects (Prakash and Puri, 1971, 1972)
A step-by-step design procedure witb both approaches is given below.
The information required for making the design and other steps common
to both the methods a!'
1. Machine data
(11.131b)
= C~~ +4Crs
= c, + (2"'c")h''
A.,,
A~,= M mz (
M,,
471
(11.131c)
2. Soil data
3. Trial size of the foundation
4. Centering the foundation area in contact with the soil and deter"
mination soil pressures
5. Design values of unbalanced exciting forces and moments
472
473
G,]
-p 7J
- h ~p,
[ c., + s,,, -;:;;
g=-
yc"'
" Zy'"B,
(11.90)
1 + (G,/G)(hlr 0 )S,,
in which
Mmz = mert1a
.
, l ratio
.
B = -5
"'
pro
A,., is
M,
(11.85)
kx = Gro [ cxl
(11.18c)
3
ko~
in which b 0 is the mass ratio, m/pr 0 . The values of C" C2 , S" 5 2 should be
obtained from Table 11.1 (column 3). The undamped natural frequency wnu
is
wnze =
(6.38)
fk: =
\1-;:;
m
h-)
0 (-C, + GGs - St
~Gr
m
r0
(11.13)
G, h
+G
S ]
(11.71)
xl
'{ c.,+
_ (L)'(G)(!!_)
-;:; cx1 +GG., (h)s
Yo '" + G
ro
Gro
h
L
hL]- }
[ 2 + -, - - 2 Sx1
-
3r 0
r0
(11.72)
'o
and
(11.73)
A'"=z=
~[1-(~)']' +[zg,c(--<f-)r
Wnze
---~)
(11.14)
..---,..-
Wnze
Gr 0 (C.p
1 +
(G,h)-)
G -;: s,.,
0
g,, is
Cq, =
(11.88)
x2
(11.74)
(h)
( L )'fP:G,
ypor~ { Cq,z + ~ cx2 + ~ \) =--:: G
L- , + -,
[ - + (h'
2
Sq,z
3r 0
r0
hL)-z
Sxz ]}
r0
(11.75)
474
and
The_ valu~s of _ex\' cx2,}xl, and sx2 are given in Table 11.2, and the values
of c.,, C</> 2 , s.,, and S 2 are given in Table 11.3. The undamped natural
.
f requenctes,
wn2 1 an d wn2 2 , are
w'
nl.2
~!2 [(kx
+ !...) ~! (kx
m
M
4
described in Chapter 4. The values of C, for the soil on the sides may be
similarly determined from suitable tests. The value of C., for the side layers
will depend upon the type of soil and the method of placement and
compaction. If no other information is available C"' may be taken as 0.5 to
0. 75 Cu.
2. Uncoupled Modes. For vertical vibrations the coefficient of elastic
uniform compression c"' for the embedded foundation is given by
!...)'
_IS__]
M
+ M
m
475
(11.96b)
(11.62)
or
and
(11.97b)
(11.64)
P,
in which
(11.98)
A,= mwnze-w
( 2
')
(11.65)
(11.66)
(11.67)
(11.131c)
The natural frequency of the torsional vibrations "'""' is given by
(11.68)
(11.132a)
or
(11.69)
z ~ -[mc<P + Mmcx]w + [cxk<P + c,kx- 2cx<Pkx.p]w
3
(11.132b)
(11.70)
',
A.,,= M
i
M,
mz Wn!fre
')
(11.133)
476
EXAMPLES
477
~ Coupled Modes. Sliding and rocking are coupled modes. The followmg steps are followed:
The values of C" and c., are calculated as below:
A he = Axe + hA<Pe
and
(6.134b)
(11.104b)
and
9.
(11.113b)
The values of limiting frequencies in pure sliding of w and pur
k"
w
are
nxe
e roc mg
nq>"
w
nxe
VC"A
m
11.4 .EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 11.4.1
(11.105a)
and
_ v(Cq,J
wn<Pe -
WL)
(11.114a)
Mrno
ne
wznxe
+ wzm/>e )
I'
11
'
2
2
WnxeWnq.e
I'
wne1
an
wne2'
'
are
(11.119)
3.0 m
and
"''
is given by
~(w')
(11.126)
_L'-----------'
! - - - - - - - - 6 . 0 m ---------1
1
1
479
478
EXAMPLES
r =
plitude of vibration of the block using the elastic half-space approach. The
density of concrete y, may be taken as 2.4 tim 3
Solution
1. Machine data
The weight of the machine is not given in the problem and has not been
included in the calculation. Operating speed of the machine is 600 rpm.
w
= 62.83 radisec
2. Soil data
For soil below the base
=
is
k,
G, h Gro [ cl + G ;:;; sl
=5.2,
3
2 _764
]
2.7 tim
G,)
- h ~p,
( C' +S2 ro
p G
(11.18c)
m
W
b0 = - = - ,
pr~ 'Y'o
230.4
= 6.06
3
1.8(2.764)
From Table 11.1, column 3,
c, =5.0
P, = 7.6 tons
Vertical vibrations
The equivalent radius r 0 is
(11.17a)
= 130734.8 tim
b.
sl =2.70
4725
k, = (6300)(2.764) [ 5.2 +
6000
7.
= 2.764 m
.c
(24
\13.14
6300 tim'
3
y= 1.8tim
v= 0.25
(6.58a)
(A
\1-;
sl = 2.1
s,
6.7
3
/"'1-c.6~'4'"'72"'5
5.0 + 6 7 X 2.764 \11.8 X 6300
~=------~~~~==~
112
'
(
4725
3
)
2
7
2(v'6.Q6) 5 2 + 6300 X 2.764 X
...,
= 0.816
The undamped natural frequency of the embedded footing w"' is
4BO
w.,=~
EXAMPLES
4B1
b. Vertical vibrations
.
The equivalent value for the coefficient of elastic uniform compression C"' IS
/130734.8 X 9.81
= 74.60 radisec
230 .4
wn, = y
fu, = 11.87 Hz
~)
= 6000 + 2(2250)( ~
(11.96b)
= 11625 tim
(A, ) d =
112
(11.14)
_
wnze-
k, {[ 1- (wiwn,,)'] + (2g,wlw.,,)'}
~ C",A
m
(11.97a)
=~----,--,~~=
- I 11625 X 24 x 9.81
- y
7.6
= (130734.8){[1- (62.83/74.6) 2) 2 + [2 X 0.816(62.83/74.6)] 2 } 112
= 108.99 radisec
= 108.99 = 17.35 Hz
fnze
230.4
21T
.,
EXAMPLE 11.4.2
ze
f<.~
(11.98)
2Z .. 2 ,
m(wnze- w )
_ _ _7:...:,.6::___ __
A,= m
Solution
1. Machine data
Same as in Example 11.4.1
2.
A=
Solve Problem 11.4.1 by using the linear elastic weightless spring approach.
3
Assume that C" =6.0kgicm (for a 10m 2 area) for the soil at the base and
that C"' = 0. 75 C".
230
.4 )(108.99 2 - 62.83 2 )
9.81
Soil data
2
wn,- Y
7.
a.
Soil constants
t,
nz
78 30
= 12.46 Hz
21T
7.6
<0:..
230
(
.4 )(78.302
9.81
'
m
-
62.83 2 )
wn,
= 108.99 = 1.391
78.30
482
that is, the natural frequency of the embedded foundation in this case is 39.1
percent greater than that of the surface footing. The ratio of undamped
amplitudes is
483
associated rigid massless footing as shown in Fig. 11.14b. For the case of
pure vertical vibrations, the vertical impedance K, is then defined as
(11.134)
A,_
0.0408
A, = 0.1482 = 0 275
that is, the amplitude in the embedded case is only 27.5 percent the
amplitude if the footing were treated as a surface footing.
11.5
Actual foundation
in which R (t) is the total vertical soil reaction against the foundation and
includes th~ resistive forces at the base and on the sides for the case of
embedded foundations and, z(t) is the uniform harmonic settlement of the
soil-foundation interface. R,(t) will be equal to the vertical exciting force
and may be expressed as
(11.135a)
Similarly,
z (t) = ze
iwi
(11.135b)
The dynamic compliance function F, for the case of purely vertical vibrations may be expressed by Eq.-,(~~1.136)
F,
z(t)
R,(t)
(11.136)
The torsional impedance K"', the horizontal impedance Kx (or Ky) and
rocking impedance K can be defined by equations similar to Eq. (11.134).
For the vibration coridition involving coupled rocking and sliding, crosscoupled impedance terms such as K,x (or K,y) may also be defined. .
The dynamic force and displacement are generally out of phase (Section
2.5). The dynamic displacement can be resolved into two components: a
component in phase and another component 90 out of phase with the
applied harmonic load. The impedance function [Eq. (11.134)] may be
expressed using complex notation in the form
(11.137)
in which the subscript a represents z, x (or y), </>, <f>x (or <!>y) and .P depending
upon the form of vibrations. Both the real and imaginary components of
impedance are func.tj.ons of frequency w. The significance of real and
imaginary components of dynamic impedance can be eastly understood_ by
considering a single-degree-of freedom system as for the case of vertical
vibrations. The equation of motion for damped vertical vibrations may be
written as
mi'(t) + c,i(t) + k,z(t)
(a)
Figure 11.14.
Lettmg
z ( t)
P,(t)
484
p (t)
k,- mw ) + tc,w
z(t)
(11.144)
(11.138)
+ ic,w
(11.139)
kz- mwz
Kz2 = CzW
485
(11.140a)
(11.140b)
(11.146)
a= z, .p
For coupled ~ode,s, such as rock;';;)iand sliding vibrations, the compliances
may be obtained by inverting the impedance matrix:
(11.141a)
K X</>
]-t
K,
or
K,
k,{k + iwc,}
(11.141b)
in which
written as
K, = k,(k + ia 0 C)
(11.142)
in which
v
c=c_._
'r"
(11.143)
Equation (11.142) may be modified to account for both the radiation and
material damping and may be written in the form
(11.147)
(11.148)
(11.149)
(11.150)
"4~.
486
487
iw<
z ()
t = ze ,
Mz{t)
x ()
t = xe
iw< ,
z=z 1 +iz 2
(11.152a)
= x 1 + ix2
(11.152b)
cJ>(t) = cJ>e'w' ,
(11.152c)
= 1/11 + ii/12
(11.152d)
iJ!(t) = 1/Jeiw< ,
1/1
TI
11
R,(t) = R,eiw<
(11.153a)
RJt) = Rxeiw<
(11.153b)
T,(t)
Tq,eiw<
(11.153c)
T,(t)
T,e'w'
(11.153d)
The complex soil reaction amp~jtudes in Eqs. (11.153) are related to the
displacement and rotation amplitudes through the correspondmg Jmped.ances as given in Eqs. (11.154).
Original position
(11.154a)
I
I
I
-i I
Rx
(11.154b)
T,
(11.154c)
--.._)
T,
f------
Figure 11.15. Definition of variables for vibrations of a massive foundation. (a) Section. {b)
Plan.
z =
P,eli(w<+a,)]
Px(t) =
Pxe[i(wt+ax)]
Mye[i(w<+a)]
M,(t)
= M,e[i(w<+)]
(11.155a)
eio:o/1
(11.151a)
(11.151b)
"- =
'P
(11.155b)
K*x,Py
M e0" 1}N
(11.155c)
(11.155d)
'*'= {K*<J>x
P e0"x 1 >..
My(t)
P ,e Ia~
2
K,(w)- mw
M
(11.154d)
KiJ!
Substituting Eqs. (11.151), (11.152), (11.153), and (11.154) into the Eqs.
(11.147) to (11.150), we obtain
(b)
P,(t)
(11.151c)
(11.151d)
in which a is the phase angle of excitation and its subscript indicates the
form of excitation. The steady-state motion may be represented by
in which
K~ = Kx(w)- mw
K:.;
= Kx<l(w)-
Kx(w)L
(11.156a)
(11.156b)
488
K;
N = (K*x K*K*x<b2 )- 1
q,
2Kx<P(w)L
(11.156c)
(11.156d)
11.6
OVERVIEW
489
OVERVIEW
and Dobry and Gazetas ( 1985) have suggested a different approach for
calculating soil stiffness and damping factors for embedded foundatmns of
arbitrary shape for the case of vertical vibrations. The soil is assumed to be a
homogeneous and elastic half-space. The arbitrary base area Ab of the
footing is circumscribed with a rectangle of length L and wtdth B as shown
in Fig. 11.16. A dimensionless shape paramete: A.ILB i~ used to acco~nt
for the effect of shape of the area on its dampmg and sl!ffness properl!es.
The static stiffness is first calculated for a surface footing case and then
modified for embedment effects. The static stiffness of the embedded
footing is further modified to calculate the values of dynamic stiffness. The
method appears promising but more work is needed before it can be
adopted by a practicing engineer.
.
.
The response of a footing embedded in a homogeneous u~tform sot! can
be computed easily using the same elastic constants and denstty for the sml
on the sides as for the soil at the base.
The effect of embedment in a stratum can be easily accounted for in the
elastic half-space approach by using the proper displacement functions [ 1,2 to
compute the stiffness and the dampJ9g parameters c1 ,2 for the base layer.
For the case of a stratum, increasing the embedment reduces dependence on
the stratum's thickness considerably.
The effect of the nonlinear behavior of a soil has not been accounted for.
Experimental data on the response of embedded foundations shows goo.d
qualitative agreement with theoretical predictions based on the elasttc
half-space approach (Novak and Beredugo, 1971). It has been observed that
backfilling considerably reduces the effects of embedn:'ent and that nonlinearity causes an inevitable scatter when the expenmental results are
compared with linear spring theory.
Rigorous analytical solutions of embedded footings have been attempted
by Lysmer and Kuhlemeyer (1969), Kaldijan (1971), Krizek et a!. (1972),
Wass and Lysmer (1972), and Urlich and Kuhlemeyer (1973). Johnson eta!.
(1975) proposed static stiffness coefficients for rigid circular, and stnp
Figure 11.16.
490
REFERENCES
Anandakrishnan, M., and Krishnaswamy, N. R. (1973a). Response of embedded footings to
vertical vibrations. J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 99, 863-883.
Anandakrishna, M., and Krishnaswamy, N. R. (1973b). Vibrations of embedded footings.
Proc. Int. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng., Moscow, Book Nd: 4.3, SpeC. Sess. Soil Dyn.
428-429.
Baranov, V. A. (1967). On the calculation of excited vibrations of an embedded foundation (in
Russian). Vopr. Dyn. Prochn. 14, 195-209.
Barkan, D. D. (1962). "Dynamics of Bases and Foundations." McGraw-Hill, New York.
Beredugo, Y. 0. (1971). Vibrations of embedded symmetric footings, Ph.D. Thesis, University
of Western Ontario, London, Canada.
REFERENCES
491
492
12
Novak, M. (1970). Prediction of footing vibrations. J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ.
Eng. 96 (SM-3), 836-861.
Novak, M. (1985). Experiments with shallow and deep foundations. Proc. Symp. Vib. Probl.
Geotech. Eng. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., Annu. Conv., 1-26.
Novak, M., and Beredugo, Y. 0. (1971). Effect of embedment on footing vibration. Proc.
Can. Conf. Earthquake Eng., 1st, Vancouver, 111-125.
Novak, M., and Beredugo, Y. 0. (1972). Vertical vibration of embedded footings. J. Soil
Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 98 (SM-12), 1291-1310.
Novak, M., and Sachs, K. (1973). Torsional and coupled vibrations of embedded footings. Int.
J. Earthquake Eng. Struct. Dyn. 2(1), 11-33.
Prakash, S., and Puri, V. K. (1971). Dynamic response of embedded foundation in vertical and
torsional modes (unpublished report). University of Roorkee, Roorkee, India.
Prakash, S., and Puri, V. K. (1972). Coupled rocking and sliding vibrations of embedded
foundations (unpublished report). University of Roorkee, Roorkee, India.
Reissner, E., and Sagoci, H. F. (1944). F~rced torsional oscillations of an elastic half space. J.
Appl. Phys. 10, 652-662.
Stokoe, K. H., II (1972). Dynamic response of embedded foundations. Ph.D. thesis presented
to the University of Michigan, at Ann Arbor, Michigan.
Stokoe, K. H., II, and Richart, F. E., Jr. (1974). Dynamic response of embedded machine
foundation. J. Geotech. Eng. Div., Am, Soc. Civ. Eng. 100 (GT-4), 427-447.
Sung, T. Y. (1953). Vibrations in semi-infinite solids due to periodic surface loadings.
Symposium on dynamic testing of soils. ASTM Spec. Tech. Pub/. STP 156, 35-64.
Tassoulas, J. L. (1981). "Elements for the Numerical Analysis of Wave Motion in Layered
Media," Res. Rep. R81-2. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Urlich, C. M., and Kuhlemeyer, R. L. {1973). Coupled rocking and lateral vibrations of
embedded footings. Can. Geotech. J. 10(2) 145-160.
Vijayvergiya, R. C. (1981). Response of embedded foundations. Ph.D. Thesis, University of
Roorkee, Roorkee, India.
Wass, G. (1972). Analysis method for footing vibrations through layered media. Ph.D. Thesis,
University of California, Berkeley.
Wass, G., and Lysmer, J. (1972). Vibrations of footings embedded in layered media. Proc.
Symp. Appl. Finite Elem. Methods Geotech. Eng. Vicksburg, MS, 581-604.
Machine Foundations on
Piles
'
~)>:"''"',
1. The pressure due to the combined action of static and dynamic loads
exceeds the permissible values of soil pressure and an adequate shallow
foundation is not feasible.
2. Soil and water table conditions are such that machine vibrations may
result in a significant loss of soil strength and/or buildup of large deformations, thus necessitating that the foundation loads (static and dynamic) be
transferred to deeper soil layers.
3. It is necessary to increase the natural frequency of the foundation and
decrease its amplitude of vibration, or,
4. Seismic considerations and the value or sensitivity of machines necessitate a foundation resting on piles.
If a pile foundation is used because the total pressure on the soil is larger
than its bearing capacity, then conventional methods of design are applied.
In such cases the practical procedure of pile-foundation design consists in
the determination of the number of piles needed from the known value of
the bearing capacity l?f a single pile. This value may be determined by load
tests or any other "!.'tandard procedure. The length of the piles is best
selected on the basis of test pile driving.
When a pile foundatioJ1_ !.. l!.~eded to increase the natural frequency of
vibraiTOnanddecr-ease-ihe amplitudeoFVlfirailoii 'orifie fouiiclation, lheii
tlie'practical-Cfesignproceoiirerequfreni'pecrarconslcferallons,'wh1i::'h-will be
494
IJ
c,z,
(12.1)
495
12.1
Two cases of pile supports will be considered: end bearing piles and friction
piles.
12.1.1
End-Bearing Piles
If piles are driven in soft soil and are embedded in smmd .mck-rn;..a hard
wn =
forn=1,
(3.22)
-.:;-;;,.;.:,:
''7rv,
wn=-zr
(12.2)
in which m is the mass of the pile and static load on pile.
Based upon the above simple concepts, Barkan (1962) has described test
data and typical values of elastic constants of piles and pile groups under
both vertical and horizontal vibrations. This analysis does not consider
damping in the system and the dynamics of the problem, for which practical
solutions are described in the following sections.
Prakash (1981) has discussed the solutions of piles under earthquake-type
loading, in which case the deflections are relatively large. In machine
foundation problems, the permissible amplitudes of vibration are quite
small. Hence the values of the elastic constants ( C,) determined from a
lateral deflection of the order of 3.4 mm in Barkan's test are not applicable
to machine foundation problems.
Soli-pile constants to be used in machine foundation problems are to be
determined essentially at very small deflections, of the order of a few
thousandths of an inch. The soil property, e.g., shear modulus, must
essentially be at a low strain value, e.g., around 10~ although there is no
'Oirecr relaUonshtp available between strains in the soil along a pile, particularly in horizontal vibrations and soil deformations around the pile. Puri
et a!. (1977) have suggested a procedure for determination of amplitudedependent soil-pile stiffness from dynamic and cyclic pile-load tests.
Solutions for vertical vibrations will be presented first, and will be
fn
V,
1 [E
4/ = 4/ \j
(12.3a)
or
(12.3b)
in which
E =Young's modulus of elasticity of the pile,
p(=ylg) =mass density of the pile material, and
I= length of the pile
I
Figure 12.1. Fixed-free rod pile with mass attaciled to free end.
496
For the case in which the weight of the pile is negligible as compared to
the supported mass, the natural frequency may be obtained as follows: We
apply the end condition U = 0, at x = 0, to Eq. (3.15) and find that c = 0
and tbe displacement amplitude becomes
497
1.6
1.4
1.2
W X
U= Dsm-"-
(3.23)
V,
1.0
~I"
""
au
ax
0.8
au
ax (A cos wnt + B sin wnt)
0.6
(12.4)
0.4
and
0.2
a2 u
at
- , = -wnU(A
(12.5)
IV
au
a'u
at'
F=-AE=-mJx
(12.6)
au
ax
AE- =mw 2 U
(J)n
r
wn[
Cliffs, NJ.)
12.1.2
".
(12.7)
Figure 12.2. Graphical solution for Eq. (12.8). (After Richart, Hall, Woods, "Vibrations of Soils
and FoundationS," 1970, page no236.,,R~rinted by permission of Prenctice-Hall, Englewood
Friction
Pile~
Analysis of floating piles under vertical vibrations is quite different from that
for end-bearing piles in which no load transfer from the shaft to the soil
occurs. There are at least four methods that could be employed to examine
the response of floating piles to vertical loads.
2
W I
w nm sin -"-
(12.8)
in which Al-y is the weight of the rod and W is the weight of added mass.
The solution of Eq. (12.8) is plotted in Fig. 12.2, from which the natural
frequency in vertical vibrations, fn may be determined.
In order to illustrate the influence of axial loading on the resonant
frequency of end-bearing piles on rock, Richart (1962) prepared a diagram
th~t.l.~!?}uded t~':_Par!!';'."t.~:~.!. .ii."i.~J2.!!L!'i!J<J~J1Kth,_,m!.J>jle material
(f:\g. 12."3). Tile three curves in the upper part of the diagram illustrate the
which the propagation of waves through the pile and soil is considered.
2. Solution of the,.pne-dimensional wave equation, for example, in a
manner similar to the solution of this equation to analyze the piledriving process.
498
Concrete
Wood
E(lb/in. 2)
'}'{lb/ft 3)
29.4 X 1Q6
3.0 X 1Q6
480
150
40
1.2
106
499
Barkan (1962) and Maxwell et al. (1969). They have used a single-degreeof-freedom model, while Madhav and Rao (1971} used a two-degree-offreedom model. The single-degree-of-freedom model is simple and useful
for design purposes and will be described in detail in this chapter.
The fourth approach has been used by Novak (1974, 1977) and Sheta and
Novak (1982) to obtain an approximate solution for pile response to vertical
loading. It has been assumed that the soil is composed of a set of
independent infinitesimally-thin horizontal layers of infinite extent. This
model could be thought of as a generalized Winkler material that possesses
inertia and dissipates energy. By applying small harmonic excitations,
Novak derived solutions for the equivalent stiffness and damping constants
of the pile-soil system. This model is regarded as superior to that of
Maxwell et al. (1969) and will also be described in detail.
Lumped-Mass-Spring-Oashpot Model
60
80 100
150
200
F.ig.ure 12.3. Resonant frequency of vertical oscillation for a point~bearing pile resting on a
ngrd stratum and carrying a static load W. (After Richart, 1962.)
ac;cufl'.t1f.:.I1X<>:9iJJ2ii:f'Pile'responsea-atnre<iuenc1es:rn.-j)';.:tic.ila;:&e
resp.onse at resonance'was-nofi'e1ia&ly'predicted from data on stiffness and
damping generated at non-resonant frequencies. The variation of stiffness,
expressed in terms of a stiffness ratio c,tc,. (in which c,. is the stiffness at
resonant frequency), and damping ratio g with frequency ratio flf., is shown
in Fig. 12.5 for pipe pile D-1 (Maxwell et al., 1969}.
1111\..
>UU
501,
Static load
'r:=--:-::-r
Oscillator
2.0
0
Pile cap
eiJ
lA a
1.s
"'
"'fu"~
~ 111
I. 0
<!l.
89i
0. 5
Pile
n8~o
o" o
0.5
1.5
1.0
2.0
2.5
3. 0
Q = Qo sin 2'11" ft
0.25
'-r----r-'-r
z
0.15
E 0.1 0
/l
BpB
0.0 5
/
c = damping coefficient
Co = effective spring constant
m = equivalent mass of system
= periodic displacement
Aq, = amplitude of displacement
q, = phase angle between Qo and z
f = frequency (Hz)
Legend Static
load (tons)
oll_ 0
00%~t
c
c_
0~/
I<t
0.20
for floating
Mechanical
al., .1969.
with per-
mission.)
0
0
-- A
0 .5
~
1.0
B a
~ "'"'"'
1.5
2.0
2.5
3. 0
Frequency ratio, fn
50
100
200
_,._ figure 12.5. Stiffness and damp!ng rati~ vs. fre~u~ncy ratio, pipe pile D-1. (After Maxwell et
' al., 1969. Copyr_ight ASTM. Reprmted w1th perm1ss1on.)
of piles.
'1 b
The values of soil-pile-constant C, (spring constant) must necessan y e
determined from a pile test aliiJtlie value of the daommg ratio {; must be
estimated based on 3!!.eerin_gj~~~l_lt. There may be several questtons
'ontlle3ccuracy-of"-these values and hence on the predicted response.
502
Novak's Model
503
2. It is a floating pile.
3. It is perfectly connected to the soil.
'
w(z, t) = w(z)e'""
(12.9)
p(z, t) dz
(12.10)
in which G is the shear modulus of the soil surrounding the pile and
Sw
'
21Tao
(11.6)
(11.7)
in which J0 (a 0 ), ! 1 (a 0 ) are Bessel functions of the first kind of order zero and
one, respectively, and Y 0 (a 0 ), Y1 (a 0 ) are Bessel functions of tbe second kind
of order zero and one, respectively. Parameters Sw 1 (=S 1 ) and Sw 2 (=S2 ) are
functions of the dimensionless frequency, a0 = r 0 w/V,, in which r 0 is the pile
radius, V, is VGTP; and pis tbe mass density of soil. Equation (12.10) is
similar to Eq. (11.5). Parameters S are shown in Fig. 12.7 as function of
dimensionless frequency a0
With the soil reactions defined by Eq. (12.10), the differential equation
of damped axial vibration of the pile is
m1
a'w(z, t)
at'
+c
aw(z, t)
at
E A a w(z, t)
az'
+ G(Sw, + iSw,)w(z, t) =
(12.11)
~~-
in which m,' is the mass of the pile per unit length; cis the coefficient of pile
internal damping, E is Young's modulus of the pile, and A is the area of the
pile cross section.~-----..----~---------.... .._---"-----------With harmonic motion described by Eq. (12.9), Eq. (12.11) reduces to an
ordinary differential equation
Figure 12.6.
w2
dzw~z)
dz
(12.12)
504
505
and
2
r=V(a + b
tan.p=a
),
(12.19)
in which
Dimensionless frequency
Figure 12.7.
ao
A1 =vrcos
(12.13)
Note
A2 = vrsin
w(O) = 1
(12.23)
. in which
_ _!_
V,
. p E ao - r V ao
p
(12.16)
and
cwz =;=,.dimensionless parameters depending on the dimensionless frequency, a 0 = r0 w/Vb, and Poisson's ratio v.
(12.17)
in which Vc =
(12.22)
At the tip, the motion of the pile generates a concentrated reaction, R(t)
of the soil lying below the level of the tip. This can be described approximately as the reaction of an elastic half-space to the vertical motion of
a rigid circular disk. This reaction can be written as R(t) = Re'w', the amplitude of which is
(12.15)
A = _!_ ~ Pr G
(12.21)
(12.14)
<P
2,
The shear wave velocity of the soil below the tip V, =yG,Ip,, and G,,
and p, are the shear modulus and mass density of the soil respectively.~
G,--> oo, Jl!~ mo,!i2!!_Qf the tip vanishes corresponding to an end-bearing
-pile.
----- ---~------~--y;---~-----With G,--> G, the pile becomes floating. Tne uJstributed soil reaction,
506
507
p(z, t), contributes to the total stiffness and damping of the system in both
(12.31)
With the integration constants established, tbe amplitude of the pile
displacement becomes
(12.24a)
w(z) = 1 cos A}+ C(A) sin A}= w1 + iw 2
(12.24b)
in which C(A) is obtained from Eq. (12.29). The unit appearing in Eqs.
(12.28), (12.29), and (12.32) is actually the amplitude of the head and thus
has a dimension of length.
The real amplitude of motion is
(12.25a)
Cw, = 7.414a 0
(12.25b)
w(z) =vw; + w;
z)
(12.26)
The end force of the pile must be equal to the soil reaction given by Eq.
(12.23). Thus, the boundary condition for the tip, z = l, is
A
EPA[ (-BsinA+ CcosA)= -Ghr0 (Cw, +iCw,)(BcosA+ CsinA).
(12.27)
Equations (12.22) and (12.23) yield
B= 1
(12.28)
(12.29)
(12.33)
w,
(12.34)
wt
Novak (1977) has plotted variations of the amplitude and phase with relative
depth z/1, slenderness ratio llr 0 , wave velocity ratio V,IV,, and frequency
ratio a 0 for v = 0.5 and density ratio p/pP = 0.7, which is typical of reinforced concrete piles, and shear wave velocity ratios Vb!V, = 1 and 10,000 that
characterizes floating and end-bearing piles, respectively. Internal dam~
o1 the pile has been neglected. These plots indicate that the tip condition is
particularly important in weak soils (small V,IV,) in which even a very long
pile can vibrate almost as a rigid body. Conversely, in stiff soils it is o_n.Jythe
upper part of a pile that undergoes significant displacement. The increase in
the phase shift, where VISible, is indicative of increased damping.
To design ri!":~Ul'IJ<Jr!e_d_f<:)otin_g_s_ll_nd.~t~ll~!l!E~s,_t_ll~-~tiffness and damping constants of the soil-pile-system at the level of the pile.Kead are'iieedea.
After theseli.ave beeiicteierillinecl;-ffie-reiii.ainfrig proceoure aoesnofarner
from that applied to piles resting on rock, i.e., end-bearing piles.
The complex stiffness is equal to. the force that produces a unit dynamic
displacement of the pile head at a cer!am frequency. Thus, It IS kw ''l'V{U}
inwhich N(z) EPA dw(z) !dz. Differentiating Eq. (12.32) and substituting
z = 0, we get the coll)plex stiffness
in which Cw, and Cw, are calculated for frequency a 0 = r 0 w/Vb and
K' =EPA
Gblr 0
(12.35)
in which
(12.30)
(12.32)
+ iFw(A),
(12.36)
508
Subscript 1 denotes the real part of Fw, which defines the real stiffness,
and subscnpt 2 md~cates the imaginary (out of phase) part of F , which
relates to the dampmg.
w
The stiffness constant k~ of one pile can be rewritten as
(12.37)
in which
(12.38)
(12.39)
in which
(12.40)
The stiffness and damping of piles vary with frequency Such variations
are shown in Fig. 12.8, in which parameter fw , characterizlng stiffness and
------------~--+-->~--~-L---------..----~----------------~
v = 0.5
p
Vs!Vc
O.D3
E
ro
O.Q2
0.
O.Ql
'
f.~w1_ -------::-100
.............
40
p:
0.7
v = 0.5
--
-.....
---.::..
100
:---
----
''
-- -- -----40
0.03
..!!
a0 = 0.3
Pp = 0.7
N
509
100
40
109
---------
--
40
- - VbfVs = 1
- - - VbiV8 = 5
0
0
Dimensionless frequency a0 = r w/V8
Figure 12.8.
Novak, 1977.)
Figure 12.9. Variations of stiffness and damping parameters of pile with ratio of shear wave
velocities of soil below and above the tip. (After Novak, 1977 .)
510
511
For design of both e_nd bearing and friction piles, Novak (1974, 1977) ,!!'!.<:!,
Floating pile
- - - End-bearing pile
Rroposed_.."~.E~~!()E~~il ..':'!_ofi~~~~~ ...~.~!'-:. !~."~--~~~!}..4.".P.th... N. o.vak and. ,.!2Sllaii1ouby (1983 1 extended t ese so utions ror soil shear modulus decreasilfgupward'accofl:lilfgl6 a qiiifi:lriitic"parilool'aofor
bearing oas'weii as
tfoating piles (Figs. 12.12 and 12. 13, respectively). - - - - The geometric damping ratio for a single pile supporting a structure can
be computed from the damping constant by using Eq. ( 12.41 ).
\
\
\
fw2 (damping}
end
---
(12.41)
.'W
/'.
\.'\./
(pi Pp
= 0.7,
= 0.5,
0.10
!4
I i'
~e
~~
0.06
-a;Sl
Eu
~'3
0.08
..E
damping
stiff~ess
fw1 fw2 -
0~
~
0.04
0.02
'~Wi ,-
~li
~~
~
<(
Epile/Gsoil
.;;,
250
500
500
250
f--
)00'"
Gsoil
1000
~2500(
-+-
10,000
0
0
Frequency w (rad/sec)
PP
c-
(b)
20
40
'
60
Pile slenderness
80
100
.!:..
'o
Figure 12.12. ~~a~!! .. ~~':!!e!!!gJ.~tors for fi~ed-tiJ?~~~~!l~~!!L~~~!!l!.li)KPJ!es. (a) homogeneous soil (b) parabolic soil profile. (After Novak and EI-Sharnouby, 1983.)
0.1 2
I
0.10
!
i
!'-\'. . . .
Epile/Gsoil
I',
~o
I r\rW!
f' lf:'-
-"
0.04
1/
0.02
~
0
---
t---- --1000
500
--
Gsoil
0.0 2
damping
"""-
10,000
40
60
80
100
(b)
t--_
'"
1---
2500
I>
hiooo
v--- -- --
20
--
80
60
Pile slenderness
Gsoil
_l.0.Q9{2_
2500
40
500
1000
2501--
500
-~
10,000
2500
Figure 12.13. Stiffness and damping parameters for vertical response of floating piles. (a)
homogeneous soil.
512
~/
0.04
r - - - t-25001000
- ~
250
/ . / I--
20
0.06
1- 500
~ v
0
(a)
-- --- --.......
I
I
"'""
"' E
a.
0.08
Epile/Gpile ~ 250
~
g 0 . 06
Q) c:
Ea>
,"'- ~',,
250
.Lfw2
I
!!?~
- - 1 - - - t- --==
0.08
~-~
llfw -- stiff~ess
0.10
10,000
100
lro
figure 12.13. (Continued). (b) parabolic soil profile. (After Novak and EI-Sharnouby, 1983.)
513
514
where m, is the mass of the cap plus machinery or the portion of the
structure vibrating in phase with the cap.
c~~)is~ii!.llrectlyto'compute~theresponse o(ihe
f' '\
are increased.
(12.42)
RG,hS,J
---------
c~ = hr0 S2VG:P,
0.8
"'
0.6
.9
u
.1'
I
I
~ 0.4
--- '
oo
I
~
-."
(-. S/2r \
0
Figure 12.14.
(12.44b)
~---------r
,~
0, we get (c,) or
k! + K~
(12.45a)
= c' + c1
/
---~--~::.w---' .
(12.45b)
Total (k!)
,~.....
(12.44a)
cf
f
1.0
(12.43)
0.2
Most piles are installed in groups. The group stiffness as well as damping
will not, in general, be the simple sum of the stillness anC~<tanrpmg-of
Individual piles. Novak and Gngg (1976) have suggested that the deilect!on
factors proposed by Poulos for groups of statically loaded piles may also be
applied to a pile group undergoing steady-state vibrations. Hence Novak
and Grigg propose that stiffness of pile group k! may be obtained from Eq.
(12.42):
"E
(12.42)an~(12_,43)
Pile Croups
515
[ Total(c')
0.2
0.1
2r0 1S
)o'
1
1
T.
8'
12.2
Figure 12.15.
517
to horizontal excitations.
Figure 12.16. Vertical response of (a) pile foundation, (b) embedded pile foundation (c)
shallow foundation, and (d) embedded shallow foundation (b =
1974.}
516
Novak (1974) had derived lateral stiffness and damping constants for
"-!-,
II
~~
.-\ ,~tl] ~~
II
~r--tf'
II
0
~
II
U'l
(JQ
I'Jl
.-+
Vl
,g
.....
=:~:
c:r
g.
,_.
<<...::'!g,o
_,
c =.: '"0
o.U'l(ll=.:
o
o
r.ll
..
:..'\....
'<
'$-
=:
...~
-e.
II
s
'"c:::l
0g
g;
:.:
""l
oN
o,
(!)
.., "1::1t"l
~ "1::J"""-!
II
--.
Pt.
-e.
::l
'-"
I~~
't:l\"'j
't:l
--
-$.
5'
("')
::;
Cl'l
C1tl
s-
ga
c
....
r.ll
-e......
........
II
II
"'!
"1::1
1oo.,;
"":)
,-....
N
'-'
I~~
. , It"l
~
"1::1Vj
't;j
o,
tv
.....,
---
-..
.....,
'-'
,......
........
N
'--"
N'
r.ll
.....
""t
0
'-'
g:,.
2. Z
n ~
a .....
J-j
........
a(t)<~o(r
~ ~ ~
0"
Iii " o; g :1.
8.. ~ 0o' c.. ~ g.
Vl
(D
;:::;.;
-
c m----
Cll
1:'
'I" N 0
~;;.,c.n'-':;
::r'>-t
Vl~os
8. g s- 0
,....
U'l
c.;J;""or=.o..
g ;: :
~ ~ 8"
se; _._ ......
~U'l
'E. 9 - g 8
"
(l)
II
't:l
'<J
a
=
::I
II
fa ~
r.ll
S
r':l
~ ~ ::(~"'0 =~
g, '"" c.
nSe;gg::l
Vl
-e......
It"l
o,~
'"
S'
(D
U'l
c..
('"')
a.
Vl
.....
"
0"
0>
::t
,....
=
.....
<o=~
(D
3~
..,
~~
0>
::s
::l
0..
'"0
a~
Vl
..,
~~
(JQ
......
r..ll
tl)
(i"
~""
"'
8::I
("')
i-1'>
......
(D
Vl
~"'"~~("O.c
c;l
-E.(!)
(D
S"
'i:l
::o
~~
;!!,
(D
(D
~
;:::;.; 2
o.
'""I
::o
~~
~.8 ;?_
::
;;
:::::r
;:c~Oo
~ =
c 3
~ 8" " 00. g
&1' 3 ~ ~
s - =
~ < so 0
'\:I
n
a -
s
~
o""" ,.,""'!"'
I~t"l
,g
"C
0Q.
(")
;:::
't:l
,_.
lJ.)"
..._
;-;.,
V)
=~(lln:::r'
(tlCilQ.'-"::::::;,:
.._.-
.._,
(/j
0..00..
~tr1 ..... ..(l)
..0 :::r' -"t::
Q. t:: (tl (tl ,....
,_J~r5C..?'
'"""] .....
'""I
0 """"
~ooo
......
co,....~
(tlVl=~(tl
-.. -
::t.
0 (")
!VN::Io
!'J
Ul
!--'
'-'
!--'
!'J
!--'
!--'
+>--
!--'
!'J
+>--
+>--
!--'
+>--
Ul
0
\0
00
-.J
0\
'-'
'-'
'-'
'-'
'-'
-- - >-t
<:1--'::::l~ft
~!'-JQ..;:::~
0
z
"'1::1
Ut
o.=
(tl!--'
'VJ ' - ' (tl
~J-->
;!!_-,
'
'-'
~-~-~~~~-~.~~--~~
TABLE 12.1. Stiffness and Damping Parameters of Horizontal Response for Piles with I I r0 > 25 for Homogeneous Soil Profile
and I I r, > 30 for Parabolic Soil Profile
Damping Parameters
Stiffness Parameters
pile/
v
(1)
ff>~~:
(3}
Gsoil
(2)
f~~~~
(4Y
!"'"
(5}.
~~I
f.,.
(6)
(7)
(&Y
0.1577
0.2152
0.2598
0.2953
0.3299
0.1634
0.2224
0.2677
0.3034
0.3377
-0.0333
-0.0646
-0.0985
-0.1337
-0.1786
-0.0358
-0.0692
-0.1052
-0.1425
-0.1896
0.1450
0.2025
0.2499
0.2910
0.3361
0.1508
0.2101
0.2589
. 0.3009
0.3468
c-0.0252
-0.0484
-0.0737
-0.1008
-0.1370
-0.0271
-0.0519
!~</>~,
fx;"
(9")'
!~2
(10)
0.40
10,000
2.500
. 1,000
500
250
10.000
2,500
1,000
500
250
.~
0.2135
0.2998
0.3741
0.4411
0.5186
0.2207
0.3097
0.3860
0.4547
0.5336
-0.0217
-0.0429
-0.0668
-0.0929
-0.1281
-0.0232
-0.0459
-0.0714
-0.0991
-0.1365
0.0042
0.0119
0.0236
0.0395
0.0659
0.0047
0.0132
0.02q1
0.0436
0.0726
0.0021
0.0061
0.0123
0.0210
0.0358
0.0024 ;":
0.0068 , .,
0.0136
0.0231
0.0394
0.0107
0.0297
0.0579"';
0.0953
0.1556
0.0119
0.0329
0.0641
0.1054
0.1717
0.0054
0.0154
0.0306
0.0514
0.0864
0.0060
0.0171
0.033,9
0.0510
0.0957
0.40
:::
<.c
10.000
2,500
1.000
500
250
10,000
2,500
1,000
500
250
0.1800
0.2452
0.3000
0.3489
0.4049
0.1857
0.2529
0.3094
0.3596
0.4170
-0.0144
-0.0267
-0.0400
-0.0543
-0.0734
-0.0153
-0.0284
-0.0426
-0.0577
-0.0780
0.0019
0.0047
0.0086
0.0136
0.0215
0.0020
0.0051
0.0094
0.0149
0.0236
0.0008
0.0020
0.0037
0.0059
0.0094
0.0009
0.0022
0.0041
0.0065
0.0103
Source: Novak and El-Sharnouby (1983). /~ 1 and /~ 2 are parameters for pinned end.
~0.0790
-0.1079
-0.1461
0
>
:::!
0
VI
Vl
!'J
;
z
ITI
0"'"
c:
z
1--' ~ Vl ~ .~
::::::":0'....,._:;0.:
;!;
o. CD
yo
_-.,
!--'
=::
>
0.0060
0.0159
,o.03o3:
'1l0491
0.0793
0.0067
0.0177
0.0336
0.0544
0.0880
0.0028
0.0076
0.0147
0.0241
0.0398
0.0031
0.0084
0.0163
0.0269
0.0443
i=
1T1
Vl
520
521
o.s r-=:o-r-.......c::---r--r111
1 --r-~~~--r-
~r-...,
0.71----+--f""";;::-
Values of
8
2
'o-
"'N~
0.6~-"""-::::-::::=1~---t--t--14
r-. . .
'
. . . . . t'.....
0.51---_!_-1--+:-=,~,.............
-=+........_--55-t-----J
'~
(f~~d o. 4 f--~-t- Direction of load
O:::::;IJ
head)
(12.52)
---~-~-- r--
'
r- _
'0
0.31--.==_c+
_-'-'---+-"'~-+--t---j
---- :-....._
2: c;
c;= -~~--
_.!_ ""'
25
0 2~ 2ra;;_-.;~'0
(12.53)
(faL)
-~ ~-1--
v =
I - ......... ......_
o.5
-.,..-.:...2,1--_
- - KR = 10 (stiff pile)
(EJ)pile
c
I
I---+
O.lt- ("
_!'--+--t
,I
.
""':'- ...... Kn
,\
KR =
10-5 (flexible.
1pile)!
(l
(EI.,;, l
pile length)
~-L_~1~0~~20~~30~~40~~5~0~6~0~7~0~8:,0~90
Departure angle (3 (degrees)
(12.55)
in which
h = depth of embedment
Figure 12.17.
(12.54)
and
= cgX
+ cf
X
For rocking vibrations, the effect of pile groups_ and the pile cap is
accounted as for sliding and equations have been wntten m SectiOn 12.4.
The use of these equations has been illustrated in example 12.5.
The soils very near the surface control the load deformation propertie~ of
the pile. Also, a gap may often form behind a later~ loaded_ll!.!!'c
Therefore, the value of Q.QL.!',JQ be used f~teral Pil~lli!.IYJ.!~j~ __sm~!ler
tfiiiiitllevafueusecl !9verJiS!/c!J?lL~l'.!'_~lr~.\~ This is true for static as well as
dynamic analysis.
. .
The effect of stat.i,E load was investigated and was found to be stgmficant
only with extremely il!competent soils. Most stiffness and dampmg parameters were reduced by the presence of axial load, but the dampmg caused by
rotation was increased.
12.3
(12.54a)
(12.54b)
522
1. The pile is vertical, elastic, end bearing, circular in cross section, and
IS perfectly connected to the soil.
2. The soil is modeled by a linear viscoelastic medium with frequencymdeptndent matenal dampmg of the hysteretic type.
3. The local soil reaction of this medium acting per unit length of the pile
IS assu~ed to be equal to that denved for plane strain conditions, i.e.,
for umform rotatwn of an infinitely long pile.
4. The excitation is harmonic and the motion is small.
In Fig. 12.18, the vertical pile undergoes a complex harmonic rotation
Eq. (12.56), about its vertical axis.
'
.P(z, t) = ,P(z)e'w'
(12.56)
in which
'
s,,,,(ao)
= J'
+ y'
(12.59)
in which
a0 = r0 w/V8
r 0 = the pile radius
V, = -,fG!p = the shear wave velocity
G = the shear modulus of soil
p = the soil density
.T0 (a 0 ), 11(!z0 ) =Bessel functions of the first kind of order zero and one,
respectively
Y 0 (a 0 ), Y1 (a 0 ) =Bessel functions of the second kind of order zero and
one, respectively .
For noncircular piles, r 0 should be the equivalent radius of the possible
slip circle around the pile and not its cross-sectional area.
The material damping can be included by the addition of an out of phase
component to the soil shear modulus, which then becomes
(12.57)
---..M
523
G*=G 1 (1+itan8)
(12.60)
in which
..........
tan a= G 2 /G 1
GP G 2 =real and imaginary parts, respectively, of the complex soil shear
modulus G*
8 = loss angle
'
G,p
Op
'l'}?;;~~~??,!?;;~~~m/
Figure 12.18.
Thus, G* replaces O.,jn Eq. (12.57) and enters Eqs. (12.58) and (12.59)
through a0
The effect of hysteretic material damping is to significantly increase the
damping parameter, s,, by an almost constant amount, equal to 47T tan 8 at
low frequencies, and to reduce the stiffness parameters.,, slightly at higher
frequencies. Experiments have shown that material damping may be neglected for other vibration modes but is essential for torsion (Novak and
Howell, 1977).
They have fur!her shown that the displacement of slender piles quickly
524
Timber
(12.61)
and
0.3
(12.62)
fT, 2 (tan 0
0)
k:,
1
GPJ
k o/ =-t
r
T,t
525
0.1
I \
I h,l ' . . . . . __ _...-
II I
.;:
~
E
ro
in which
Q.
0.2
;T,l} =parameters
r.z
It can be seen from these figures that damping parameter fr 2 varies with
'
frequency much more than the stiffness parameter fr. 1
The marked effect of material damping may be seen from the broken
lines in Figs. 12.19 and 12.20, which were calculated with tan o = 0.1, a
representative value for soils. The effect of the material damping of the soil
is to increase significantly the total torsional damping of the pile, particularly
at low frequencies, and to make the equivalent viscous damping constant
somewhat less frequency dependent than it is with tan o = 0 (for higher
frequencies). The effect of material damping on the torsional stiffness of the
pile is negligible.
Stiffness and Damping Constants of Footing
The torsional stiffness and damping constants of a pile have been obtained
in the above analysis as moments that correspond to unit rotational displacement and velocity respectively, For a pile located beyond the reference
~1-~-L-L~o~.5~_j~L-~l~.o~_j~--~l.~
a0 = wr0
JPiG
Figure 12.19. Torsional stiffness and damping parameters of timber piles (p/pP = 2). (After
Novak and Howell, 1977.)
point, these moments are composed ?f (1)a part that twists the pile and (2)
a part that induces translation ?f 1t. ~~t~ reference to F1g. 12.15, the
torsional stiffness constant of a p!le-footmg 1s
~~"
(12.63)
and the torsional damping constant is
(12.64)
The summation is extended over all the piles. In Eqs. (12.63) and (12.64),
torsion diminishes quickly with the ratio Rlr0 Therefore, the torsion of the
piles will be more important for footings supported by a small number of
large diameter piles than for footings supported by a large number of
slender piles spread far from the reference point. The maximum effect of
twisting will occur if the foundation is a caisson, which may behave as one
pile.
In case the position of the centroid of the footing coincides with the
elastic center of the piles in plan, the excitation moment, M, cos wt,
produces pure torsional response of the footing, A.,, given by
Concrete
- - fT,2 (tan 0 = OJ
- - - fT.2 (tan 0 = 0.1)
- - fr,l {tan 0 = 0.1)
527
0.12
0.11
0.10
0.09
0.08
0.07
0.06
(12.65)
N
"',
in which M m is the mass moment of inertia of the footing about the vertical
axis .
E
ro
0.05
"-
me,
0.02
0
0.5
ao = wr0
1.0
0
1.5
../PiG
Figure 12.20. Torsional stiffness and damping parameters of reinforced concrete piles
(p/pP =0.7). (After Novak and Howell, 1977.)
subjected to torswn and are given in Eqs. (12.61) and (12.62), and and c
are. stiffness and damping constants, respectively, of a pile subje~ted t~
~onzontal transla!!on and are given by Eqs. (12.46) and (12.47), respectively.
It is obvious from Eqs. (12.63) and (12.64) that the contribution of the
translation components increases with the square of the distance from the
~eference point, ~ =
+
Therefore, in a practical situation, the
Importance of torswn of each pile depends on the ratio of the torsional
stiffness to the stiffness caused by horizontal translation.
Novak and Howell (1977) have shown that the contribution of the pile
Yx; y;.
....
The backfill has mass density p, = 0.75p and shear modulus G, = O.SG.
Timber Piles
Computations were done with eight timber piles with the following specifications:
528
529
Computations were done with six reinforced concrete piles with the following specifications:
Density= 150 pcf (2650 kgim')
Pile length= 35ft (10. 7 m)
Effective radius r0 = 12 in (305 mm)
Young's modulus EP = 552 x 106 psf (26.4 x 10' kN/m')
Shear modulus GP = 200 x 10 6 psf (9.58 x 106 kN/m') anil
~lie she".r wave velocity VP = 6 525ft/sec (1 989 m/sec); four of the piles
ave R-6.5ft (1.98m); the remaining four have R=2.5ft (0.76m).
The response of footing with concrete piles is also plotted in Fig. 12.21
with and without twisting of piles.
For a group of piles, the effects of pile twisting and soil material damping
are not very pronounced. With single piles, such as piers and caissons, these
effects are essential (Novak and Howell, 1977}.
The analysis presented above may require some corrections based on
experiment because of
1. The dependence of the transmission of the torque into the soil by
shear.
2. The possibility of slippage.
3. The variation of shear modulus of soil with depth, and
4. Other factors.
Ignoring twisting
Shear modulus G, and G6 , Poisson's ratio v, and unit weight y, for the
soil both around the pile and below its tip respectively.
Pile Properties and Geometry
Pile length, cross section, and spacing in tbe group, unit weight y of pile and
pile cap and Young's modulus of pile material.
Based upon the above information, (1) v; and VP shear wave velocity in
soil and pile respectively and (2} V, compression wave velocity in pile are
computed.
Vertical Vibrations
6 Concrete piles 24 in diameter
Including twisting
Ignoring twisting
.,.
Figure 12.21. Torsional response of piled fooling. (After Novak and Howell, 1977.)
(12.39)
530
The values of functions fw 1 and fwz are obtained from Figs. 12.12 and 12.13
for fixed tip and floating piles, respectively.
2. Compute spring stiffness and damping of pile group k! (piles only)
531
(12.53)
k'
2: k~
_1_ _.
(12.42)
2: "
1
fkxG,hSx 1
and
(12.43)
(12.44a)
(12.44b)
Rocking
1. Compute stiffness and damping of a single pile in both rocking as well
as for coupled motion.
1
EPIP
k"' = -r- fq,1
(12.45a)
Total (c')
= c'w + cfw
w
(12.45b)
EPIP
-,ro
fx1
(12.46)
EPIP
1
ex= r2V fxz
(12.47)
kx
0 '
1
EPIP
kx<f> = -,- fx<f>1
ro
(12.50)
1
EPIP .
ex<!>= r v fx<J>2
(12.51)
1
g = ..S [k
k <P.L.Jct>
1
1 2
1
+ kw
x'r + k x
Zc - 2Zcxc[>
k ]
(12.66)
2: k1
n
(12.49)
_1_ _
x
'
t.,
0 '
kg=
EPIP
c= V
Translation
(12.48)
Total (kg)=
k'w +
w
(12.54)
(12.67)
(12.52)
in which
532
and
o=-
'o
and
I
l
A;\
Co
Do
Eo
Go
J.
No
!
11m
6m
~--------:sm--------~
zc=L,
1.5 m
(12.68)
(12.69)
4. Total stiffness and total damping are then the sum of stiffness and
damping values computed in steps 2 and 3, respectively.
12.5
t4m
1m
1_1_
4m
EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 12.5.1
Estimate the (a) stiffness and (b) damping in vertical vibrations of' a 20 pile
group in sand (Fig. 12.22a). The concrete piles are 45 em in diameter and
20m long. The following soil and pile properties may be assumed
j_
D D Im
0.6
2m
_i_
I m
~1.3
Soil Properties
G, = 4000 t/m 2 throughout
50cmx50cm
concrete piles
Also
Medium
stiff lean
30m
clay
y,, = 1.59 g/ cm 3
Pile
l'p =2.4g/cm
EP = 2.5
10 6 t/m 2
Figure 12.22b.
534
Solution
Pile
'o =
.~
22.5 em
S= 1.50m
'Yp = 2.4 gi cm 3
IP =
V
F
G
H
I
1
1r
4 (0.45 m) 2 = 0.159 m 2
1r
64
(0.45) = 2.013
{!!_
' Y-p
10- 3 m 4
/2.5 X 10 _
Y2 .4 i 9 .81 -3196.7misec
v, = yI 1. 40oo
i .
K
L
M
N
0
59 9 81 -157 misec
EP 2.5 X 10 6
G, = 4000 = 625
I
ro
p
Q
20
0.225 = 88.89 = 90
Vertical Vibrations
2: "
e =EPA
r0
V,
1.0
0.60
0.45
0.38
0.33
0.60
1.0
0.60
0.45
0.38
0.45
0.60
1.0
0.60
0.45
0.60
0.53
0.43
0.38
0.30
0.53
0.60
0.53
0.43
0.38
0.43
0.53
0.60
0.53
0.43
0.60
0.53
0.43
0.38
0.30
0.53
0.60
0.53
0.43
0.38
0.43
0.53
0.60
0.53
0.43
1.0
0.60
0.45
0.38
0.33
0.60
1.0
0.60
0.45
0.38
0.45
0.60
1.0
0.60
0.45
0.45
0.43
0.40
0.33
0.29
0.43
0.45
0.43
0.40
0.33
0.40
0.43
0.45
0.43
0.40
0.60
0.53
0.43
0.38
0.30
0.53
0.60
0.53
0.43
0.38
0.43
0.53
0.60
0.53
0.43
0.38
0.38
0.33
0.30
0.29
0.38
0.38
0.38
0.33
0.30
0.33
0.38
0.38
0.38
0.33
0.45
0.43
0.40
0.33
0.29
0.43
0.45
0.43
0.40
0.33
0.40
0.43
0.45
0.43
0.40
8.58
9.31
9.53
9.14
10.01
10.25
535
Ref Pile
1=20m
EXAMPLES
157
w,
65,384.4 tim
i/
= 172.16 t secim
s, =2.7,
k~
fcw-hrOS2
vc:;;,
GsPs
r 0 = (8x6r
--:;;- =3.9m
c~ = (2)(3.9)(6.7)V4000
k' =
w
c' =
w
2: k~- 20(65,384.4)
L " -
L c~ _
L " -
9 .47
s, = 6.7
20[172.16]
= 363.59 ti(misec)
9 .47
536
537
EXAMPLES
The data that has been made available for soils and piles is as follows:
m,= ( 40 X 1000 + 4 X 4 x
Soil Properties
= ( 4 X 10 4 + 10.4 X 10 ) /981
2
= 147 kg sec /cm
r0 = (
50 X 50)
0 5
'
7T
= 28.22 em
[
30 X 100
ro = 28.22 = 106.3
From Fig. 12.13a, for Epilo/G,oil = 667 and llr0 = 106.3
Other dimensions of the pile group are shown in Fig 12 22b The ff f
vertical load of the static column load vibrating with th~ piie capem:cy tbve
assumed to be 40 t.
e
fw, = 0.03(\,,?;'0:
Vertical vibrations
1.
k~ =
E;:
fw 2 = 0.065
(12.37)
fw,
5
=(2x10 x50x50) 36
o.o
28.22
Solution
Vertical vibrations
cw=
ro;
1000 X 981
1.8
= 127.8 m/sec
X
v, =VE;TP;,
=
.J2
10
1000 X 981
2.5
v; 127.8
V, = 2800 = 0.0456
(12.39)
'
2 X 105 X 50 X 50
127.8 X 100
' 'J-;:
P,
= ~300
vEPA fw2
X
0 065
= 2541 kg sec/em
2. To consider the group effect, assume any pile in the group as
reference pile. With r0 = 28.22 em, the value of Sl2r 0 for adjacent piles is
3.54 (=200/56.44) and for the diagonally opposite pile is 5.01 (=283/56.44).
From Fig. 12.14,
ll2r0 = 3000/56.44 = ~.15
aa = 1 for reference pile
a,= 0.57 for adjacent corner piles
a,= 0.51 for the opposite corner pile
:S a,= 1 + 2 X 0.57 + 0.51 = 2.65
538
.2: k~
F=-1,_
(12.42)
539
EXAMPLES
fxl
L aa
4 X 6.378 X 105
_
2 65
Lc~
_I_
= {2 X 105 X 5 X 10 /((28.22)
= 0.77 x 10 3 kg sec/em
2. Letting the departure angle (3
aL
(12.44a)
=
=
<K
!:> w
3.83 X J0 3 + 8.6 X 10 3
1.243 x 10 4 kg sec/em
2: c!
(4 X 0.77 X 10 3 )/2.2
1.40 x 103 kg sec/em
V,
V,IV" = 0.03271,
(12.54)
c[=hr0 (YG,y,lg)Sx 2
(12.55)
3 0
""'- = 200 X 225.6(240 X 2/981 X 10 ) '(10.6)
4
= 1.06 X 10 x kg sec/em
4. Total stiffness
Translation
~et the reduced values of G, be 240 kg/ cm 2 for the backfill and 154 kg/
em for the lean clay
= 1298
154
/154 X 1000 X 981
'I
LS
(12.53)
(.2: aL)
. The pile cap is seen to produce more damping than the piles. For a single
p1le
2 X 10
(12.52)
()(.L
EP/G,oil
X 9.16 X 10 ]}(0,0563)
.2: k!
2:
F = --
= c~l2(k
m )II'
w
w- c
~~
X 0,0237
aL
(12.44b)
4.
(12.47)
5
k~ = G,hS1
= 400 X 200 X 2.7 = 2.16 X 105 kg/em
r 0 (cap) = ( 400 x 400/7r) 0 ' 5 = 225.67 em
(2 X 105 X 5 X 10 /(28.22)
c! = (EPIP/r~V,)fxz
(12.43)
n
I
3,
(12.46)
5
4 X 2541/(2.65)
3.83 X 103 kg sec/em
0.0563
= 0.105 x 10 kg/em
L aa
=
k! = (EPIP!ri)fxl
fxz
0.0237 ,
cc=
= 0.4,
(k~)
Total damping
= 9.16 x 10 3 em/sec
1.20 x 10 4 kg sec/ em
540
(;
c
2\jk'fmc
X
Sx 1 = 4.1 ,
+ c1
k~ = (EP9ro)f.;,
(12.48)
S.; 2 = 1.8
= [2 X 10 x 5 X 10 /127.8
(12.49)
6
100](0.26) = 2.06 x 10 kg em sec/rad
(12.68)
2
2
cq,f = 8r 0~
y G,-y,/g{Sq,
2 + [8 /3 + (Z,Ir 0 ) - 8(Z)r 0 )]Sx 2 }
05
4
= 0.8865 X (225.6) (240 X 2/981 X 1000) (1.8 + 0.88)
= 1.36 x 10 8 kg em sec/rad
(12.69)
k~.; = (EPJP/r~)fxq,,
5
z-
c! = (EPIP!V,)f.;2
5
10
Sq, 1 = 2.5 ,
Sx 2 = 10.6,
Also, the height of the center of gravity of the dynamic force above base
of pile cap: Z, = 130 em and coordinate x, = 100 em
= (2
541
(12.50)
10 6 kg/rad
c!.; = (EPIPiroV,)fx.;,
5
(12.51)
5
= (2 X 10 X 5 X 10 /(28.22
= -2.76 x 10 4 kg sec/rad
127.8
100))( -0.099)
[q,, = 0.37
fx<P! = -0.068
10
5.68 X 10
(12. 70)
The stiffness, damping, and masses have been established in the preceding computations. The response of the pile group may now be determined
from principles of vibrations described in Chapter 2.
[.; 2 = 0.26
fx.;z = -0.099
2: [k'1> + k' X
w
2
'
+ kx1 Z c2 - 2Z,kx<t>J
'
5
(12.66)
(130) 2
.; 2Z,cx<t>l
(12.67)
6
2
= 4[2.06 X 10 + 2541 X (lOW+ 770 x (130) + 2 x 130 x 2.76
X
10 4)
Fr~m Tables 11.2 and 11.3, frequency-independent constants for the side
resistance on the embedded pile cap are:
542
Response curves
Site: Belle River
Pile: GP 13-7
w-6
Comment: W/K-KRETE
~
....E'
-1l
"'.1' w-s
~--~v
=
=
'b
Frequency (Hz)
Figur; 12.2_3. R~sponse curves show a decrease in resonant frequency with increasing
a~pl~tudes m horrzontal vibrations. (From R. D. Woods, Lateral interaction between soil and
prle, m E;, Beskos, Theodore Kranthammer, and I. Vardoulakis, eds., "Dynamic Soil-Structure
'?
Interaction,
chart recorder. At the conclusion of the first steady-state test, the eccen. tnc1ty of the Lazan oscillation was increased to increase the oscillating force
and the test was repeated. To cover the range of lateral displacements
covered by most machine foundation, four or five increasing eccentricities
were used. It was observed that the frequency of maximum response
decreased as the force level increased, indicating nonlinear response. Woods
(1984) used PILAY computer program to determine stiffness and damping
elements (Novak and About-Ella, 1977). PILAY is a continuum model
accommodating a multilayered soil based on the elastic -side layer approach
of B~rano: (1967). However, PILAY as~umes that the soil surrounding the
pile m a giVen layer Is the same at all distances from the pile.
A dy_nam1c response curve with PILAY solutions is shown in Fig. 12.24
along w1th the field data. The poor correlations between predicted curve and
measured response is obvious. In all tests, computed response based on
stiffness and damping from PILAY and measured response showed that the
amplitudes of motion were greater than predicted and the frequency of
mrunmum response was lower than predicted.
8
%8
=
;:::
4
10-5
~ ~5--~~I0~~-1~5~--,2~0,---~2~5----,3~0----~35~---4~0~--~4~5~--~5h0----5J.5
200F solution
rrr~
_
9
f?
0.
Dynalic respLe
~
v
15
::
--
Field data
0
----. X
l, 9 b
r::::::- I--
Dynamic response
predicted with
PI LAY solution
,/. /
10
543
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 12.24. 'Typical response curves -p,r.edicted by PI LAY superimposed on measured pile
response. (After Gle and Woods, 1984.)
544
group was placed in a hole made for its placement in the ground and then
backfilled with a specially prepared soil mixture. The pile cap was 6 em
above the ground level. The pile group was excited by a Lazan oscillator at
frequencies of 6-60Hz in the vertical and horizontal directions and in
torsional mode. Free vibration tests and static tests had also been performed. The measured response curves were very linear for small amplitudes and
indicated relatively small nonlinearity at amplitudes of 0.2 mm. The test
results of Gle (1981) and Woods (1984) show definitely nonlinear behavior
of insitu piles.
Novak and El-Sharnouby (1984) analyzed the data presented earlier by
the following methods:
I. Using static interaction factors by Poulos (1971, 1975, 1979) and
Using Poulos' charts the theoretical response curves based on static interaction factors are shown, together with the experimental curve, in Fig. 12.25.
Three theoretical curves are plotted against the experimental one: Curve A
represents the group response without any interaction effect, curve B was
calculated using a static interaction factor for both stiffness and damping,
545
(~ a. = 23) while the interaction effect has been considered for the stiffness
only in curve C. It is seen that the full value of static interaction coefficient
cannot be applied for damping. A much lower value of interaction factor for
damping is needed in order to obtain a better estimate of response of the
group.
A theoretical response curve with interaction factors of 40 and 2.4 for
stiffness and damping constants respectively is shown in Fig. 12.26. However, Fig. 12.26 shows that even if the match between the theoretical and
experimental curves is achieved near the peak, the experimental dimensionless response curve at higher frequencies approaches about 0.5 instead
of unity. This may indicate that the apparent vibrating mass may differ from
the true mass of the foundation. The apparent vibrating mass determined
from the experimental response curve using the technique described by
Novak (1971) was found to be about 2.3 times the foundation mass and
about 1.3 times the total mass, which comprises the mass of the foundation
and the mass of the piles with the soil enclosed between them.
With the apparent vibrating mass used instead of the foundation mass,
better fit was, obtained (Fig. 12.2].)"A still better fit had been obtained with
interaction factors of 16 and 2.4 'Ior stiffness and damping, respectively.
Since arbitrary correction factors are applied to stiffness and damping
constants, the static interaction factors may not be used for dynamic
analysis.
The theoretical analysis of the test foundation indicated that the vertical
motion of pile tips is almost the same as the motion of the heads. (The
B
Symbol
0
N-M
0.1932
...
0.0966
N-M
0.1932
... 0.0966
Symbol
0
~eetle~e
r ill~~~~~~c~~~::~~J
O~
~
10
20
30
40
50
A 60
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 12.25. Experimental response curves and theoretical curves calculated with static
interaction factors: A, no interactions; B, interaction factors applied to both stiffness and
damping; C, interaction factors applied to stiffness only; and f, experimental data (After Novak
and EI-Sharnouby, 1984.)
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 12.26. Experimental reSponse curve and theoretical curve with interaction factors of 40
and 2.4 for stiffness and damping, respectively. (After Novak and EI~Sharnouby, 1984).
546
547
FINAL COMMENTS
-1l
..
c_
E
N-M
0.1932
0.0966
Symbol
.'!'
0
0
__ .... ____ _
0~~~~~~~
i5
o_~~~~~~lllluy~~~~~~Ull~
0
10
20
30
40
o~~~~~~Ullllll~~~llllilli~~~~
50
10
Frequency (Hz)
30
40
50
60
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 12.27. Experimental response curve and theoretical curves calculated with apparent
mass: A, with Poulos static interaction factors for stiffness and interaction factor of 2 for
damping; and B, with interaction factors of 16 and 2.4 for stiffness and damping, respectively
(After Novak and EI-Sharnouby, 1984.)
20
difference is less than 2 percent suggesting a pier action.) The added mass
effect, indicated by the factor of 1.3, appears to result from the high rigidity
of the piles and may not be needed for more compressible piles, especially
when they are end-bearing.
The equivalent pier properties for the foundation test model were
established using the material characteristics of both the steel piles and the
soil enclosed. The behavior of the layers below the pier tip was considered
up to a depth of 3 times the pier length. The stiffness and damping constants
of the equivalent pier were calculated using the same concept used for the
single pile and the computer program PILAY2. The dimensionless vertical
response curve based on the equivalent pier approach is plotted in Fig.
12.28. It can be seen that both damping and stiffness were moderately
overestimated (curve A).
A better match of the theoretical curve with the experimental one was
achieved when both stiffness and damping were modified by factors of 0.5
and 0.6, respectively (Fig. 12.28, curve B).
The concept of equivalent pier may be applicable only to closely spaced
piles.
Novak and El-Sharnouby (1984) have also described comparison of the
theoretical and measured vertical response by the dynamic methods of
Kaynia and Kausel (1982) and Wass and Hartmann (1981). Also, a comparison of the theoretical and measured response both in horizontal and
torsioual modes by several methods have been presented by the authors.
The preceding discussion points to the fact that dynamic interaction is
very complicated, and further theoretical and experimental research is
needed in the dynamic behavior of piles and pile groups.
Figure 12.28. Experimental response curve and theoretical curve based on equivalent pier
concept: A, true stiffness and damping: and B, modified stiffness and damping. (After Novak
and EI-Sharno~.by, 1984).
12.7
FINAL COMMENTS
548
that:
1. Correction for the apparent mass may be necessary, particularly for
rigid floating piles.
2. The static interaction factor provided quite a good estimate of the
group stiffness but the group damping could not be predicted.
3. The equivalent pier concept provided a reasonable agreement with the
experimental data if the theoretical damping constant was reduced by
about 50 percent.
FINAL COMMENTS
549
For single piles also, Woods (1984) found that softened zone around the
pile alters the behavior and needs to be considered in a realistic analysis.
For torsional vibrations of vertical piles, Novak and Howell's (1977)
solution is a good tool.
The dynamic stiffness and damping in torsion depend on soil-pile
interaction in terms of dimensionless parameters (1) shear wave velocity
ratio (ratio of soil shear wave velocity to pile shear wave velocity), (2)
slenderness ratio (ratio of pile length to effective radius), (3) mass ratio
(ratio of specific mass of the soil to specific mass of the pile), ( 4) dimensionless frequency, and (5) material damping ratio.
For a group of piles, the contribution from torsion to the total stiffness
and damping decreases with the relative distance of the pile from the
centroid of the footing. Pile foundations can have smaller natural frequencies in torsion than shallow footings, but the increased damping generated
yields lower resonance amplitudes. This contrasts with other vibration
modes. Comparison with experiments is desirable since pile slippage, together with other effects such as method of installing the piles are not
accounted fo,r in any theory, an~,Way affect the comput~d values.
The approach throughout in thts:chapter has been to dtscuss sttffness and
damping constants in terms of basic soil and pile properties and geometry of
the system. Assuming the mass of the pile cap and the superstructure
(machine) and knowing the unbalanced forces, natural frequencies and
amplitudes of motion are determined from principles of vibration analysis
given in Chapter 2. The soil has been considered to be isotropic, homogeneous, and elastic: Nogami (1980) has considered pile vibrations in nonhomogeneous soils. Layered soil has also been considered by Nogami
(1983). Soil modulus variation as a quadratic parabola has been considered
by Novak and El-Sharnouby (1983) for vertical and lateral vibrations.
The interaction of pile cap with soil affects the dynamic response of the
system. This can be accounted for in all modes of vibrations on the basis of
principles defined in Chapter 11.
Based on the approximate solutions presented in this chapter, a step-bystep design procedure has been listed. Solved problems have been included
to illustrate the listed design procedure.
The soil properties used in defining the stiffness and damping parameters
are (1) shear wave velocity V, or shear modulus G and (2) Poisson's ratio.
Their values are dete\'?ined from principles and procedures described in
Chapter 4.
Another solution technique for pile groups has been reported by Aubry
and Postel (1985) who considered the soil-pile system as a fiber reinforced
composite material. The technique of homogenization of composite materials was used to compute equivalent modulus which was used to compute
the seismic response of the equivalent foundation at the soil surface. The
method has been shown to be particularly useful for very large numbers of
piles beneath a foundation. This method may be regarded as a complimentary solution to Novak's equivalent pier concept.
ted on the pile cap. Pile response was measured through inductance
type accelerometers and ink writing recorder. The oscillator could
generate a force of 93 kg at 10 cps at full eccentricity. Tests were
conducted at two different eccentricity values up to a maximum speed of
35 cps. Typical representative displacement amplitude versus excitation
frequency curves for a single pile are plotted in Figs. 12.29a and b.
Estimate the design parameters for use in Novak's analysis and list
them properly.
2. Estimate the (a) stiffness, (b) damping, (c) natural frequency, and (d)
amplitude of motion of an 8-pile group in vertical, horizontal, and
torsional vibrations.
10
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
1.
'E
Pile Resonance Tests. In all, four piles under two turbogenerator foundations were tested by exciting them into steady-state forced vibrations
using a mechanical oscillator. The motor-oscillator assembly was moun-
.s
0
0
551
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
550
~
D
.,.
'l5
:E
"
E
""
0
30
20
10
Frequency (cps)
(a)
0.6
'
'E
.s
0
~
D
.,.
0.5
0.4
0.3
'l5
:E
0.2
""
0.1
"E
0
0
10
20
Frequency (cps)
(b)
30
40
Figure 12.29. Resonance tests on 45-cm diameter piles: (a) horizontal 1 (b) vertical.
552
3.
REFERENCES
Aubry, D., and Postel, M. (1985). Dynamic response of a large number of piles by homogenization. Proc. 2nd. Int. Conf. Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng., Queen Elizabeth II, 4-105 to
4-119.
Barkan, D. D. (1962). "Dynamics of Bases and Foundations." McGraw-Hill, New York.
Baranov, V. A. (1967). On the calculation of excited vibrations of an embedded foundation (in
Russian). Vopr. Dyn. Prochn. 14, 195~209.
Beredugo, Y. 0., and Novak, M. (1972). Coupled horizontal and rocking yibration of
embedded footings. Can. Geotech, J. 9(4), 477-497.
Bycroft, G N. (1956). Forced vibration of a rigid circular plate on a semi-infinite elastic half
space on elastic stratum. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London, Ser. A 248, 327-368.
El~Sharnouby, B., and Novak, M. (1984). Dynamic experiments with groups of pile. I.
Geotech. Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 110(GT~6), 719-737.
Gazetas, G., and Dobry, R. (1984). Horizontal response of piles in layered soils. I. Geotech.
Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. UO(No. GT-1), 20-40.
Gle, D. R. (1981). The dynamic lateral response of deep foundations, Ph.D. Dissertation,
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
Gle, D. R., and Woods, R. D. (1984). Predicted versus observed dynamic lateral response of
pipe piles. Pap. presented to World Conf. Earthquake Eng., 8th, San Francisco.
Kaynia, A. M., and Kausel, F. (1982). Dynamic behavior of pile groups. Int. Conf. Numer.
Methods Offshore Piling, Austin, TX, pp. 509-532.
Madhav, M. R., and Rao, N. S. V. K. (1971). Model for machine pile foundation soil system.
J. Soil Mech. Found. Eng. Div. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 97(SM-1), 295-299.
Maxwell, A. A., Fry, Z. B., and Poplin, J. K. (1969). Vibratory loading of pile foundations.
ASTM Spec. Tech. Pub!. STP 444, 338-361.
Nogami, T. {1980). Dynamic stiffness and damping of pile groups in inhomogeneous soil. Proc.
Dyn. Response Pile Found Anal. Aspects, Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., Hollywood FL 1980, 31-52.
Nogami, T. {1983). Dynamic group effect in axial responses of gro.uped piles. J. Geotech. Eng.,
Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 109(No. GT-2), 220-223.
Nogami, T., and Liang, H. (1983). Behavior of pile groups subjected to dynamic loads. Proc.
Can. Conf. Eq. Eng., 4th, Vancouver B.C. 414-420.
Novak, M. {1971). Data reduction from non~linear response curves. J. Eng. Mech. Div., Am.
Soc. Civ. Eng. 97(EM~4),_ 1187-1204.
Novak, M. (1974). Dynamic stiffness and damping of piles. Can. Geotech. J. 11(4), 574-598.
Novak, M. (1977). Vertical vibration of floating piles. I. Eng. Mech. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng.
103(EM-1), 153-168.
REFERENCES
553
Novak, M., and Aboul~Ella, F. (1977). "PILAY-A Computer Program for Calculation of
Stiffness and Damping of Piles in Layered Media," Rep. No. SACDA 77~30.
University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.
Novak, M., and Beredugo, Y. 0. (1972). Vertical vibration of embedded footings. J. Soil
Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 98(SM~12), 1291-1310.
Novak, M., and El-Sharnouby, B. (1983). Stiffness and damping constants of single piles. J.
Geo{ech. Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 109(GT~7), 961-974.
Novak, M., and El-Sharnouby, B. (1984). Evaluation of dynamic experiments on pile group. I.
Geotech. Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 110 {GT-6), 738-756.
Novak, M., and Grigg, R. F. (1976). Dynamic experiments with small pile foundation. Can.
Geotech. J. 13(4), 372-395.
Novak, M., and Howell, J. F. (1977). Torsional vibrations of pile foundations. J. Geotech.
Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 103(GT-4), 271-285.
Novak, M., and Sachs, K. (1973). Torsional and coupled vibrations of embedded footings. Int.
I. Earthquake Eng. Struct. Dyn. 2(1), 11-33.
Novak, M, Aboula~Ella, F. and M. Sheta (1981). "PILAY 2-A Computer Program for
Calculation of Stiffness and Damping of Piles in Layered Media," Rep. No. SACDA
81-100. University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.
PoulOs, H. G. (1968). Analysis of the settlement of the pile groups. Geotechnique 18(4),
449-471.
,,,,,,~
Poulos, H. G. (1971). Behavior oflaterally 1~aded piles. II Pile groups. J. Soil Mech. Div.,
Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 97(SM-5), 733-751.
Poulos, H. G. (1975). Lateral load deflection prediction for pile groups. J. Geotech. Eng. Div.,
Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. lOl(GT-1), 19-34.
Poulos, H. G. (1979). Group factors for pile~deflection estimation. J. Geotech. Eng. Div., Am.
Soc. Civ. Eng. lOS(GT-12), 1489-1509.
Poulos, H. G., and Davis, E. H. (1980). "Pile Foundation Analysis and Design," Wiley, New
York.
Prakash, S. (1981). "Soil Dynamics." McGraw~Hill, New York.
Puri, V. K., Bhargava, S., Nandakumaran, P., and Arya, A. S. (1977). Evaluation of dynamic
soil-pile constants from in-situ tests. Int. Symp. Soil-Struct. Interact., Roorkee, India,
349-354.
Richart, F. E., Jr. (1962). Foundation vibrations. Trans. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 127, Pt. 1,
863-898.
Richart, F. E., and Whitman, R. V. (1967). Comparison of footing vibration tests with theory.
J. Soil Mech. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 93(SM-6), 143-168.
Richart, F. E., Hall, J. R., and Woods, R. D. (1970). "Vibrations of Soils and Foundations."
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Sheta, M., and Novak, M. (1982). Vertical vibrations of pile groups. I. Geotech. Eng. Div.,
Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. lOS(GT-4), 570-590.
Ting, J. M. (1987). Full scale'YJ\rnamic lateral pile response. J. Geotech. Eng. Div., Am. Soc.
Civ. Eng. 113(1), 30-45.
Tucker, R. L. (1964). Lateral analysis of piles with dynamic behaviour. Proc. Conf. Deep
Found. Mexico City, Vol. 1., 157-171.
Waas, G., and Hartmann, H. G. (1981). Pile foundations subjected to dynamic horizontal
loads. Eur. Simul. Meet., Model. Simul. Large Scale Struct. Syst., Capri, Italy, p. 17; also
Conf. Struct. Mech. ReactOr Tech. SMIRT, Paris.
Woods, R. D. (1984). Lateral interaction between soil and pile. Proc. Int. Symp. Dyn. Soil
Struct. Interact., Minneapolis, 47-54.
13
Case Histories
CASE HISTORIES
555
556
CASE HISTORIES
further tilt or settlement. The vibration amplitudes were well below the
permissible values as specified by the machine manufacturers. These observations on performance of the foundation provided answers to a very crucial
question on the long-term stability of the machine foundation in question.
The preceding cases clearly bring out the importance of monitoring the
performance of a machine foundation. In general, the investigations for
studying the response of a machine foundation can be divided into two
types:
1. Postdesign, in which the amplitudes of vibration under normal operat-
557
in strain levels for these two conditions had a significant effect on the
relevant soil properties. The methods used to analyze the above two
conditions were the elastic half-space and the linear spring method. For each
case the computed amplitudes and frequencies of the foundation were
compared with the observed amplitudes and frequencies.
.
The purpose of the evaluation was to determme whether remedtal
measures were to be taken to reduce the foundation's vibration amplitudes
to permissible levels or to redesign the foundation completely.
Machine and Foundation Data
The plan of the foundation is shown in Fig. 13.1a, and its cross section in
Fig. 13.1b. The reference axes are also indicated in these figures.
Two cases histories that illustrate these two types are presented below. The
first concerns the study of a reciprocating compressor foundation (Prakash
and Puri, 1981, 1984), which, in vibrating beyond its permissible limits,
endangered the stability of an entire system. The second involves the
vibration response of a hammer foundation (Prakash and Gupta, 1970).
location of obse!Vation
points ;';
lk. of compressor
c
13.1
General
The two sets of computation proved to be similar except that the shear
strain levels in the soil for the two conditions were different. The difference
23~
!50
12
490
490
230
23~
0 ~c~~~
50
~
~
230
50
85o
85o
'b I I
150
230
(a)
Figure 13.1.
558
CASE HISTORIES
559
Soil Data
of Motor pulley
In situ tests consisting of block vibration, cyclic plate load, and standard
penetration tests were conducted at the site (Prakash and Puri, 1984). The
block vibration and cyclic plate load tests were conducted at a depth of
4.0 m below ground level. The standard penetration tests were conducted up
to a depth of 14.0 m below ground level. A detailed discussion about the test
data and its interpretation is given in Example 4.9.3 (Chapter 4) and is not
repeated here. The variation of dynamic shear modulus vs. shear strain at
the base of the foundation at a depth of 2.4 m is shown in Fig. 4.47, plot C.
The value of G in Fig. 4.47 corresponds to a mean effective confining
pressure 170 of 1.0 kg/ cm 2
Observations
Figure 13.1.
(Continued).
Machine
Operating speed
= 405 rpm
Weight of compressor and motor= 11.0 t
Horizontal unbalanced force
=0
Vertical unbalanced force, P,
= 0.205 t
Horizontal moment, M,
= 0.185 t m
Vertical moment, Mx
= 2.2 t m
Permissible vibration amplitude= 0.025 mm
(peak-to-peak)
Foundation
Area A =7.103m 2
Weight W = 49.79 t
Depth D = 2.4 m
The response of the foundation was computed for the two conditions of
investigations as defined earlier.
Postdesign. This analysis was conducted as though the foundation were
being designed for the first time to ensure vibration amplitudes smaller than
their permissible values. The size of the foundation is shown in Fig. 13.1,
and dynamic soil properties were obtained from Fig. 4.47, plot C, as
follows:
2924; 1285 =
. mm
2104 5
"':
. ..
.
0.0125
10-6
. = 5.94 X
Shear stram amphtude, 'Yo=
2104 5
6
From Fig. 4.47, plot C, the value of G at 'Yo= 5.94 X 10- and (j0 =
1.0 kg/ cm 2 is 1050 kg/ cm 2 The mean effective confining pressure at a depth
equal to one-half of the width of the foundation is 0.593 kg/cm 2 The value
of G for associated shear strain levels and confining pressure is given by
(4.15)
560
CASE HISTORIES
The value of G thus computed is 808.5 kg/ cm 2 The value of C" is then
computed as
C = 1.13 X 2G 1
(4.29)
"
(1- v) v'A
4. Mass ratio B,
The value of C" = 10.25 kg/em' for area of the compressor (v = 0.33).
5. Damping ratio
1- v m
4 pro
B=----,
z
561
(6.17)
B, = 1.190
~'
0.425
~.
= VB;
~'
= 0.3899
(6.22)
A =0.0031mm
..::.;.:.:t;
Sliding Vibrations
7. Spring stiffness
32(1- v)Gr0 ,
7 -8v
k, = 59890.1 tim
Vertical Vibration
(6.26)
1. Equivalent radius r0
(6.58a)
Wny =
r 0 = 1.5036 m
wny
2. Spring stiffness
4Gr
k = - -0
z
l-v
{,
(6.30)
= 108.62/sec
fuy
= 17.2 Hz
7-8v
m
-,32(1-v) pr 0,
9. Mass ratio B,
(6.18)
k, = 72711.4 t/m
'
(6.25)
BY= 1.4513
3. Vertical natural frequency
10. Damping ratio in sliding, y
(6.20)
wn, = 119.69/sec
fn = 19.05 Hz
g,=
~y
0.285
VB;
= 0.239
(6.28)
562
CASE HISTORIES
563
Rocking Vibrations
w~ 1 = 43678.4/sec'
"'nt
fnt = 33.26 Hz
=(41)114
71"
roq,
l=3.93m
= 208.9/sec
roq, = 1.4956 m
MY
AY =
8Gr~"'
= 3(""1---v7)
7
k"'
(6.34a) '
"'""' =
A;
V(w~y)
+ (2/;x Wny) 2
(6.55a)
Mm!J.(w) 2
(6.55b)
in which
fiF-
(6.37)
mO
(6.56)
B
=
<I
3(1- v) _1_
8
5
pr O<l
(6.32)
Ay = 0.0071 mm
A 1 = 3.47 x 10- 5 rad
s. = 3.293
Ah=A;=A,+hA
0.15
15.
t;<l = (1 + B
)Vl'f;,
(6.36)
= 0.0192
A;= 0.1091 mm
18. Maximum vertical amplitude
Wny
(6.130a)
'"''A; = 0.06156 mm
+ Wnq.,) w 2 +
'}'
A;
A v =A*=
A z + (a/2)A <t>
z
(6.130b)
wnyWnq,
w~ 2 = 4740.5/sec 2
'Y
(6.54a)
Torsional Vibrations
roo~= (21,/71")114
fnz = 10.96 Hz
r,, = 1.606 m
(6.58c)
564
CASE HISTORIES
565
Quantity
Frequency
or
Amplitude
Postdesign
Yo ~ 5.94 X 10- 6
Postmonitoring
y0 ~ 1.49 X 10-'
Free
Vibrations
Y, ~ 1 X 10- 6
1
2
3
4
5
6
fnz Hz
!,,Hz
!,, Hz
f, 1 Hz
f, 2 Hz
f,. Hz
,
{7<;"
Wn.p
\jM
""
S. No.
(6.41a)
m'
Mmz
5
P'o.p
( 6.38)
s. = 3.4388
23. Damping ratio ~.
7
8
9
10
11
12
Azmm
AYmm
A, rad
A;mm
A;mm
A rad
19.05
17.28
11.51
33.26
10.96
24.30
0.0031
0.0071
3.47 x w-'
0.1091
O.QU6
1.5 x '10- 6
13.43
12.18
8.12
23.65
7.05
17.12
58.07
13.01
0.00686
0.523
2.42 X 10- 4
0.785
0.3031
2.396 X 10-'
(6.42)
=
0.0635
The shear strain level of Yo~ 10- 6 corresponds to the free vibration condition. These values of computed natural frequency are shown in Table 13.1,
column 5.
The amplitudes of the horizontal and vertical vibrations computed by
using the elastic half-space method for the post design-type investigation
(Table 13.1, column 3) are 0.1091 and 0.06156mm, respectively. These
amplitudes are several times greater than the permissible peak to peak
amplitude of 0.025 mm. For the post monitoring-type investigation, the
values of the computed horizontal and vertical amplitudes (Table 13.1,
column 4) are 0.785 and 0.303 mm, which are also more than the permissible
amplitudes. A computation based upon the realistic values of the soil springs
at the design stage would have indicated an unsatisfactory performance for
the machine. This would have resulted in an effort to redesign the foundation before the machine was installed to avoid later interruptions.
It must , however ~be noted that the shear strain with computed values .of
amplitudes are different than the values with which the natural frequenctes
and amplitudes have been computed. In actual design of machine foundations another trail may be performed.
Linear Spring Theory
The foundation response was also calculated by using the linear spring
theory and the same cases as for the computation with Elastic Half-Space
566
CASE HISTORIES
567
2 )
4 - (wny
+ (J)nrb
1'
wn
Vertical Vibrations
w2
wny(J)n<P =
'Y
(6.112)
!2 = 2775/ sec 2
w" 2 = 52.68/sec
w"'
~C:nA
fu 2 = 8.38Hz
w:,
(6.63a)
m(wn,- w )
28709.8/sec
fu 1 = 26.90 Hz
fu, = 19.06 Hz
Az
(6.64b)
2
2
Ll.(w 2) = m;I~(w:,- w )(w! 2 - w )
Ll.(w 2) = 9.734 X 10 8
(6.127)
(6.122)
A y =0.1333mm
A,= 0.00322mm
_ C,A-mw M
A1 Ll.(w2)
x
Wny
~C:nA
(6.66a)
A= A;= A, +hA.;
wuy = 84.68/sec
fuy = 13.74 Hz
A,= 0.0787 mm
mO
C<l = 2C"
/=3.93m 4
Mmo = 20.603 t m/sec 2
fu<l
= 9.95 Hz
(6.130b)
A*=
0.1998mm
y
C,= 112C"
Wu<P=&
(6.128)
(6.130a)
Torsional Vibrations
(6.74c)
_ ~c.I,
Wn.p-
c.=0.75C"
wu.p = 102.309/sec
fn; = 16.28 Hz
(6.81a)
5&8
CASE HISTORIES
type investigation, the values of the horizontal and vertical amplitudes are
(6.83)
m' Wn1>- W )
. The values of the computed response are tabulated in Table 13.2, column
Free
or
Amplitude
Postdesign
'Yo = 5.94 X 10- 6
Postmoni to ring
'Yo - 1.49 X 10-'
1
2
3
4
5
6
fnz Hz
fny Hz
fn Hz
fnl Hz
fnzHZ
fn Hz
19.06
13.74
9.95
26.90
8.38
16.28
13.48
9.53
7.05
19.07
5.93
11.53
7
8
9
10
11
12
A .. mm
AYmm
0.0032
0.133
6.16 X 10- 5
0.1998
0.0787
6
2.78 x
0.0075
0.340
1.049 x w-
0.4552
0.135
6
7x
S. No.
A<~>
rad
A;mm
A;mm
A rad
w-
5&9
0.4552 mm and 0.135 mm, respectively. These values are more than the
A M,
1>-M(z
w-
Vibrations
'Yo
1 X 10- 6
13.2
General
"5.,-:.;t-
The performance of a 1. 55 t forging hammer is reviewed here. Its foundation was designed by Prakash and Gupta (1970), who based their calculations on the machine data supplied by the manufacturer and the soil
data obtained by in situ tests (Prakash et al., 1966). Earlier the supplier had
suggested a foundation. size that, according to the soil conditions at the site,
was found to be inadequate. A new foundation was therefore designed,
taking into account the soil conditions and permissible amplitudes of
vibrations. The amplitude response of this foundation was monitored under
working conditions. The natural frequency of the foundation was also
computed from recorded observations. These details are briefly discussed
below along with the calculations for the design and the computed and
observed responses.
The hammer had the following specifications:
36.77
105
= 1150kg
Tup weight without die
Maximum weight of top die = 400 kg
Maximum falling weight W = 1550 kg
= 900 mm
Maximum tup str~fe h
Supply steam pressure p
= 6-8 atm
Cylinder diameter (internal)= 410 mm
Anvil block weight without
die holder
= 22.5 tons
Anvil weight including
hammer frame
= 34:5 tons
2
Base area of anvil over pad = 2.00 x 1.20 = 2.4 m
570
CASE HISTORIES
Silty clay, CL
N value at 1.5 m
571
20
2.7 m
Sandy silt, SP- SM
N value at 3 m = 14
Soil Data
The following tests (Prakash et al., 1966) were conducted to determine the
properties of the soil at site: (1) boring and sampling, (2) standard penetration tests, (3) cyclic plate load tests, and (4) dynamic tests. A site plan
showing the locations where the various tests were performed is given in
Fig. 13.2.
The soil was angered to a depth of 6.75 m below the surface. Standard
penetration tests were conducted every time there was a change in ihe
strata. A log of the auger test is shown in Fig. 13.3. Based upon an
evaluation of the data, the following values for the soil parameters were
adopted for the design: Allowable bearing capacity of 31.2 tim 2 and the
corrected value coefficient of elastic uniform compression C" for a 10m 2
area was 6.10 x 103 tim 3.
3.15 m
Silty sand, SM
N value at 3.6 m = 14
4.5 m
Medium to coarse sand, SW
N value at 4.8 m
= 14
4.95 m
Sandy,$ilt, SP
N value at 5.4 m
15
6.0 m
Medium to coarse sand, SW
N value at 6.6 m = 15
6.75 m
1.5m
Cyclic plate
load test
9'" t
N
The size of the foundation adopted for analysis is shown in Figs. 13.4. The
computations for the estimated response are given below:
1. Data Assumed for Design:
3.4 m
0.6~0
Auger
l~'~;:_
To
5 25
o.375 m r---3 m
.lmL__0_._37_5_m
_test
_ __ J
Dynamic
r---4.425
Figure 13.2.
~r load
1.5 m
1.5 m
m---1
573
Expansion joint
filled with asphalt
Anvil
Floor level
Timber pad 400 mm
Foundation block
r- l" ;~ +'r_~-" -~=" -:-= ~;" g " _" _" _ " _z _z ':i_~ ~:lz=1zz4oo-1=,!,
22
fT
il
T
+2430
~-~-~--- 2100--___..;1-1--1
100
500 300
300 500
14oo,-'"f,
r-------------6500---------~--+1
X
X
Longitudinal section
1,1
level
EA 2
(7.1)
k2
Wnt2= m2
1400~
w~ 1 , = 8.57
100
r------------5700--------~~
..
Transverse section
(b)
Figure 13.4.
section.
572
fn 1,
30 X 10
=
3.5
X
(2.99b)
2
10 /sec
46.6 Hz
The limiting natural frequency of the entire system resting on the soil
wnll'
The area of the foundation in contact with the soil was 37.05 m , which is
2
3
3
larger than 10m 2 Therefore, Cn = 6.1 X 10 t/m for a 10m area was
selected for the design.
Limiting natural frequency of the anvil and foundation system on soil wn 11
574
CASE HISTORIES
(2.99a)
5m
k 1 = C"A
(4.27)
k 1 = 22.6 x 10 4 tim
W~ 11 = 1.0203 X 10 /sec
4
fnll
EJ
1
S75
\---5.7
OPunching
press
4.57 m
2
!(A Observation
16.07 Hz
m--J
\U locations
!L =
m,!m
=
1
0.1875
Figure 13.5.
(7.5b)
(2.98)
fn2
15.90 Hz
Wn 1
322.18/ sec
fn1
51.27 Hz
VTi=11y2g
(W+pA)
W
n h
(7.7)
V, =
1+e
-1-V:T.
+s '
0.497 m/sec
z =A=
1
'
(7.1la)
,
The behavior of the foundation was carefully observed after it was installed.
There were no undesirable vibrations transmitted from the foundation to the
adjoining area as a result of the hammer's operation. The vibratory response
of the foundation was monitored under normal operating conditions. Acceleration transducers were used to sense the vibrations, and their output
was amplified through universal amplifiers and recorded by oscillographs.
Records of vibrations were obtained for the anvil and the foundation as well
as for the surrounding area at locations as shown in Fig. 13.5. A typical
record obtained during the observations is shown in Fig. 13.6.
Displacement of the anvil and the foundation was obtained by integrating
the recorded acceleration time history records twice. The values of the
computed and observed vibration amplitudes (Prakash and Gupta, 1970) are
compared in Table 13.3.
~:..
'
2
2
2 )( 2
( wntz-wnz
wntz-wn
'('
A,=0.956mm
)V
a
(7.5a)
A,=0.844mm
Amplitude of vibration of the anvil A n
577
CASE HISTORIES
576
Foundation block
Computed
Observed
0.956
0.844
1.08
0.423
The computed values of the amplitude of vibration of the anvil and the
observed value under normal operating conditions are of the same order of
magnitude. The amplitude of vibration of the foundation block was computed to be 0.844 mm, whereas its observed value was 0.423 mm. The
computed amplitude of the foundation block is thus greater than the
observed value (Table 13.3). This was to be expected, because the damping
had not been accounted for in computing the amplitude of the foundation.
The design of the foundation in this case was adequate, and the foundation's
performance has since been satisfactory, thereby implying the adequacy of
the design for this case.
13.3
FINAL COMMENTS
REFERENCES
Guha, S. K. (1984). Vibration studies of block type foundations. Proc. Int. Conf. Case Hist.
Geotech. Eng., St. Louis, MO. Vol. 3, 1!47-1!54.
Kumar, K., Prakash, S., Dalal, M. K., and Bhandari, R. K. M. (1985). Dynamic analysis and
performance of compressor foundations. Proc. Symp. Vib. Probl. Geotech. Eng., Am. Soc.
Civ. Eng., Annu. Conv., Detroit, 286-300.
Madshus, C. F., Nadim, A., Engen, and Lerstol, A. M. (1985). Low tuned compressor
foundations on soft clay. Proc. Symp. Vib. Probl. Geotech. Eng., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng.,
Annu. Conv., Detroit, 117-136.
REFERENCES
4)
"Final
report
on
Dynamic
Analysis and Settlement
(198
K
Prakash S an d K umar
" 1 28
Inv~sti~ations of Foundations for Air Compressor (~ffsite) at BRPL, Bongatgaon, -
Central Building Res. lost., Roorkee, Roorkee, Indta.
.
.
y K (1981) Observed and predicted response of a machme foundatiOn.
Prakash, S. , an d Pun,
1 3 269 272
Proc. Int. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng., 9th, Stockholm, Vo , . ..
y K (1984) Behavior of compressor foundattons: Predtctlons and
P
d
Prakash, S., an
un,
MO VII
4 1705observations. Proc. Int. Conf. Case Hist. Geotech. Eng., St. Lows,
' 0
~. c .
d
,
S G
D c and Agarwal, S~ L. (1966). "Report on Beanng apactty an
A
1 d t
Yamunanagar"
Prakash, ., upta, .,
Dynamic Soil Constants for Forging J:Iammer of Jamna uto n us nes,
.
University of Roorkee, Roorkee, Indta.
.
d w d R D (1982). Foundations for auto shredders. Int. Conf. Soli
Rtchart, F. E., Jr., an
oo s, .
Dyn. Earthquake Eng., 1st, Southampton, Vol. 2, 811-824.
.
.
Wan X. K. ( 1984). A case study on decreasing vibrations of ~achme foundations and
;;ructures. Proc. Int. Conf. Case Hist. (}eotech. Eng., St. Louts, MO, Vol. 2, 787-792.
14
14.1
579
Concreting
The Construction of
Machine Foundations
580
Reinforcement
~ ...
0
0
~~
<D
~
"'
.,;
i:'
Q
t:
a'6
~~
J.
':!..
t.
""
_j
---
~-==]
00
"'
"\ ---,
"- ''\.___~
':1+g
t~<
""
~
,;.;
"'
..
~\
.,;
0
<D
lo= F==o~
0
0
"'
l-- L--_j
.,;
~c
0
0
~~~
:--.-..._
"'
!c
t;
:9 '0
~
>
t;
"0
'!i ~
-~ E
.:! -c:
=-=
>-..
""'c
t i.
~
.i i
'
~
:':I ~~
c .5
~
E
v <
.ec .<c
0
N
....~
"'"'
Concreting
N
D
----
.,;
"'
~
~~
The construction of a frame foundation involves the concreting of the
base slab, columns, and deck slab. The concrete mix should be blended to
ensure the strength required by the design. This can be done by following
the recommendations of ACI 301 (American Concrete Institute, 1975) or
other relevant building codes. In contrast to the construction. of block
foundations, flexural strength is a very important factor in the design of
frame foundations and should receive the utmost consideration.
,-f-.s0
1:
581
10 bars 12m~
6 Dowels
12-mm-diam.
0-mm-diam. bars\
100 mm ~/c
200m200
Opening
'.I /
300
~~
1-
~
v
'xfX
- t-300
583
cement
lb
1-300
1- 1-250
::----::
"'
IX'!>
I/ Vi'
150
'
[\
12-mm~iam. bars
200 mm c/c
~ 22~Im-diam. bars-
lJ
6500
(a)
12-mm diam.
200 mm c/c
200
1-H 200
mm~r.==rn=~F't;:=r=r=;=or=;=ililr==;r
10 bars 12
10-mm-diam. bars 100 mm
1-~~~
n~
Concreting the Columns and Deck Slab. Although the concreting of the
base slab, columns, and deck slab in a single continuous pour is desirable, it
is usually not possible from a practical standpoint. As a result, a construction joint is formed between the columns and the base slab. Details of a
typical construction joint formed between the columns and the base slab are
shown in Fig. 14.4. The concreting of the columns and the deck slab is then
completed in one pour with the necessary precautions being taken to ensure
the monolithjcity of the structur~.,J:Vhen the column heights are more than
6 m (20ft) concreting of the superstructure in one pour may not be feasible,
and it may be necessary to provide a second construction joint, but generally
such a joint is not recommended.
The provision of a construction joint in the top part of a column near the
deck will aid in the construction and reduce the height of the pour, thereby
reducing the chances of the concrete becoming segregated. A construction
joint is a weak plane from the standpoint of shear strength, and in
1-
c/c
4 bars 12 mm diam.
2'mm c/c
300
t- 250
~
d.
Main column
reinforcement
v
?Dowels
20-mm diam.
200 mm c/c
Dowels 12-mm diam. (spacing)
~-
p.---
iY
i------------5700--------4
-column
vshear key
L'
"
(b)
Figure 14.2. (a) Reinforcement details for a hammer foundation: (a) longitudinal section; (b)
cross section. (After Prakash and Gupta, 1970.)
Base slab
lJ
Figure 14.4. Typical details of a base
for clarity).
582
~c-
u._
slab~column
584
To base slab
(a)
I
I
I
"'
30
"
r
B
u:
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
v J_
v
v
/
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
'
(b)
585
Frame column
30
-16 mm
10
mm Stirrups
4-16 mm
Reinforcement in Columns and Deck Slab. The amount of reinforcement for columns and a deck slab is determined by the structural design.
The ties and stirrups should be designed to satisfy the requirements of the
building codes or ACI 318 (American Concrete Institute, 1983).
The minimum diameter of the longitudinal steel for beams should be
selected so that the spacing of bars does not exceed 150 mm ( 6 in). The
minimum amount of shear reinfor~~>ment in the beams and deck slab should
be as per ACI 318 (American Concrete Institute, 1983) requirements. The
steel reinforcement in the columns should be determined from structural
requirements. The minimum number of reinforcement bars in columns shall
be four when rectangular or circular ties are used and six when spirals are
used. The minimum cover of concrete over the reinforcement bars should be
50 mm (2 in) on all sides for columns and pedestals and 40 mm (1.5 in) for
beams. The vertical reinforcing bars in the columns should have adequate
embedment in the base slab to ensure their full strength in bond. A
schematic of the reinforcement for the components of a turbogenerator
frame is shown in Fig. 14. 7.
Figure 14.5. Details of a typical construction joint in frame columns: (a) frame column; (b)
section of column with reinforcement; (c) plan of joint.
Dowel bars
/(/\
Shear stirrups
v
I--
Shear
key
/-
Trans verse
ba<S
Base slab
!'- Longitudinal
bars
Figure 14.6. Typical reinforcement details for base slab of a frame foundation.
586
587
r--b--+-b---1
I
II
IaI
lei
(b)
,--+-0
X--- -
'
---x
I
(a)
~I
Foundation
Anchor bolts
(b)
(d)
Figure 14;7.
Figure
(e)
Typical reinforcement in members of a frame foundation: (a) and (b) for cross
beam; (c) longitudinal beam with cantilever projection; (d) column; (e) becim column joint.
The machine, base plate, and other equipment that have precise tolerance
for alignment cannot be placed directly on the finished concrete surface. The
irregularities on the concrete surface and the machine base cause alignment
problems.
After the concrete is set, steps are initiated to install a machine on the
foundation. The machine is fixed to the foundation with the help of a base
plate and anchor bolts. The concreting of the foundation is terminated at the
level of the base plate, and the gap is filled later with mortar after the base
plate is leveled. The thickness of the grout below the base plate varies from
20 to 50 mm (0. 75 to 2 in) depending upon the size of the base plate. The
base plate is fixed to the foundation by anchor bolts. The anchor bolts are
kept in position before concreting with the help of a template (Fig. 14.8),
which is removed after the concrete is set. Alternatively, by using suitable
form work, pockets may be left in the concrete at the predetermined
positions of the anchor bolts. In this case, the bolt holes are filled with
mortar after placing the base plate and aligning the bolts. Holes for the bolts
should not be too large. A 150 mm x 150 mm (6 in x 6 in) hole is generally
14:a.
adequate. The minimum clearance between the bolt holes and the edge of
the foundation should not be less than 80 mm (3 in), as shown in Fig. 14.9.
The length of the bolts is usually decided with regard to the bond and should
be 40 times the diameter of the bolts. In case it is not possible to provide for
the full length of the anchor bolts, an arrangement of the anchor bolts
similar to that shown in Fig. 14.10 should be used. The position of the
anchor bolts should invariably be fixed with reference to the axis of the
machine.
After the base plate has been leveled, the space under it should be
grouted. The grout used should be nonshrinking type and should provide
complete contact with the top surface of the concrete foundation and
I
I I
1-><
I I
I I
I I
I I
rJ L
I
L __
80
~ !
1
J2000mm
I I
U
H+3oo+H
mm
200mm
Figure 14.9.
the edge.
588
589
'I
Split
14.4
half
w=~
Section at YY
Piece of rod
welded to split ends
L[jbJ
II 11
II II
Plan at XX
14.5
...:,
corner
14.6
590
591
Machine
Supported Type
Heavy Mass above the Springs Is Required. A heavy mass above the
springs is required in cases where the operation of the machine induces large
unbalanced forces at higher harmonics of operating frequency. The heavy
mass is provided hy placing another concrete block above the springs, as
shown in Fig. 14.13. The principal stages of constructing such a foundation
Machine
Upper plate
lower plate
_Springs
are as follows:
1. The base slab construction is similar to the previous case. Anchors for
holding the lower plates of the absorbers are fixed in position before the slab.
is cast.
2. When the concrete is set, the top surlace of the base slab is covered
with tar paper to prevent direct contact with the upper foundation block,
which is subsequently cast over it. (Fig. 14.13).
3. The lower plates of the spring absorbers are fixed at predetermined
locations.
4. A rigid metal frame consisting of rolled steel sections is installed over
the lower absorber plates.
5. The form work for the upper foundation is then constructed, and the
foundation is cast. The beams of the metal frame are also set into the lower
part of the foundatiol'K block. Depending upon the arrangement of the
absorbers and type of frame used, cavities may be needed in the lower part
of the upper foundation block to provide access for the springs.
6. The springs are placed in position after the concrete in the upper block
is set. The tops of the springs are covered by plates, which are bolted to the
beams.
Figure 14.12. Supported-type spring absorber system with machine attached to metal frame.
592
The spring assembly shown in Figure 10.4b can be set directly between
the lower slab and the upper foundation block. In such a case, the upper
block is cast over the spring casing, which is kept in position. The spring is
kept compressed during construction, but is loosened afterward so that the
weight of the upper foundation block and machine is transferred to the
springs.
Appendixes
Suspended Type
2. When the concrete has hardened, two or three layers of tar paper are
placed on the foundation slab (Fig. 10.4) and on that part where the slabs of
the absorber are to be placed.
3. A prefabricated frame of rolled steel beams is installed above the
foundation slab. The projecting sills of this frame serve as a support for the
anchor plates of regulating bolts of the absorber.
4. When the form work for the upper part of the foundation is laid,
cavities are left for each absorber. The concrete is then cast.
5. When the concrete is set, the absorbers are mounted. The springs are
placed on the lower slab of the absorbers and are covered by upper
supporting slabs, which are bolted to the girders.
6. The foundation is leveled by adjusting the regulating bolts of the
springs.
In the preceding sections of this chapter the authors have tried to project
the salient features which need special attention during construction of a
machine foundation. However this discussion is by no means comprehensive
so far as total construction is concerned. The reader must, however follow
accepted construction/installation procedures as per relevant codes of practice in a particular country.
REFERENCES
American Concrete Institute (1975). "Specifications for Structural Concrete for Buildings,"
ACI Comm. 301. ACI, Detroit, MichigaJl.
American Concrete Institute (1983). "Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete," ACI Comm. 318-83. ACI, Detroit, Michigan.
Major, A. (1980). "Dynamics in Civil Engineering: Analysis and Design," Vol. 2.
593
APPENDIX
.......................................................................
Case l=vertical vibrations along Z axis occasioned by a force Pz
Case 2=torsional vibrations about Z axis occasioned by a moment Mz
Case3=translation along X axis and rotation about Y axis, occasioned by
a horizontal force Px and a moment My
Case 4=translation along Y axis and rotation about X axis, occasioned by
0 0.
595
596
APPENDIX 1
597
IMPLICIT REAL(A-Z)
INTEGER I
CHARACTER'! Q,Y,TITLE(120)
CHARACTER'14 FILEOP
DATA CASE1,CASE2,CASE3,CASE4/0.,0.,0.,0.I
DATA
& NO PI ,NOP2 ,NOP3 ,NOP4 ,NOPS ,NOP6,NOP7 ,NOPB/0, ,0, ,0. ,0. ,0. ,0. ,0. ,0.1
DATA YI'Y'i
WRITE(',')'IIP 0/P-DATAFILE NAME'
READ(',915)FILEOP
915 FORMAT(A14)
OPEN( 2,FILE = FILEOP, STATUS= 'NEW')
WRITE(',')'IIP PROBLEM TITLE(I)'
READ(',6669) (TITLE(I),I=1,120)
WRITE(2,6668) (TITLE(I),I=1,120)
6668 FORMAT( lOX, 'TITLE=' ,120AI,I,I,I,72(''),11)
6669 FORMAT(120Al)
WRITE(',') 'DO YOU WANT CASE !(TRANSLATION -Z)?'
READ(',914)Q
914 FORMAT(Al)
IF(Q.EQ.Y) CASEI=l.O
WRITE(',') 'DO YOU WANT CASE 2(TORSIONAL -Z)?'
READ(',914)Q
IF(Q.EQ.Y) CASE2=1.
WRITE(',') 'DO YOU WANT CASE 3(TRANSLATION -X,ROTATION -Y)?'
READ(',914)Q
IF(Q.EQ.Y) CASE3=1
WRITE(',')' DO YOU WANT CASE 4(TRANSLATION -Y,ROTATION -X)?'
READ(',914)Q
IF(Q.EQ.Y) CASE4=1.
c
IF(CASEl.EQ.l)THEN
WRITE(',*)'***********CASEl'***********'
598
APPENDIX 1
C ******TYPE* ******
WRITE(2,1!44)
1144 FORMAT(ISX,IS(''), 'INPUT VARIABLES:',IS('''),/72('''),///)
WRITE(',')'I/P A'
READ(',')A
WRITE(',')'l/P W'
READ(',')W
WRITE(2,11SS) A,W
!ISS FORMAT(
!IX, 'AREA OF THE FOUNDATION,
A=',F10.4.,1X,'m2.',1/,
21X, 'WRIGHT of THE FOUNDATION',!,
31X, '(-including weight of the machine), W=' ,F10.4,1X, 't.' ,I)
NU=' ,F!0.3/)
C ******TYPE2******
IF(CASE4.EQ.l.O)THEN
WRITE(',')'I/P IX'
READ(',')IX
WRITE(',')'I/P MX'
READ(',' )MX
WRITE(',')'I/P MMX'
READ(',' )MMX
WRITE(',')'I/P PY'
READ(',' )PY
WRITE(',')'I/P LY'
READ(',') LY
WRITE(2,1!66) IX,MX,MMX,PY,LY
1166 FORMAT(
11X, 'MOMENT OF INERTIA,
21X, 'UNBALANCED MOMENT,
WRITE(',')'I/P GAMMA'
READ(',' )GAMMA
WRITE(',')'I/P G'
READ(',')G
WRITE(',')'!/P N'
READ(',')N
WRITE(',')'I/P QPA'
READ(',') QPA
WRITE(2,1112) GAMMA,G,N,QPA
1112 FORMAT(
!IX, 'UNIT WRIGHT OF THE SOIL,
2!X, 'DYNAMIC SHEAR MODULUS,
3!X, 'OPERATING SPEED OF MACHINE,
41X, 'ALLOWABLE SOIL PRESSURE,
IF(CASE4.EQ.!.O.OR.CASE3.EQ.!.O) THEN
WRITE(',')'I/P L'
READ(',')L
WRITE(',')'I/P HH'
READ(',') HH
WRITE(2,1!77) L,HH
117 7 FORMAT(
L=' ,F10.4, lX, 'm.' ,1 I,
!IX, 'HEIGHT OF THE CENTER OF GRAVITY,
h='
,F10.4,tX, 'm.' ,I)
21X, 'HEIGHT OF THE TOP OF THE FOUNDATION,
END IF
C ******TYPE3******
G=',F10.2,1X,'t/m2.',1/,
N= I ,FlO. 2, lX; 'RPM'' I I'
C ******TYPEl******
IF(CASEI.EQ.!.O.OR.CASE3.EQ.l.O.OR.CASE4.EQ.!.O)THEN
WRITE(',')'I/P NU'
READ(',')NU
WRITE(2,19SS) NU
!9SS FORMAT(
IF(CASE3.EQ.!.O)THEN
WRITE(',')'I/P IY'
READ(',')IY
WRITE(',')'I/P MY'
READ(',')MY
WRITE(',')'Il'P MMY'
READ(',')MMY
WRITE(',')'I/P PX'
READ(',') PX
WRITE(',')'I/P LX'
READ(',') LX
WRITE(2,1!88) IY,MY,MMY,PX,LX
1100 FORMAT(
IY=' ,FI0.4,1X, 'm4.' ,II,
!IX, 'MOMENT OF INERTIA,
MY=',F10.4,1X,'t-m.',l/,
21X, 'UNBALANCED MOMENT,
31X, 'POLAR MASS MOMENT OF INERTIA, MMY=' ,F10.4, lX, 't-m.sec2', I
599
APPENDIX 1
'
'
'
' '
C ******TYPE4******
IF (CASE2.EQ.l.O)THEN
WRITE(',')'I/P IZ'
READ(',')IZ
WRITE(',')'I/P MZ'
READ(',')MZ
WRITE(',')'I/P MMZ'
READ(',' )MMZ
WRITE(',')'I/P R'
READ(',') R
WRITE(2, 1100) IZ ,MZ,MMZ,R
1100 FORMAT(
l!X, ,'MOMENT OF INERTIA,
IZ =,
' FlO 4,IX, ' m4. ' ,11,
2!X, , UNBALANCED MOMENT,
MZ=' , FlO 4, !X , 't- m. ' , 11 ,
3
!X,,POLAR MASS MOMENT OF INERTIA
MMZ=' ,F!0.4,1X, 't-m.sec2',/
41X, MAX. HORIZONTAL DISTANCE(TORSION) R=' F!0.4 !X 'm ' f)
END IF
C******TYPES******
'
'
'
'
. '
IF (CASE!.EQ.!.O)THEN
WRITE(',')'I/P PZ'
READ(',')PZ
WRITE(2,!11!) PZ
1111 FORMAT(
!!X, 'UNBALANCED FORCE, PZ=' ,F10.4,1X, 't. ',I)
END IF
-cc..................................................................... ..
. ........ , .. , .. CASE ONE, .. , .. , .. , ..
C .. ....... TRANSLATION ALONG ZAXIS . . ........ , . " .......... ,.,,., .. '.
C ......... NOPT=! UNDAMPED AMPLITUDE
C ......... NOPT=2
DAMPED AMPLITUDE
GA=9.8!
ZZ=3.14!592654
IF(CASE!.EQ.O) GO TO 124
ROZ=SQRT(A/ZZ)
KZ=4.'G'ROZ/(1.-NU)
OMGNZ=SQRT(KZ'GA/W)
FNZ=OMGNZ/(2'ZZ)
OMEGA=2'ZZ'N/60.
BZ=(l.-NU)'W/(4.'(ROZ''3)'GAMMA)
ZETAZ=0.425/SQRT(BZ)
IF(NOP!.EQ.O) GO TO 123
AA=PZ/(KZ'(l.-(OMEGA/OMGNZ)''2))
AZ=AA'!OOO.
WRITE(2,!3) ROZ,KZ,OMGNZ,FNZ,AZ
13 FORMAT(I!J,20X, '***********UNDAMPED VERTICAL CASE**********'/ ; 1
15X, 'EQUIVALENT RADIUS,
ROZ=' FlO 3 !X 11
' '
'
. '
' m. '
'
601
BZ=',F!0,3,1,1
75X:'VERTICAL AMPLITUDE,
c...................................................................... .
C ............. , .. CASE TWO .............................. ,,,, ........... ,
C ....... ,,, .. TORSIONAL VIBRA~J,Q!i ABOUT ZAXIS
C .......... NOPT=3
UNDAMPED:AMPLITUDE
C ........... NOPT=4
DAMPED AMPLITUDE
124 IF(CASE2.EQ.O) GO TO 126
ROSI=(2'IZ/ZZ)''0.25
KSI=(!6.'G'ROSI''3.)/3,
OMEGA=2'ZZ'N/60.
OMGNSI=SQRT(KSI/MMZ)
FNSI=OMGNSI/(2'ZZ)
IF(NOP3.EQ.O) GO TO 125
ASI=MZ/(KSI'(l.-(OMEGA/OMGNSI)''2.))
WRITE(2,15) ROSI,KSI,OMGNSI,FNSI,ASI
15 FORMAT(///,20X, '***********UNDAMPED TORSIONAL CASE***********',!,
ll,i5X,'EQUIVALENT RADIUS,
2 5X,'EQUIVALENT SPRING,
3 SX, 'NATURAL FREQUENCY,
4/ /5X,'
5 5X, 'TORSIONAL AMPLITUDE,
125 IF(NOP4.EQ.O) GO TO 126
BSI=MMZ'GA/(GAMMA'ROSI''S)
ZETASI=O.S/(1.+2.'BSI)
ROSI=',F!0.3,1X,'m.',i/
KSI=',F!5.5,1X,'tim',//
OMGNSI=' ,F!0.3,1X, 'RAD/S',
FNSI=' ,F!0.3,1X, 'HZ.' ,II
ASI=' ,F!5.9, 'rad.' ,Ill)
ASID=MZ/(KSI'S~T((l,-(OMEGA/OMGNSI)''2)''2
+ (2.'ZETASI'OMEGA/OMGNSI)''2.))
WRITE(2,!6) ROSI,BSI,KSI,ZETASI,OMGNSI,FNSI,ASID
16 FORMAT(///,20X, '***********DAMPED TORSIONAL CASE**********' ,1,1,
sx
FNSI=',F10.3,1X, 'HZ.',!,!
602
APPENDIX 1.
C , , , ............. CASE THREE .... ,,, ... ,,, .......... , ... ,,., .. , ...... , .. .
C ... , , ..... TRANSLATION ALONG X-AXIS and ROTATION ABOUT Y-AXIS
C ........ NOPT=S UNDAMPED AMPLITUDE
C .......... NOPT=6 DAMPED AMPLITUDE
126 IF(CASE3.EQ.O) GO TO 131
ROX=SQRT(AIZZ)
ROPHIY=(IY'41ZZ)''0.25
MMOY=MMY+((WIGA)'L''2)
BPHIY=(3.'(1.-NU)'MMOY'GA)I(8'GAMMA'ROPHIY''5)
RIY=MMYIMMOY
KX=32'(1-NU)'G'ROXI(7-8'NU)
KPHIY=(8'G'ROPHIY''3)1(3'(1-NU))
OMGNX=SQRT(KX'GAIW)
ONPHIY=SQRT(KPHIYIMMOY)
W3=SQRT( ( (OMGNX' '2+0NPHIY' '2) IRIY)' '2) I RIY)' '2, -4, ' ( OMGNX' '2)'
(ONPHIY''2,)/RIY)
W6=(0MGNX''2+0NPHIY''2)1RIY
X7=(W6+W3)12.
X8=(W6-W3)12.
ONI=SQRT(X7)
ON2=SQRT(X8)
FNI=ONII(2'ZZ)
FN2=0N21(2'ZZ)
OMEGA=2'ZZ'NI60.
IF(NOPS.EQ.O) GO TO 127
Y5=(0MEGA''4-(0MEGA''2)'((0NPHIY''2+0MGNX''2)1RIY)+OMGNX''2'0NPHIY
1"21RIY)
DELTA=YS
M=WIGA
PINA=(PX'L'OMGNX''21DELTA'MMY)
MURA=(PXIM'MMY)'(-MMY'OMEGA''2+KPHIY+L''2'KX)IDELTA
AO=(MYIMMY)'(OMGNX''21DELTA)+MURA
AX=AO'!OOO,
APHII=(MYIMMY)'((OMGNX''2-0MEGA''2)1DELTA)+PINA
WRITE(2,17) ROX,ROPHIY,BPHIY,KX,KPHIY,OMGNX,ONPHIY,ON!,FN!,ON2,FN2
I ,AX,APHI!
17 FORMAT(II,ISX, '''''''''''UNDAMPED SLIDING AND ROCKING CASE''''''
1 * ', 11 ,35X, ' ... . x-z PLANE ..... ', 11,
BPHIY=',FI0.3,11,
KX=',FI5.5,!X,'tlm',ll,
65X,'
KPHIY=',FlS.),lX,'t/m',l/,
@SX,'
FNl=',Fl0.3,1X,'HZ.',I/,
:JFX,
ON2=',F10.3,1X, 'RADIS',I!,
$5X,'
%5X, 'SLIDING AMPLITUDE,
&SX, 'ROCKING AMPLITUDE,
FN2=',Fl0.3,1X,'HZ.',II,
AX=',F15.9,1X, 'mm.,ll,
APHI=' ,F15.9,1X, 'rad',!!l/11)
603
3 SX '
ROPHIY=', FlO. 3, IX, m. , II
4 SX,' 'MASS RATIO,
BX=,' ,F10.3, I I
5 SX 'INERTIA RATIO
BPHIY= ,FI0.3,11
'
' II
KX= I ,Fl5,5,1X, I t I m,
6 SX' 'EQUIVALENT SPRING
'
7 SX ' '
RPHIY= I ,F15.5,1X, I t I m' , II
'
8 SX,' 'DAMPING FACTOR,
ZETAX=,,F10.3,11
9 SX 'DAMPING FACTOR,
ZETAPHIY= ,F10.3,11
* si. 'NATURAL FREQUENCYOMGNX=',FI0.3,1X, 'RADIS',II
$ SX ', UNDAMPED
ONPHIY=' ,F10.3,1X, 'RADIS' ,I I
@ SX 'COUPLED NATURAL FREQUENCY- ON!=' ,FI0.3,1X, 'RADIS' ,II
1 SX ',
UNDAMPED
FNI=',F10.3,1X, 'RADIS',II
~ sx',
,&
sx'
ON2=',F10.3,1X,'RAD/S',fl
FN2=',Fl0.3,1X,'HZ.',I/
AXD=',F15.9,1X,mm.' ,II
APHID=' ,FIS, 9, IX,' rad.', I I I I I)
bU4
APPENDIX 1
OMGNY=SQRT(KY'GAIW)
ONPHIX=SQRT(KPHIXIMMOX)
X3=((0NPHIX''2+0MGNY''2)/RIX)''2
X4=((4.'(0MGNY''2)'(0NPHIX''))IRIX)
X5=SQRT(X3-X4)
X6=(0MGNY''2+0NPHIX''2)/RIX
X7=(0.5)'(X6+XS)
XS=(0.5)'(X6-X5)
ONI=SQRT(X7)
ON2=SQRT(XS)
FNI=ONI/(2'ZZ)
FN2=0N21(2'ZZ)
OMEGA=2'ZZ'NI60,
IF(NOP7.EQ.O) GO TO 427
Y4=(0MEGA''4-0MEGA''2'
(ONPHIX''2+0MGNY''2)/RIXtOMGNY''2'0NPHIX''2/RIX)
DELTA=Y4
M=WIGA
ATA=(PYIM'MMX)'(-MMX'OMEGA''2+KPHIX+L''2'KY)IDELTA
ATAV=PY'L'OMGNY''21(MMX'DELTA)
AQ=(MXIMMX)'(OMGNY''21DELTA)+ATA
AY=AQ'IOOO
APHI2=(MXIMMX)'((OMGNY''2-0MEGA''2)/DELTA)+ATAV
2 SX,'EQUIVALENT RADIUS,
'
'
'
6 5X, 'EQUIVALENT SPRING,
7
sx '
II
, ,
t/m ,I I
8 5X>NATURAL FREQUENCY
KPHIX:>F15.3,1X, 'tim' ,II
9 5X '
'
OMGNY- ,FI0.3,1X, 'RADIS' II
ONPHIX=' FlO 3 IX 'RA ''
'
@ 5X,'COUPLED NATURAL FREQUENCY
ON!=',FI0'3'Jx''RADDIISS',I/
* sx,
$ SX,'
% SX '
& sx:'SLIDING AMPLITUDE,
'
I '
'
'
'
FN1=,,F10.3,1X,'HZ.',II
II
ZIPHIX=O.l51((1.tBPHIX)'SQRT(BPHIX))
~~=i~~~~::~~~~~:;:
2;U)IIR+OIMXG-NY4.:~ 2IPHIX'ZETAY'OMGNY'ONPHIXIRIX
_
*
*ONPHIX**2/RIX)**2
BY=' ,FI0.3,11
BPHIX=' ,FI0.3,11
KY=' ,F15.5,1X, 'tim' ,II
7 SX,'
KPHIX:::',FlS.S,lX,'t!m',/1
'
ROY=',FI0.3,1X,'m.',ll
ROPHIX=', FlO. 3, IX, 'm. ',II
3 SX,'
605
M=WIGA
SUK=(PY'L/MMX)'OMGNY'(OMGNY''2+4'ZETAY'OMEGA''2)''0.5
SU=(PYIM'MMX)'((-MMX'OMEGA''2+KPHIX+L''2'KY)''2+4'0MEGA''2'(ZIPHIX
l'SQRT(KPHIX'MMXO)+L''2'ZETAY'SQRT(KY'M))''2)''0.5/DELTE
AQD=(MX/MMX)'(SQRT(OMGNY''4+(4'ZETAY''2'0MGNY''2))1DELTE)+SU
AYD=AQD'IOOO.
APHIDE=(MX/MMX)'(SQRT((OMGNY''2-0MEGA''2)''2+(2'ZETAY'OMGNY'OMEGA)
1''2) IDELTE)+SUK
WRITE( 2, 58) ROY,ROPHIX,BY ,BPHIX,KY ,KPHIX,ZETAY ,ZIPHIX,OMGNY,
I
ONPHIX,ON!,FNI,ON2,FN2,AYD,APHIDE
58 FORMAT('l' ,20X, '***********DAMPED SLIDING AND ROCKING CASE******
~~;~i~:~~~I~OY,ROPHIX,BPHIX,KY,KPHIX,OMGNY,ONPHIX,ONI,FNI,ON 2 ,
2
! SX,'
UNDAMPED
+ 5X,'
& 5X,'
% 5X,'SLIDING AMPLITUDE,
+ SX,'ROCKING AMPLITUDE,
428 CONTINUE
431 CONTINUE
FNl=',Fl0.3,'HZ.',//
c .................................................................... ..
WRITE(2, 7901)
7901 FORMAT( Ill, 72('' '),I, 72('' '),Ill)
IF(NOP2.EQ.l.O.OR.NOP4.EQ.J.O.OR.NOP6.EQ.l.O.OR.NOP8.EQ.l.O)THEN
C ...................... TOTAL DAMPED AMPLITUDE ......................... ..
C MAX HORIZONTAL AMPLITUDE DUE TO TORSIONAL VIBRATION
AHSID=ASID'R'IOOO.
C MAX.'VERTICAL AMPLITUDE DUE TO PZ and (PXtMY)
AVDI=AZD+LX'APHIDI'IOOO.
C MAX VERTICAL AMPLITUDE DUE TO PZ and (PY+MX)
AVD2=AZD+LY' APHID!l":1000.
C MAX HORIZONTAL AMPLITUDE DUE TO COMBINED ACTION OF PX AND MY
AMDI=AXD +APHID I 'HH'IOOO.
C MAX HORIZONTAL AMPLITUDE DUE TO COMBINED ACTION OF PY AND MX
AHD2=AYD+APHIDE'HH'IOOO.
WRITE(2,2234) ASID,AHSID,AVDI,AVD2,AHDI,AHD2
2234 FORMAT(20X, '**********TOTAL DAMPED AMPLITUDE**********' ,II,
606
APPENDIX 1
IF
Input Variables
Area of the foundation
IF (NOPI.EQ.I.O.OR.NOP3.EQ.I.O.OR.NOP5.EQ.I.O.OR.NOP7.EQ.I.O) THEN
c ...................................................................... .
C ..... , .... , , ........ TOTAL UNDAMPED AMPLITUDE, . , .. , ..... , ....... , .. , ... .
C MAX HORIZONTAL DUE TO TORSIONAL VIBRATION
AHSI=ASI'R
C MAX VERTICAL DUE TO PZ and PX+MY
AVI=AZ+APHII'LX'IOOO,
C MAX VERTICAL AMPLITUDE DUE TO PZ and PY+MX
AV2=AZ+APHI2'LY'IOOO.
C MAX HORIZONTAL AMPLITUDE DUE TO COMBINED ACTION OF PX and MY
AHI=AX+APHII'HH'IOOO.
C MAX HORIZONTAL AMPLITUDE DUE TO COMBINED ACTION OF PY AND MX
AH2=AY+APHI2'HH'IOOO.
WRITE(2,2567) ASI,AHSI,AVI,AV2,AHI,AH2
2567 FORMAT(20X, '*'*'*"'"'**"'TOTAL UNDAMPED AMPLITUDE****"**"**',!/,
QP=W/A
IF(QPA.LE.QP) GO TO 4455
WRITE(2,4445) QP,QPA
4445 FORMAT(68(''),ii,
I
5X,' SOIL PRESSURE, QP='FI0,4,1X, 'tim2. 'IX, 'and SMALLER THAN
2', I ,5X, 'THE ALLOWABLE SOIL PRESSURE QPA=' ,FI0.4, IX, 'tim2. ',I I ,68( '3 '))
GO TO 1477
4455 WRITE(2,4466) QP,QPA
4466 FORMAT(68(''),/i,
5X, 'SOIL PRESSURE,QP=' ,FI0.4,1X, 't/m2. ',IX, 'and MORE THAN',
I
25X,
'THE
ALLOWABLE SOIL PRESSURE QPA=',FI0.4,1X, 'tim2. ',11,68(''))
1477 STOP
END
12.0000m'
A=
37.1000t
1.6500 tim'
G= 5000.00 tim'
N= 600.00 rpm
QPA= 20.00t/m2
v=
0.330
0. 2000 t
P=
'
W=
y=
r,,=
1. 954m
0.504
k'=58340, 60000 tim
,:=
0.598
Equivalent radius
Mass ratio
B=
Equivalent spring
Damping factor
Natural frequency(undamped)
w11 z=
f,=
Vertical amplitude
Max.
Max.
Max.
Max.
Max
19.768Hz
O.Q03573769mm
A=
'
Total Damped Amplitude
.
. de
=O.OOOOOOOOOrad
torslonal
amplltu
00
horizontal amplitude (torsional)
=0.0000000 mm
.
. d (P p +M)
=0.003573769mm
vertlcal amphtu e '' x ' )
-0 003573769mm
vertical amplit~de (P,,P,+Mxd M)
ooooooooomm
'"y
=a
=O.OOOOOOOOOmm
Sol'1 pressure, QP-3
- 0917 tim' and smaller than
2
the allowable soil pressure QPA=20.000 0 t 1m
Input Variables
Area of the foundation
Weight- of the foundation
.
(including weight of :he machlne)
Unit weight of the s~ll
Dynamic shear modulifil .
Operating speed of mach1ne
Allowable soil pressure
Poisson's ratio
Unbalanced moment
Polar mass moment of inertia
Unbalanced force,
A=
12.0000m'
38.5000t
1. 6500 tlm3
G=6000.00t/m2
N= 450.00 rpm
QPA= zo .. ootim'
v=
0.330
L=
0.9344m
h=
1.2156m
I=
!6.0000m'
y
M,=
0.5000tm
M.,=
4, 7051 t m/ sec'
Px=
O.OOOOt
W=
y
607
APPENDIX I
bUH
2.0000m
wn 1 :::
f,,=
w, 2=
f,=
Axi'
A.,=
Sliding amplitude
Rocking amplitude
Max.
Max.
Max.
Max.
Max.
Max.
167.811 rad/sec
250.295 rad/s
39.836Hz
106.839 radl sec
17 .004Hz
0.002466732 mm
0.000002198 rad
~
y
=0. 000000000 mm
hor1zontal amplitude (PY and Mx)
torsional amplitude
A=
W=
12 .oooom'
36.0000 t
!. 6500 t 1m3
Dynamic shear modulus
G= 6000.00 tl m'
Operating speed of machine
600.00 rpm
N=
Allowable soil pressure
20.00 tim'
QPA=
Moment of inertia
25.0000m4
J~=
Unbalanced moment
0.5000tm
M~=
Polar mass moment of inertia,
5.4434 tmlsec 2
Mm~=
Max. horizontal distance(torsion)
2.5000 m
R=
y=
Equivalent radius
Inertia ratio
Equivalent spring
Damping factor
Natural frequency(undamped)
Torsional amplitude
Max.
Max.
Max.
Max.
Max.
Max.
r,.=
1. 997 m
1.018
k,=254985. 30000 tim
t,=
0.165
w,,= 216.432radlsec
f,,=
34. 446Hz
A,= 0.000002130 rad
B,=
609
APPENDIX
Fig. 7.4.
Problem title
Option C=2.
610
611
CHARACTER'14 FILEIP,FILEOP
CHARACTER'! TITLE(30),YES,ASK
REAL Kl,K2,NU,MU
DATA YES/ 'Y' I
17 CONTINUE
WRITE(',')' I/P INPUT DATA FILE NAME'
READ(',987)FILEIP
987 FORMAT(A14)
WRITE(',')' I/P OUTPUT DATA FILE NAME'
READ(',987)FILEOP
OPEN(5,FILE=FILEIP)
OPEN(6,FILE=FILEOP,STATUS='NEW')
READ(5,l)(TITLE(I),I=1,30)
1 FORMAT(30Al)
READ(5,')Wl,W2,WO,Al,A2,B,H,AP,P,QA,QPA,C,PM,E,NU,ER,ETA,ZA,ZF
AG=9.81
PI=3,14
WRITE( 6, 361) (TITLE( I), I= 1, ~-0),
WRITE(6,36)Al,A2,AP,AG,B -- 361 FORMAT(/,/ ,lOX, 'THIS PROGRAM CALCULATES THE UNDAMPED NATURAL' ,I ,5~
1 'FREQUENCIES AND AMPLITUDES OF VIBRATION OF A HAMMER FOUNDATION.
' ,SO('-'), II, lOX, 'TITLE=' ,30Al, I, 10X,38( ' =' ) , II )
2,/
36 FORMAT(
20X 'THE INPUT QUANTITIES ARE .... :' ,11,2X, 'THE AREA
3 OF THE FOUNDA~ION BLOCK IN CONTACT WITH THE SOIL Al=' ,F10.3,1X, 'm
42. ',11,2X, 'THE AREA OF THE ANVIL IN CONTACT WITH,THE,ABSORBER P~D
5 A2=',F9.4,1X,'m2',1/,2X,'AREA OF PISTON,',43X, AP= ,F10.4,1X, m
62.', II, 2X, 'ACCELERATION ON DUE TO GRAVITY,', 25X, 'g=AG=', F9. 4, lX,'
7m.!sec2',1,1,2X, 'TOTAL THICKNESS OF THE ABSORBER PAD BELOW THE
ANVIL, I'
1
)
WRITE(6,77) E,ER,ETA,H
77 FORMAT(I,/,2X, 'YOUNG MODULUS OF THE PAD MATERIAL,' ,25X, 'E=' ,F10.2,
l,lX, 't/m2' ,//2X, 'COEFFICIENT OF ELASTIC RESTITUTION(suggested value
5) ' ' ' 'e=E-R=' ' F5 3 ' I ' I ' 2X ' EFFICIENCY OF THE DROP (Suggested value.
.,65),
'13X, 'ETA=' ,F5.3,1,1,2X, 'HEIGHT OF DROP OF THE TUP,' ,33X,
4 1 H= 1 ,F10.4,1X, m. 1 )
WRITE(6,9876) NU~P,QA,QPA,Wl,W2,WO
9876 FORMAT(I,/,2X, 'POISSONS RATIO OF THE SOIL,' ,31X, 'NU=' ,Fl0.4,/,1,2X
!,'STEAM OR AIR PRESSURE,',37X,'P=',F10.4,1X,'t/m2,',1,/,2X,
'ALLOWABLE
SOIL PRESSURE ',31X, 'qa=QA=' ,F10.4,1X, 't/m2' ,1!,2X, 'ALLOWABLE
STRESS IN THE' PAD BELOW THE ANVIL,' ,9X, 'qpa=QPA=' ,Fl0.4,1X, 't/m2.'
4 I I 2X 'WEIGHT OF THE FOUNDATION BLOCK,' ,27X, 'Wl=' ,F10.4, lX, 't. ',
'
'
'
'
I
I
I
5/,1,2X,'WEIGHT OF THE ANVIL,',38X,'W2=',Fl0.4,1X, t. ,//,2X, WEIGHT
612
APPENDIX 2
I '
WRITE(6,2110) ZA,ZF
2110 FORMAT(I,2X, 'PERMISSIBLE AMPLITUDE OF ANVIL VIBRATIONS, ',IBX, 'ZA=',
IFI0.4,1X, 'rom.' ,11,2X, 'PERMISSIBLE AMPLITUDE OF FOUNDATION VIBRATION
2S,', 13X, 'ZF=' ,F10.4, lX, 'mm. ',I)
IF(C.EQ.2) GO TO 611
WRITE(6,54) PM
54 FORMAT(2X, 'COEFFICIENT OF ELASTIC UNIFORM COMPR. OF THE SOIL CU=' ,F
110.4,1X,'tlm3',i;l,80('-'))
GO TO 939
611 WRITE(6,610) PM
610 FORMAT(2X, 'DYNAMIC SHEAR MODULUS OF THE SOIL, ',24X, 'g=',F9.4,1X,
I 'tim2', II ,80('-' ))
939 WRITE(6,901)
901 FORMAT(10X,' . THE RESULTS ARE ...... ',1,80('-'),1,)
c *"'"'"'"" * *" ************* * * ***************** * * * ************
C ...... CHECK FOR SOIL PRESSURE
Q=(W1tW2)/A1
* * * * *. * * * * *. * * * *. * * * * * * * * * *
*. ********
*
32 K2=(E/B)'A2
WRITE(6,3) K1,K2
613
"
614
APPENDIX 2
SURA=(02)"2
Zl=ABS( ( SURA-PINA)' (SURA-PIN) 'VA/ ( (PIN-PINA) SURA 'OMGN2))
Z2=ABS( (SURA-PIN) 'VA/ ( (PIN-PINA) '0MGN2))
c * *' ********* * * * * * ********** * ** * *.'' ********"' * *' * *' ******* ** * *' * *******
C...... COMPARISION OF AMPLITUDES OF MOTION WITH PERMISSIBLE VALUE
C WRITE(6, 74)
C 74 FORMAT(80(''))
C
IF(Zl.LE.ZF) GO TO 193
C WRITE(6,476)
C476 FORMAT(5X, '! .... ,THE AMPLITUDE OF THE FOUNDATION VIBRATION (Zl) IS
C IMORE',i,5X,'THAN THE PERMISSIBLE VALUE .... UNSAFE.',/,1)
C GO TO 194
C!93 WRITE(6,466)
C466 FORMAT(5X, '! .. THE AMPLITUDE OF THE FOUNDATION VIBRATION (Zl) IS
C !LESS' ,1,5X, 'THAN THE PERMISSIBLE VALUE ' ,1,1)
C194 CONTINUE
C IF(Z2.LE.ZA) GO TO 198
C WRITE(6,874)
C874 FORMAT(5X, '2 .... THE AMPLITUDE OF ANVIL VIBRATION (Z2) IS BIGGER
C !THAN' ,1,5X, 'THE PERMISSIBLE VALUE ... UNSAFE. ',1,1)
C GO TO 121
C198 WRITE(6,873)
C873 FORMAT(5X, '2 ... THE AMPLITUDE OF ANVIL VIBRATION (Z2) IS SMALLER
C !THAN' ,1,5X, 'THE PERMISSIBLE VALUE ... ' ,1,1)
Cl21 WRITE(6,75)
C 75 FORMAT(82(''))
WRITE(6,605) OMGNl,FNl,OMGN2,FN2
615
ZMI=IOOO. 'Zl
WRITE(6,88) ZMI
88 FORMAT( lOX,' AMPLITUDE OF THE FOUNDATION BLOCK Zl=',EI0.4,1X,'mm.'
I, I)
ZM2=1000. 'Z2
WRITE(6,111) ZM2
Ill FORMAT( lOX, 'AMPLITUDE OF THE ANVIL
I, I)
c ..................................................................... .
WRITE(6, 761)QP
761 FORMAT( lOX, 'THE COMPRESSIVE STRESS IN THE PAD BELOW THE ANVIL IS Q
IP=',F9.4,1X,'tim2',/i,80(''),//)
IF(Q.LE.QA) GO TO 107
WRITE(6,!2) Q,QA
12 FORMAT(3X, 'THE SOIL PRESSURE IS Q=' ,EI0.4,1X, 'tim2' ,2X, 'and IS
!MORE THAN' ,1,3X, 'THE ALLOWABLE SOIL PRESSURE
QA= ,ElO. 4, lX, 't/m2 ....
2.,,, .. UNSAFE!!!' ,II)
GO TO 533
107 WRITE(6,207) Q,QA
207 FORMAT(3X, 'THE SOIL PRESSURE IS Q=' ,EI0.4,1X, 't/m2.' ,2x, 'and ISLE
ISS THAN' ,1,3X, 'THE ALLOWABLE SOIL PRESSURE QA=' ,EI0.4,1X, 't/m2, ',
2'., .. , .SAFE!' ,II)
533 IF(ZMI.LE.ZF) GO TO 193
WRITE(6,476) ZMI,ZF
476 FORMAT(3X, 'AMPLITUDE OF THE FOUNDATION VIBRATION IS Zl=' ,EI0.4, 'mm
I.' ,1,3X, 'and IS MORE THAN THE PERMISSIBLE VALUE ZF=' ,EI0.4,1X, 'mm.
2..... UNSAFE!!!' ,I,/)
GO TO 194
193 WRITE(6,466) ZMI,ZF
466 FORMAT(3X, 'AMPLITUDE OF THE FOUNDATION VIBRATION IS Zl=',EI0.4, 'mm
I. ',1,3X, 'and IS LESS THAN THE PERMISSIBLE VALUE ZF=',EI0.4,1X, 'mm.
2.,,,, .SAFE!' ,II)"'
194 IF(ZMZ.LE.ZA) GO TO 198
WRITE(6,874) ZM2,ZA
874 FORMAT(3X, 'AMPLITUDE OF ANVIL VIBRATION IS Z2=' ,EI0.4,1X, 'mm. and
liS MORE THAN' ,1,3X, 'THE PERMISSIBLE VALUE ZA=' ,EI0.4,1X, 'mm .. , .UN
ZSAFE! ! ! ! ' ,II)
GO TO 121
198 WRITE(6,873) ZM2,ZA
616
APPENDIX 2
A,= 48.000m2
4.0000m'
0.1400m2
g=AG= 9.8100m/sec'
A,=
A,=
b=B= 0. 6000 m
Young modulus of the pad material
E=SOOOO.OO tim'
Coefficient of elastic restitution (suggested
value .5),
e=ER= 0.500
Efficiency of the drop (suggested value .65),
~ 0.650
Height of drop of the tup
H= 0.7500m
Poisson's ratio of the soil
v= 0.3300
Steam or air pressure
p= 70.0000 tim'
Allowable soil pressure
q,=QA= 25.0000 tim'
Allowable stress in the pad below the anvil, q,,=QPA= 400.0000 t/m 2
Weight of the foundation block
W,= 266.8800 t
Weight of the anvil
W,= 45.5000 t
617
2.0000t
1. 2000mm.
l.SOOOm
G= 4600.0000t/m2
r 0 =3.91m
k,=0.1074x 10 6 t/m
k,=O. 3333 x !0 6 tim
x 10 3 rad/sec
~=0.1705
V,=6.056m/sec
VA=0.382Sm/sec
q= 6.5079t/m2
w,,=
57.8632 rad/sec
f,= 9.2139Hz
Z,= 0.9954mm
Z2 = 1.044mm
q,=169.9560t/m2
A,= 37.050m2
618
APPENDIX 2
A,=
A=
p
g=AG=
2.4000m2
0.1320m2
9.8100misec 2
b=B= 0.4000m
E=50000.00 tim'
e=ER=
q= 5.8737tim
w01 =321. 7216 radisec
0. 650
0.9000m
v= 0.3300
P= 79.8800 tim 2
q,=QA= 31.2000 tim'
~=
H=
W1= 183.1200t
34.5000 t
W,=
I. 5500 t
Z,=
2. 0000 mm
Z,=
I. 2000 mm
Z2= 0. 9586 mm
'
kl=
0.6100x 10 4 tim3
0.6100X10 4 tim 2
0. 2260 x 10 6 tim
0.3000X 10 6 tim
0.1009 x 10 3 radi sec
- {t)nll =
0.2921x 10 3 radisec
Wn12=
k,=
~=
0.1884
impact
Velocity of the anvil immediately
after impact
Z1= 0.8465mm
= 99.8921 rad/sec
foundation
Equivalent soil spring,
= 51.2295Hz
f 02 = 15.9064 Hz
W,=
Gus=
[ 01
W112
0.500
619
VT=
7.630misec
VA=
0.492lmisec
""'
APPENDIX
621
The group action of piles is generally (1988) accounted for in the program
by using static interaction factors. The soil reactions on the sides of the pile
cap are also taken into consideration in evaluating the performance of the
pile group.
For further details, reference may be made to the users' manual (Novak
et al., 1981).
REFERENCES
Novak, M., and Aboul~Ella, F. (1978a). Impedance functions for piles embedded in layered
media. J. Eng. Mech. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 104 (EM-3), 643-661.
Novak, M., and Aboul-Ella, F. (1978b). Stiffness and damping of piles in layered media. Proc.
Earthquake Eng. Soil Dyn., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., Spec. Conf., Pasadena, CA, Vol. 11,
704-719.
Novak, M., and Howell, J. F. (1978). Dynamic response of pile foundations in torsion,
PILAY 2
Geotech. Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 104 (GT-5), 535-552.
Novak, M., and Sheta, M. (1980) Approximate approach to contact effects of piles. Proc. Dyn.
Response P;ile Found.: Anal. Aspea,..g-.J'i._.,A.m. Soc. Civ. Eng., Hollywood, FL, 53-79.
Novak, M., Nogami, T., and Aboul~Ella;<F. (1978). Dynamic soil reactions for plane strain
case. J. Eng. Mech. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 104 (EM~4), 953-959.
Novak, M., Aboul~Ella, F., and Sheta, M. (1981). "PILAY2-A Computer Program for
Calculation of Stiffness and Damping of Piles in Layered Media", Rep. No. SA CDA
81-10. University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.
STRUDL-11
(1)
in which [M] is the mass matrix of the system, [ CJ is the damping matrix,
[K] is the stiffness matrix, and F(t) is the time-dependent load function.
&22
APPENDIX 3
{x}, {x}, and {i} are the time-dependent displacement, velocity, and
acceleration vectors respectively.
The equation of motion (1) can be solved in two ways, by direct
integration or by modal analysis by transforming the system to a new
coordinate system to yield uncoupled linear equations. The results of modal
analysis yield eigen values and mode shapes. The response may then be
determined by modal superposition. The results of response analysis are the
dynamic displacements and forces. The dynamic loads can be specified in
the form of initial conditions,. time histories, or response spectra. An
approximate frequency analysis can be carried out by Rayleigh's method.
The soil effects can be modeled with equivalent springs. The results of static
and dynamic analysis may then be combined to obtain the design conditions.
REFERENCES
ICES STRUDL II (1979a). "Engineering Users' Manual," Vol. 1. Frame Analysis. School of
Civic Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
ICES STRUDL II (1979b). "Engineering Users' Manual," Vol. 2. Additional Design and
Analysis Facilities. School of Civil Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Cambridge, Massachusetts.
ADINA
ADINA is a finite element program for computing the static and dynamic
displacements and stresses induced in solids and structural systems. Both the
linear and nonlinear problems can be solved. ADINA provides the facility
of using a variety of element configurations such as two-dimensional plane
strain and plane stress elements, three-dimensional truss elements, threedime.nsional plane stress elements, three-dimensional solid elements and
isoparaffietric beam elements, etc.
The nonlinearity in behavior may be induced by large displacements,
large strains, and material property. Material model used may be linear
elastic, nonlinear elastic, elastoplastic, curve description model, etc.
The linear dynamic analysis can be used to determine the frequencies of
the system and the response is evaluated by using mode superposition
method or by direct time integration using the Newmark or Wilson method,
or central difference method.
The nonlinear analysis is performed by using an incremental approach.
The soil behavior can be represented using Drucker Prager-Cap model.
Tension cutoff may be provided if desired. The output can be asked at any
point.
Further details of this program may be obtained by referring to the users'
manuals.
&23
REFERENCES
ADINA (1984a). "Theory and Modelling Guide," Rep. No. AE 84-4. ADINA Engineering,
Inc., Watertown, Massachusetts.
ADINA (1984b). "Users Manual," Rep. AE 84-1. ADINA Engineering Inc., Watertown,
Massachusetts.
Bathe, K. J. (1982). "Finite Element Procedures in Engineering Analysis." Prentice~Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
APPENDIX
625
Shape of
the Element
Formula for
'
Computation of Moment
of Inertia
Mm,
Figure
Rectangular
block
rrFx
I
Th
~a~:_j
r ....._'
'--
--1-
/ ---,
y
'-----"
m(b'+h')
j?'
CG.
Circular
block
Im,
Mmy
X
~
12
m (a '
12
+ h' )
m (a '
12
m ed'
)
12 4 +h'
f-d~
m ed'
12 4+h
')
'"~:'
Shape of
the Area
Rectangle
Given Data
Formula for
Figure
I,
I,
ab'
ba'
12
12
ab(a'
+ b')
12
2.
3.
4.
5.
Required
Solution
Circle
Divide the concrete ~lock into three parts as shown in Fig. (A-4-1)
Mass m 1 ~ (ax 1 )(a, 1 )(a>~) I
g
Hollow
circle
.!:_
d')
64 (d'0
;
Mass m 2
m3
624
+ b' )
md'
8
626
APPENDIX 4
627
rnyl
(a) Elevation
Similarly
Mrnyz
Mrny3
+
Mm 4
mz
2
2
J2
(ax,+ a,,)
L)
X
(c) Plan
Figure A~4.1.
= Mmz1
= Mmzl
X= ax 1 12; Y = aY 1 /2,
and only
!m.z.
!m,
Z=L=--'-'
+ 2Mrny2 + Mrny4
M
mz1
628
APPENDIX 4
Similarly
2
M mz2 =Mmz3 -_m
12
ax2
APPENDIX
')
+ ay2
+ m,[ ( a, _ az 1 ) ' + ( a~ 2
_ mz
a~ 1 ) ' ]
-12 (ax,+ ay 2 )
2
+ m2 (ax22
ax1)'
2
Conversion Factors
To
To Convert from
and
Multiply by
Length
M m''-
-)'
-X
'"":';millimeters (mm)
meters (m)
meters (m)
inches (in)
inches (in)
feet (ft)
=0
25.4
0.0254
0.3048
Area
square
square
square
square
square
square
square
square
square
inches (in )
feet (ft')
yards (yd 2 )
miles (mile')
centimeters (cm 2 )
meters (m2 )
meters (m 2 )
2
meters (m )
kilometers (km')
6.4516
0.0929
0.8361
4047
2.59
Volume
Mass
pounds (lb)
tons (ton)
kilograms (kg)
kilograms (kg)
0.4536
907
Force
newtons (N)
newtons (N)
4.4482
9.8066
Pressure or Stress
0.0479
6.895
98.066
629
630
APPENDIX 5
Convers!on Factors
To Convert from
To
Multiply by
Notation
Liquid Measure
cubic meters (m 3 )
cubic meters (m 3 )
gallon (gal)
acre-feet (acre-ft)
0.0038
1,233
Quantity of Flow
gallons per second (gal/sec)
cubic feet per second (ft' I sec)
0.0038
0.0283
Mass Density
pounds per cubic feet (pcf)
0.0157
Definition
Symbol
AD
Aim
A
Mm
A,
A,
A,
A<
Ah
A;(r)
AP
Ar
A"
Ax
Ax!
A"'
A,
Azl' Az2
Au
A
A,
Unit
L'
L'
in Eq. (4.39)
L'
L'
L'
L'
L'
L
L'
L'
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
631
632
NOTATION
Symbol
Definition
maximum amplitude of vibrations in yawing
(torsional vibrations)
maximum amplitude of the embedded foundation
in torsional vibrations
A,1,Mm)(meemre) =dimensionless amplitude of
torsional vibration with quadratic excitation
length of foundation
one-half of the depth of the beam for a frame
without haunches
horizontal distance from Y axis of rotation
A,,
A,l,e
a.
a
Unit
C,
L
L
a,
at2 at3
aJ
a,
a,
a,
B
B,
B,
B
B
b
c
[C]
cr, cz
Cr, Cz
c"
c"'
c",
C,ot, C, 2
cxl'
cx2
cx1'
cx2
frequency factor
coefficients in the flexibility matrix
distance of jth mass from the mass center
dimension along x axis
dimension along y axis
dimension along z axis
Vertical acceleration
width of trench
width of foundation
modified mass ratio in sliding
modified mass ratio in vertical vibrations
inertia ratio in rocking vibrations
inertia ratio in torsional vibrations
width of foundation
mass ratio
thickness of pad
one-half of the column width for a frame without
haunches
numerical base shear coefficient
damping matrix
integration constants
frequency-dependent parameters of vertical
vibrations
frequency-independent parameters for vertical
vibrations
coefficient of elastic uniform compression
equivalent value of coefficient of elastic uniform
compression for an embedded footing
coefficient of elastic uniform compression for the
side layer
dimensionless parameters of half space
frequency-dependent parameters for horizontal
translation
frequency-independent parameters for horizontal
translation
c,,
c.,
c.
c<~>l' c.P2
c~l,
c,,
L
L
L
LT-'
L
L
c.
c>frl' co/12
c.,
c
cc
c,
I
cw
c~
c~
c,
c~
c;
FL _,
c;'
ex.
FL - 3
FL _,
and damping
c"ll' coJ>2
c</>2
c.,
c,,
Definition
Symbol
c,
c,"
L
633
NOTATION
c,.
c,
c'X
c.
c'
t
c.
pat~eters
Unit
FL-'
FL-'
FL - 3
FL - 3
FL _,
FL- 3
FL - 3
FL- 3
FL- 3
FL- 3
FL- 3
FL-'T
FL-'T
FL-'T
FL-'T
FL-'T
FL-'T
FL-'T
FL-'T
Fr 1
FL-'T
FL- 1 T
FL-'T
FLT
FLT
634
Symbol
c"
ct
c,
D
D~
d
dN!dt
E
E,
E"
Ep
E.
e
em
Fo
Ft, Fz
F'
F"
FA
FAX
FB
FT
Fr(A)
F,
Fol> Fa2
F"
Fd
Fp
F,
F,
Definition
635
NOTATION
NOTATION
Unit
Symbol
FLT
FLT
frequency functions
centrifugal fOrce in the direction of X
force in the direction of X
primary component of Fx
F'X
secondary component of Fx
F"X
unbalanced force in the x direction due to
Fxi
operation of ith cylinder
centrifugal force in the direction of z axis
F,
unbalanced force in the direction of z axis due to
Fzi
operation of ith cylinder
frequency (in Hz)
f
displacement functions for vertical vibrations
f, !2
natural frequency
f"
two natural frequencies of coupled rocking and
U"n)" (!",,),
sliding of an embedded footing
natural frequency in horizontal sliding
f"x
natural frequency of sliding vibrations of
fnxe
embedded found,at!on
natural frequency'' in vertical vibrations
f"x
natural frequency of vertical vibrations of
fnze
embedded foundation
natural frequency in pure rocking
f".
natural frequency of rocking vibrations of
fn<f>e
embedded foundation
natural frequency in yawing
f
natural frequency of torsional vibrations of
fmf'e
embedded foundation
torsional stiffness and damping parameters,
fn,rz
respectively
vertical
stiffness and damping of pile
fwl> fwz
horizontal (sliding) stiffness and damping
f~l' ~~2
parameters of a pinned head pile
cross stiffness and cross damping parameters
fx</>l' fx</>2
parametrs of a pinned head pile
rocking stiffness and damping parameters of a pile
f.,t.2
shear modulus of soil
G
shear modulus at limiting strain 'Yr
G,
shear modulus beyond the limiting strain 1',
G2
G*=G 1 +iG2 complex shear modulus of soil
real and imaginary parts of complex shear
Gt,z
modulus of soil
shear modulus of soil beneath the pile tip
G,
maximum value of shear modulus
Gmax
shear modulus of pile
Gp
shear modulus of the soil on the sides of the
G,
embedded footing
FLT
L
L
y-'
FL- 2
FL - 2
FL- 2
FL - 2
L
L
L
L
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F,
Fx
Definition
Unit
F
F
F
F
F
F
y-'
yyy-'
y-'
y-'
y-'
y-'
y-'
y-'
FL - 2
FL-'
FL- 2
FL- 2
FL-2
FL- 2
636
NOTATION
Symbol
g
H
Hz
Definition
Unit
LT-'
gravity
h,
h,
I
I,
I,
Ic
Ia
Ip
IR
I,
I,
I,
Vi
lo, lt
J,
K
[K]
K,
K,(w)
Kal> Ka2
K'
KW
k
k,
k,
L
L
T-'
L
L
L
L
L
L
L'
L'
FT
L'
L'
FL-'
L'
L'
L'
L'
Symbol
kequ
k,
kh<
kij
k"
kw
k~
k:
k'w
kx
k'
k{'
k;
kx
k~<l>
k,
k,
kt
k1
k,
k'
L'
kt
k.
L
r,
kilowatts
spring constant
spring constant of soil for hammer foundation
total vertical stiffness of both columns of a
FL _,
FL - I
637
NOTATION
l,
I,
Definition
transverse frame
equivalent spring of the pad below the anvil
equivalent spring
lateral stiffness of all frames (Eq. 8.19)
combined stiffness of all the frames in bending
stiffness coefficient
total vertical spring stiffness
stiffness of pile in vertical direction
stiffness constant of one pile in vertical direction
stiffness constant of pile cap in vertical direction
stiffness constant of pile group in vertical
direction
stiffness constant for translation along x axis
equivalent spring constant of the soil in horizontal
X direction
spring constant of single pile in translation
spring constant of pile cap in translation
stiffness constant of pile group in translation
cross coupled stiffness factor for coupled rocking
and sliding
cross spring stiffness of single pile
stiff constant for translation along y axis
spring constant in vertical vibrations
equivalent spring constant of the soil in vertical
direction
spring constant in rocking vibrations
spring constant of single pile in rocking
spring constant of pile cap in rocking
spring constant of pile group (piles only) in
rocking
complex stiffness of soil-pile system
torsional stiffness of footing stiffness constant of
one pile in torsion
distance of center of gravity of the system from
the base
length of the spring
length of trench
length of pile,
thl'&ness of soil layer
effective span
distance from centerline
length of connecting rod
any distance
center-to-center distance between adjacent
columns
clear distance between columns
Unit
FL
FL-'
FL _,
FL- 1
FL- 1
FL- 1
FL- 1
FL-'
FL- 1
FL-'
FL-'
FL_,
FL _,
FL
FL
FL
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
638
Symbol
I,
M
M= M 0 cos wt
Definition
excitation moment
mass matrix
M,
mass of eccentric [or 50% of crankshaft mass (see
Table 9.1)]
M 0 = meemrcw 2 amplitude of moment M for quadratic excitation
Ml
moment due to displacement of center of gravity
MA
total mass lumped at the crankpin
M'A
total mass lumped at the crankpin for cylinder i
M,,
moment of soil reaction at the sides due to C
M-.
moment of soil reaction at the sides due to c""s
ML
magnification factor
!/Is
MR
moment due to soil reaction
M
moment of the soil reaction at the base due to C
MW
megawatts
"'
M,l
equivalent mass of crank rod lumped at the
crankpin
M.,
mass of the connecting rod lumped at A
M,,
mass of crank rod lumped at piston head
MB
total mass lumped at piston head
mass of moving (crushing) jaw (see Table 9.1)
MBi
total mass lumped at the piston head for
cylinder i
M,
mass of the connecting rod lumped at B
M.
mass of connecting rod (Table 9.1)
mass of the crank acting at center of gravity
mass of the connecting rod
M"'
Md
total mass of counterweights (see Table 9.1)
M,
moment due to inertia force, torque
Mm
mass moment of inertia about an axis through the
center of gravity of the system
MmO
mass moment of inertia of the machine and
foundation about the horizontal axis passing
through the contact area of the base
Mmx
polar mass moment of inertia of the system
Mp
mass of piston, piston rod and crosshead
M,,
short-circuit moment
MStf!
moment of soil reaction at the sides due to C
Mw
moment due to displaced position of center
gravity of machine-foundation system
Mx
unbalanced moment about X 'axis
M'X
primary moment about X axis
NOTATION
NOTATION
Unit
Symbol
M~
M,
M,(t)
L
M'
M"'y
M,
M;
[M]
o't
M~
FL
FL -IT2
FL - 1 T 2
FL
FL
FL
FL
m,
ml
m,
m.
FL - 1 T 2
FL -ty2
FL-IT'
FL -tT2
m,
m,
N
FL -IT2
FL -tT2
FL - 1 T 2
FL - 1 T 2
FL - 1 T 2
FL
FLT'
NG
Nx(f)
N(z)
N,(t)
N(t)
N,(t)
n
FLT'
FLT'
FL - 1 T 2
OCR
FL
FL
FL
FL
P,
PA
639
Definition
secondary moment about X axis
unbalanced moment about Y axis
time-dependent applied moment inducing rocking
about Y axis
primary moment about Y axis
secondary moment about Y axis
unbalanced moment about Z axis
primary moment about Z axis
secondary moment about Z axis
mass of footing
mass of pile and static load on pile
rotating mass
mass of the main shaft including mass of crushing
cone [Eq. (9.2a)]
mass of foundation block
mass of pile per unit length
mass of camshaft, gears, and counterweights [Eq.
(9.2b)]
mass of anvil
mass of the cap plus machinery or portion of the
structure vibrating in phase with the cap
unbalanced rotating mass
eccentric mass
jth mass
dynamic factor
magnification factor
operating speed in rpm
speed
standard penetration value
normalized shear modulus increaSe with time
dynamic horizontal soil reaction at the base
axial force in the pile
dynamic vertical reaction along the sides
resisting moment due to soil reactio!l at the sides
moment of the resistiv~ force on the sides of the
foundation about z axis
degrees of freedom of a multidegree system
IlJ,l;mber of cycles
number of cylinders
number of vanes in the impeller
overconsolidation radio
concentrated load
load on pile
sum of loads due to machine, condenser, pipes,
and normal torque
vertical load
power transferred by coupling A
Unit
FL
FL
FL
FL
FL
FL
FL
FL
FL -IT- 2
FL -tT2
FL -IT 2
FL -IT- 2
T_,
F
FL
FL
F
F
F
F
KW
640
Definition
Symbol
PB
Pc
PI
P,
px
P,(t)
p
PP P2
p"
Pc
Q
Q,
footing
Ro
R,
Ri
R,
R,(t)
R,(t)
R,(t)
R,(t)
R<(t)
crank radius
horizontal distance
eccentricity
radius of gyration VM) m
radius of rotor in Eq. (8.5)
frequency ratio wlwn, flfn
r,
NOTATION
Unit
Symbol
KW
KW
641
r,
r,
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
FL _,
FL-'
FL -z
FL _,
FL_,
r1,2
r'
r,
fox'oy
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
sl, sz
sl> s2
sw1,w2
s"
sx1'
s<f>l> s<~>z
s<f>l' Sq, 2
sl/>1' s,,,z
sl/>1' s,,,z
sx2
sx1' sx2
L
F
F
F
r "'
r,_
r,.
F
F
FL _,
F
F
Unit
Definition
P,
P,
NOTATION
FL
s,
s(z, t)
elastic settlement
time~dependent soil reaction per unit length on
F
T
FL
FL
FL
FL
FL
T
FL
L
L
L
L
tiine period
torque
TA
TB
Tc
T"
Tc
T,(t)
transmissibility
r,
642
Symbol
T(t)
u
u
u
v
v,
v1
vl, v2
VR
Vn
v.
v,
v:
vc
vp
V,
v,
v
w
w,
w.
WL
WT
w.
we
wm
W,
w
w,
w1.2
ww
w(z)
w(x, t)
X
X,
Definition
time dependant soil reaction for torsional
vibrations
time
thickness of vibration absorbing pad
displacement amplitude of pile
displacement function
displacement in x direction
velocity in x direction
velocity
initial velocity
velocity of rebound of the tup
volume [in Eq. (10.6))
Rayleigh's wave velocity
initial velocity of the tup
velocity of the anvil
VG,Ip, =shear wave velocity of soil beneath pile
tip
longitudinal or compression wave velocity in
infinite medium
VEP/pP =longitudinal wave velocity in pile
shear wave velocity of pile
longitudinal wave propagation velocity in rod
shear wave velocity
\[GTjJ =shear wave velocity of soil adjacent to
pile
displacement in y direction
weight, total load, weight of machine minus the
moving crosshead
weight of the tup
weight of the transverse beam
load transferred by the longitudinal beams to the
columns
total weight of deck slab and machine
weight of anvil
weight of the two columns constituting a
transverse frame
weight of machine and bearing
rated capacity of turbogenerator unit in megawatts
vertical displacement
weight per unit length
amplitude of vertical vibration of footing
real and imaginary parts of displacement
displacement in Z direction
complex amplitude of pile vibration at depth z
complex pile displacement function at depth z
axis of X
distance of mass center from the end
horizontal soil reaction
NOTATION
NOTATION
Unit
Symbol
XC
xcj
T
L
L
X,
L
LT- 1
LT- 1
LT- 1
LT- 1
L'
LT- 1
LT- 1
LT- 1
LT- 1
LT- 1
LT- 1
LT- 1
Lr'
LT- 1
LT- 1
F
F
F
x,
xP
.i;p
ip
x,
y
Yo, Yt
Y,
Yo
Y,
{Z}
z,
z1
z,
z,
zc
z,
F
F
F
F
zmax
Z,
Z,
(Z,),
z
F
L
FL - t
i
{i)
ii
{ii)
IX
L
L
a,
at, O'z
643
Definition
distance of stiffness center from end
distance of centerline of frame j from the end
projection of all external forces acting on the
foundation on the x-axis
force in the direction x-axis
axis of x
horizontal displacement or distance
displacement at the base
displacement of the piston in the direction of x
axis
velocity of the piston in the direction of x axis
acceleration of the piston in the direction x axis
coordinate of pile
axis of Y
Bessel functions of the second kind of order 0
and 1, respectively
force in the direction of y axis
displacement ~~..:-:."maximum value of y
horizontal coordinates of pile
axis of Z,
maximum amplitude of simple
displacement vector
initial displacement
maximum amplitude of hammer foundation
maximum amplitude of the anvil or absorber,
amplitude
vertical soil reaction
height of center of gravity of pile cap above its
base
projection of external forces on the z axis
maximum amplitude
amplitude of frequency w, (see Fig. 4.41)
static deflection
static deflection of an elastic layer
displacement in vertical direction
displacement of simple harmonic motion
ve~~ity
veloCity vector
acceleration
acceleration vector
coefficient of attenuation
coefficient in Fig. 8.6
crank angle
1 + e'!r' [see Eq. (8.40)]
phase angle
correction factor
terms defined by Eqs. (!1.65) and (11.66)
Unit
L
L
F
F
L
L
L
LT- 1
F
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
F
L
F
L
L
L
L
LT- 1
LT-'
L-1
644
Symbol
ex.
ex.
exL
ex,,
ex,
{3
{3, {32
'Y
'Y,
y,
'Yxy
'Yn
'Y,,
y,
0
B
BL
5stat
a,,
a"
dE.
a,
a,
a,
dz1
dz 2
.6.z3
az,
A
AR
IL
A
Al,A2
Ao
A,
Definition
axial displacement interaction factor for a typical
reference pile in a group
phase angle, a= x, y, z, t/J, 1/J
lateral displacement 'interaction factor for a typical
reference pile in a group
horizontal seismic zone coefficient
crank angle for the ith cylinder
soil foundation factor
terms defined by Eqs. (11.67) and (11.68)
weight density or unit weight
Mm/ Mrno in Eq. ( 4.39)
unit weight of concrete
unit weight of soil
shear strain in the xy plane
shear strain in the xz plane
shear strain in yz plane.
shear strain
angle of twist
any angle
displacement
logarithmic decrement
loss angle [see Eq. (4.48b)]
static deflection
specific damping capacity for decaying vibrations
specific damping capacity for steady-state
vibrations
area enclosed under the hysteresis loop
change in thickness
change in volume
vertical deflection
vertical deflection due to concentrated load
vertical deflection due to distributed load
vertical deflection due to shear
vertical deflection due to axial compression in
column
Lammes' constant
wavelength
eigen value
wavelength of Rayleigh waves
coefficient of friction
m 2 1m 1 = W2 1W1
+ Ez
NOTATION
NOTATION
Unit
Symbol
645
Definition
1,2
Ex
e,
e,
,.,
v
g
FL-'
FL-'
gx
g,
g.
g,
p
p,
Pp
P,
0'
u,
<To
0'1
0'2
u,
L
O'p
L'
O'x
L
L
L
L
u,
0',
T
L
FL- 2
L
T-2
"'
"'</>,,
w
w.
lt)n1
Wnd
w.,
lt)n2
Unit
FL _,T 2
FL _,T2
FL -4T2
FL _,T 2
FL- 4 T 2
FL- 2
FL- 2
FL - 2
FL - 2
FL- 2
FL-2
FL-2
FL- 2
FL - 2
FL- 2
FL- 2
T
FL- 2
T-1
T-1
T-1
T-1
T-1
646
Symbol
wnh
wnll' wn/2
(wnll)e, (wnl2)e
NOTATION
Definition
Unit
Author Index
"'1' o/2
%
"''
"''''
I.P,,,I
647
Day, S.M., 439, 491
Demello, V.B.F., 145, 183
Dietrich, R.J., 124, 187, 188
Dobry, R., 236, 303, 488, 489, 491, 550, 552
Doebelin, E.O., 138, 184
Dolling, H.J., 414, 436
Dominguez, J., 439, 491
Drnevich, V.P., 118, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127,
131, 132, 149, 155, 156, 179, 180, 184,
205, 211
Drweyer, R., 363, 374
Dutko, P., 180, 185
Dyvik, R., 181, 184
Ebisch, R., 400, 409, 436
Ehlerchritof, O.M., 302, 303
El Hifnawy, L., 328, 329
Elorduy, J., 234, 303
El-Sharnouby, B., 511, 512, 518, 519, 541,
543, 544, 545, 546, 547, 548, 549, 552,
553
Engen, A., 576
Epstein, R.I., 491
Espana, C., 183, 184
Evans, J.C., 185
Ewing, W.M., 93
Firestone, Inc., 410, 437
Fletcher, G., 145, 184
Fry, Z.B., 139, 177, 183, 184, 438, 491, 552
Fugro, Inc., 113, 184
Funston, N.E., 302, 304
Gazetas, G., 236, 303, 482, 485, 488, 489,
491, 550, 552
Gle, D.R., 541; 543, 544, 552
Goodier, G.N., 78, 94
Griffith, A.H., 185
Grigg, R.F., 514, 541, 547, 553
Guha, S.K., 576
Gupta, B.N., 438, 491
Gupta, D.C., 491, 556, 569, 575, 577, 582,
592
Hadjian, A.A., 485, 491
Hall, J.R., Jr., 91, 94, 118, 124, '148, 150,
153, 184, 186, 205, 211, 215, 224, 225,
226,227,229,235,238,264,302,304,
305, 329, 497, 553
Hall, W.J., 304
Hansen, W.E., 186
Harder, L.F., 187
AUTHOR INDEX
649
AUTHOR INDEX
650
AUTHOR INDEX
Subject Index
Absorber, 44
installation o~, 589,590,591,592
pneumatic, 399, 404, 408
principle of, 48, 404
types: 404
supported, 405, 406, 589, 590, 591
suspended, 405, 406, 589, 592
Acceleration, 15
pickups, 44
Accelerometer, 43, 44
Active Isolation, 399, 413, 415, 425
ADINA, 363, 374, 622
Amplitude, 5, 13, 26, 29, 30, 39, 47, 48, 53
of foundation: 213
rocking, 233, 246, 257, 450, 454, 467,
468, 469, 474, 476
sliding (horizontal), 233, 243, 246, 248,
257, 267, 448, 454, 464, 468, 474, 476,
477
torsional, 229,248, 267, 457, 471, 473,
475
vertical, 224, 242, 246, 256, 266, 267,
313, 314, 322, 402, 403, 411, 412, 442,
462, 469, 472, 473
of frame:
~,
horizontal, 348, 356, 371
rotation, 356, 370
vertical, 346, 351, 352
reduction factor, 414, 415, 416, 418, 419,
420, 421
rotating maSs excitation, 313, 332
Analog:
Hall's, 224
Hsieh's, 220
Lysmer's, 221, 223
Analysis:
dynamic, 366
methods, see Methods of analysis
preliminary, 363
Anchor bolts, 586, 587, 588
Anvil, 306, 307, 308, 309, 310, 311
amplitude, 313, 322
Aperiodic motion, 12
Attenuation, see Damping
Auxiliary equipment, 330
Bandwidth method, 40
Barriers:
pile, 399,420,425
trench, 399, 414, 434
Base, slab, 330, 331
Beam:
longitudinal, 330
transverse, 330
Bilinear models, stress-strain curves, 128,
129, !30
Block foundation, mode of vibration, 213
Bulk modulus, 102, 103
Case history:
compressor foundation, 556
hammer foundation, 569
Chemical soil stabilization, 427
Coefficients:
of earth pressure at rest, 159
of elastic non-uniform compression, 121
of elastic non-uniform shear, 121
of elastic resistance of piles, 494
of elastic restitution, 316
651
652
Coefficients (Continued)
of elastic uniform compression, 121, 122,
142
of elastic uniform shear, 121, 143
of shear modulus increase, 111, 112
Comments, final, 93, 436, 547
Compliance, functions, 483, 485, 490
Compliance Impedance functions, 482
Computer programs:
ADINA, 363, 374, 622
for block foundations, 595
for hammer foundations, 610
PILAY II, 542, 543, 620
STRUDL II, 363, 374, 375, 621
Condenser, 330, 331, 333
loads, 332, 333
Confining pressure, mean, 84, 105
Constrained modulus, 79, 95, 102, 103
Construction of foundation:
block, 579
frame, 580
Construction joint, 579, 583, 584
Contact pressure, 216
parabolic, 216, 217
rigid base, 216, 217
uniform, 216, 217
Continuum approach for piles, 217
Conversion factors, 629
Coulomb damping, see Damping, Coulomb
Counterbalancing, 194, 195, 426
Counterweights, 194, 202, 381, 382
Criteria:
for design, see Design, criteria
for vibrations, 7
Critical damping, 21, 22
Crushers:
gyratory, 380
hammer, rotary, 380, 383, 384
jaw, 380, 381
primary and secondary, 383
Cycle, 12
Cyclicplate-load test, 144
Damper, vibration, 429, 430
Damping, 14, 20, 28, 38
coefficient of attenuation, 151
constant, geometrical, rigid circular
footing:
on elastic half space:
rocking, 227
sliding, 225
torsional, 228
vertical, 221, 223
SUBJECT INDEX
embedded in elastic. half space:
cross coupled, 453, 455, 473
rocking, 450, 453, 455, 473
sliding, 446, 448, 453, 455, 473
torsional, 457, 458
vertical, 442
Coulomb, 14
critical, 21, 22
equivalent viscous, 153
factor, 22, 264. See also Damping, ratio
factors affecting, 155, 156
geometrical, 151, 152, 219
material, 147, 179, 150
specific damping capacity, 150
viscous, 20, 24, 25, 40, 147
parameters, 519
ratio, 95, 153, 180
rigid geometrical circular footing:
on elastic half space:
rocking, 153, 228, 232
sliding, 153, 225, 232
torsional vibration, 153, 154, 229
vertical vibration, 153, 223
embedded in elastic half space:
rocking, 450
sliding, 448
torsional, 458, 459, 472
vertical, 442, 443, 472
hysteretic, 485
viscous, 14
Deck slab, 330, 331
Degree of freedom systems, 13
multi degree, 13, 50
single degree, 13
two degree, 44, 45
Degree of saturation, effect on soil modulus,
117
Design:
criteria, 4, 318, 339, 377, 379, 385
parameters for vertical vibrations of pile,
511, 512, 513
procedure:
embedded foundation, 471
foundations on absorbers, 410
hammer foundation, 319
pile foundation, 529
reciprocating machines, foundations for,
260
turbo generator foundation, 363
wave barriers:
pile barrier, passive isolation, 423
trench barrier, active isolation, 423
trench barrier, passive isolation, 423
SUBJECT INDEX
Dip angle, 92
Displacement:
functions, rigid circular footing on elastic
half space, 215, 216, 217, 219-222, 235,
441
pick up, 44
Drainage during shear, 97
Dynamic:
compliance, 482, 485
impedance, 482, 484, 485
real and imaginary, 484
Dynamic loads, see Forces, Unbalanced;
Unbalanced moments
Dynamic prestrain, effect on soil modulus,
118
Eccentricity, 201, 426, 427
Effective:
height, 344, 366
mass, 302
mass moment of inertia, 302
span, 344;,'"367
>\;,,--~1'
Elastic constants, 100
Elastic half space approach, 260, 264, 472,
488. See also Elastic half space method
Elastic half space method:
embedded:
coupled sliding and rocking, 451, 473
rocking, 448, 449
sliding, 443, 445, 447, 448
torsional, 456, 457, 458, 472
vertical, 440, 444, 472
rigid circular footing, vibrations of, 438,
439
surface: 214, 301
coupled sliding and rocking, 230
rocking, 225
sliding, 224
torsional, 228
vertical, 215
Elastic layer, rigid circular footing:
torsional oscillation, 239
vertical oscillation, 237
Embedded foundations, vibrations of:
coupled sliding and roiJRing, 451, 468, 473
rocking, 448, 449, 464, 465, 467
sliding, 443, 445, 447, 448, 462, 463
torsional, 456, 457, 458, 469, 470, 472
vertical, 440, 444, 459, 460, 461, 472
Equivalent radius, 234, 264, 321
Equivalent spring, 19, 312, 320, 342, 355,
370, 402
pad below anvil, 312
653
soil:
cross coupled, 453, 455, 473
rocking, 227, 246, 264, 450, 453, 455,
473
sliding, 121, 225, 242, 264, 448
soil pile system, see Pile stiffness
torsional, 228, 248, 264, 457, 458, 473
vertical, 121, 219, 241, 264, 312, 401,
411, 442, 443, 472
Fatigue factor, 394
Field methods, 135
crossMbore hole test, 135
cyclic plate test, 144
down-hole test, 136
free footing vibration test, 144
horizontal footing resonance test, 143
standard penetration test, 145, 178, 179
surface wave test, 137
up-hole test, 136
vertical footing resonance test, 140
Finite rcids, end conditions:
fixed-fixed, 73, 76
fixed-free, 72, 76
free-free, 70, 71, 76
Flexibility influence coefficient, 50, 52
Flexibility matrix, 52
Footing shape, effect on vibratory response,
234
Force:
due to impact,.205
primary and secondary, 194, 202
Forced vibrations, 13, 39
with viscous damping, 24, 25
Forces, unbalanced, 2, 29
jaw crushers, 382
multicylinder machines, 195
in reciprocating machines, 189
in rotary machines, 201
single cylinder machines, 190
Form of vibrations associated with coupled
rocking and sliding, 256
..
Foundations, embedded block, See
'Embedded foundations
Foundations:
for crushing mills, 380
for fans and blowers; 379
for impact machines, 306
for mills, grinding, 391
for mills, rolling, 386
for motor generators, 376
for presses, stamping, forging and impact,
392
b54
Foundations (Continued)
for pumps, centrifugal, 378
for reciprocating, 212
for rotary machines, high speed, 330
for rotary machines, low speed, 376
for tools, machine, 391
Frame foundation, 330, 331, 332, 363
combined horizontal and rotation, 352,
353
horizontal vibration, 347, 352, 358
vertical vibration, 342, 343, 349, 357
Free vibration Of spring mass, 16
with viscous damping, 20
Frequency, 12
circular, 15, 17
damped, 24, 259
Frequency dependent excitation, 29
Frequency determinant, 51, 53, 57
Frequency equation, 57, 232, 253, 312, 351,
355' 402, 468
Frequency ratio, 5, 14, 26, 27, 28, 31
dimensionless, 216,441, 456
Functions, compliance and impedance, 301,
482
Hammer:
counter blow, 306
. double acting, 306
drop, 3, 306
forging, 3
Harmonic motion, 14
Heat exchanger, 330
SUBJECT INDEX
Lame's constants, 78
Limiting amplitudes, 6
Linear elastic weightless spring approach,
260, 266, 474, 488. See also Linear
elastic weightless spring method
Linear elastic weightless spring method, 214,
240, 301
embedded foundations, vibrations of:
coupled rocking and sliding, 468, 476
rocking, 464, 465, 467
sliding, 462, 463
torsional, 469, 470, 475
vertical, 459, 460, 461, 475
surface footing, vibrations of:
coupled rocking and sliding, 251
rocking, 243
sliding, 242
torsional, 247
vertical, 240
Logarithmic decrement, 38, 148. See also
Damping
Longitudinal vibrations of rods, 63, 69
Machines on floors, 394
Magnification factor, 27, 32, 222, 226, 227,
238
Mass effective, 302
Mass ratio, 216, 217, 224, 226, 443
modified, 221, 224, 225, 264
Measures, remedial, 401, 406
Method, Rayleigh's, 35
Methods of analysis, 214, 307, 340
elastic half space, 214, 301, 439, 471
linear elastic weightless spring, 214, 240,
301, 439, 459, 471
Mode of vibration, 54
normal, 14, 70
principal, 14, 51
Modulus, see also Field methods; Laboratory
methods
secant, 101
shear, 74, 84, 95, 101, 102
complex, 15~, 523
tangent, 101
Young's, 63, 64, 95, 102
Moment of inertia:
of area, 247, 262, 263, 624
of mass, 262, 263, 625, 626, 627
of pile cross section, 518, 524
polar, 74, 263, 369
Multidegrees of freedom, 50
Natural frequency, 4, 12, 18, 19, 35, 49, 346,
348
655
SUBJECT INDEX
of foundations:
coupled rocking and sliding, 232, 251,
267,476
limiting, 313, 320, 367, 411
rocking, 228, 246, 450, 467, 476
torsional, 229, 248, 265, 370, 457, 471,
475
vertical, 242, 264, 266, 442, 461, 462,
475
Natural period, 17
Nonlinearity, effect on foundation effect, 302
Normalized shear modulus, 109
Normalized shear modulus increase, 111, 112
Normal mode:
method, 55
of vibration, 14, 70
Overview, 177, 301, 328, 488
Pads, absorber:
cork, 404, 406
neoprene, -404, 408
rubber, 404, 407
stresses in, 317, 322
timber, 404, 408
Particle motion:
longitudinal waves, 66
surface waves, 90
Particle velocity:
definition, 66
equation, 66
Passive isolation, 399, 414, 415, 423
Period, 12
natural, 17
Phase angle, 27, 29, 31,44
Pickup:
acceleration, 44
displacement, 44
PILAY 2, 542, 543, 620
Pile barriers, 420
isolation effectiveness, 420, 421
Pile cap:
damping, 515
stiffness, 515
Pile damping:
~
cross,-518
rotation, 518
torsion, 524
translation, 518
vertical, 508 .._
Pile stiffness:
cross, 518
parameters, 519
rotation, 518
''j,":.;f"
torsion, 524
translation, 518
vertical, 508
Piles:
coefficient of elastic resistance, 494
damping, 508
end bearing, 495
footing stiffness, 515, 524
friction, 497
interactiOn factors, 514, 521
lumped mass model, 499
pile groups, 514, 520
predicted response, 541
resonant frequency, 498
rocking, 517
stiffness parameters, 541, 512
torsion, 521
translation, 517
vertical stiffness, 508
vertical vibrations, 499, 502
Poisson's ratio, 78, 81, 95, 101
Principal modes of vibration, 14, 51
Radius of footing, equivalent, see Equivalent
radius
Ratio, impedance, 422
Rayleigh wave (R~wave), 85
wave length, 424
Rayleigh's method, 35, 36
Reciprocating machine, 2
Reinforcement, steel, 580, 581, 582, 583,
584, 585, 586
Resonance, 14
ResonantMcolumn test, 123, 149
hollow specimen, 126
Retrograde ellipse, 90
Rotary machine, 4
Scaled area, of trench, 419
Secant modulus, 101
Service factor, 6, 8
Shear modulus, 74, 84, 95, 101, 102, 104
cohesionless soils, 105, 106, 107
effect of prestrain, 118
factors affecting, 104
strain level, 107, 108, 109
time effects, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115,
116, 117
cohesionless soils, equations for 106, 107,
424
complex, 152, 523
Shear tests:
consolidated~undrained,
98
656
SUBJECT INDEX
Springs:
pneumatic, 409
rubber, 407
steel or metal, 404
Square pulse, 33
Static deflection, 18, 19, 26
Stiffness, cross coupled, 453
Stiffness coefficient, 50
Stiffness and damping parameters, embedded
foundations:
half space:
rocking, 449
sliding, 447
torsional, 448
vertical, 444
side layer:
rocking, 449
sliding, 447
torsional, 458
vertical, 444
Stiffness matrix, 50, 362
Stiffness method, 51
Surface footing, vibrations of co~pled
rocking and sliding, 230, 251
rocking, 225, 227, 243, 244
rocking, sliding, and vertical, 248
sliding, 224, 226, 242
torsional, 228, 229, 247
vertical, 213, 215, 218, 240, 241
Tangent modulus, 101
Test data, evaluation, 146
Torsional vibrations of rods, 74, 76
Transducer, acceleration, 140, 141
Transient loads, 31
Transmissibility, definition, 41
Triaxial compression test, 96
Tuning of foundation, high; low, 5
Tup,306, 307,309,310,311
Turbines, 330, 331, 332
Turbogenerator:
foundation, 331, 332
layout, 331
loads on foundation:
due to emergency condition, 332, 337