Tempering (metallurgy)

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Differentially tempered steel. The various colors produced indicate the temperature to which the steel was
heated. Light-straw indicates 204 C (399 F) and light blue indicates 337 C (639 F).[1][2]

Tempering is a process of heat treating, which is used to increase the toughness of ironbased alloys. Tempering is usually performed after hardening, to reduce some of the
excess hardness, and is done by heating the metal to some temperature below the critical
point for a certain period of time, then allowing it to cool in still air. The exact temperature
determines the amount of hardness removed, and depends on both the specific composition of
the alloy and on the desired properties in the finished product. For instance, very hard tools are
often tempered at low temperatures, while springs are tempered to much higher temperatures.
Contents
[hide]

1 Introduction

2 History

3 Terminology

4 Carbon steel
o

4.1 Quenched-steel

4.2 Normalized steel

4.3 Welded steel

4.4 Quench and self-temper

4.5 Blacksmithing

4.5.1 Tempering colors

4.5.2 Differential tempering

4.6 Interrupted quenching

4.6.1 Austempering

4.6.2 Martempering
4.7 Physical processes

4.7.1 Embrittlement

5 Alloy steels

6 Cast-iron
o

6.1 White tempering

6.2 Black tempering

7 Precipitation hardening alloys

8 See also

9 References

10 Further reading

11 External links

Introduction[edit]

Photomicrograph of martensite, a very hard microstructure formed when steel is quenched. Tempering
reduces the hardness in the martensite by transforming it into various forms of tempered martensite.

Tempering is a heat treatment technique applied to ferrous alloys, such as steel or cast iron, to
achieve greater toughness by decreasing the hardness of the alloy. The reduction in hardness is
usually accompanied by an increase in ductility, thereby decreasing the brittleness of the metal.
Tempering is usually performed after quenching, which is rapid cooling of the metal to put it in its
hardest state. Tempering is accomplished by controlled heating of the quenched work-piece to a
temperature below its "lowercritical temperature". This is also called the lower transformation
temperature or lower arrest (A1) temperature; the temperature at which the crystalline phases of
the alloy, called ferrite and cementite, begin combining to form a single-phase solid
solution referred to as austenite. Heating above this temperature is avoided, so as not to destroy
the very-hard, quenched microstructure, called martensite.[3]
Precise control of time and temperature during the tempering process is crucial to achieve the
desired balance of physical properties. Low tempering temperatures may only relieve some of
the internal stresses, decreasing brittleness while maintaining a majority of the hardness. Higher
tempering temperatures tend to produce a greater reduction in the hardness, sacrificing
some yield strength and tensile strength for an increase in elasticity and plasticity. However, in
some low alloy steels, containing other elements likechromium and molybdenum, tempering at
low temperatures may produce an increase in hardness, while at higher temperatures the
hardness will decrease. Many steels with high concentrations of these alloying elements behave
like precipitation hardening alloys, which produces the opposite effects under the conditions
found in quenching and tempering, and are referred to as maraging steels.[3]
In carbon steels, tempering alters the size and distribution of carbides in the martensite, forming
a microstructure called "tempered martensite". Tempering is also performed on normalized steels

and cast irons, to increase ductility, machinability, and impact strength. [3] Steel is usually
tempered evenly, called "through tempering," producing a nearly uniform hardness, but it is
sometimes heated unevenly, referred to as "differential tempering," producing a variation in
hardness.[4]

History[edit]
Tempering is an ancient heat-treating technique. The oldest known example of tempered
martensite is a pick axe which was found in Galilee, dating from around 1200 to 1100 BC.[5] The
process was used throughout the ancient world, from Asia to Europe and Africa. Many different
methods and cooling baths for quenching have been attempted during ancient times, from
quenching in urine, blood, or metals like mercury or lead, but the process of tempering has
remained relatively unchanged over the ages. Tempering was often confused with quenching
and, often, the term was used to describe both techniques. In 1889, Sir William Chandler
Roberts-Austen wrote, "There is still so much confusion between the words "temper,"
"tempering," and "hardening," in the writings of even eminent authorities, that it is well to keep
these old definitions carefully in mind. I shall employ the word tempering in the same sense as
softening."[6]

Terminology[edit]
In metallurgy, one may encounter many terms that have very specific meanings within the field,
but may seem rather vague when viewed from outside. Terms such as "hardness," "impact
resistance," "toughness," and "strength" can carry many different connotations, making it
sometimes difficult to discern the specific meaning. Some of the terms encountered, and their
specific definitions are:

Strength: This is resistance to permanent deformation and breaking. Strength, in

metallurgy, is still a rather vague term, so is usually divided into yield strength (strength
beyond which deformation becomes permanent), tensile strength (the ultimate breaking
strength), and shear strength (resistance to transverse, or cutting forces).

Toughness: Resistance to fracture, as measured by the Charpy test. Toughness often

increases as strength decreases.

Hardness: Hardness is often used to describe strength or rigidity but, in metallurgy, the
term is usually used to describe resistance to scratching or abrasion. In conventional metal
alloys, there is a linear relation between indentation hardness and tensile strength, which
eases the measurement of the latter.[7]

Brittleness: Brittleness describes a material's tendency to break before bending or

deforming either elastically or plastically. Brittleness increases with decreased toughness,
but is greatly affected by internal stresses as well.

Plasticity: The ability to mold, bend or deform in a manner that does not spontaneously
return to its original shape. This is proportional to the ductility or malleability of the
substance.

Elasticity: Also called flexibility, this is the ability to deform, bend, compress, or stretch
and return to the original shape once the external stress is removed. Elasticity is inversely
related to the Young's modulus of the material.

Impact resistance: Usually synonymous with high-strength toughness, it is the ability

resist shock-loading with minimal deformation.

Wear resistance: Usually synonymous with hardness, this is resistance

to erosion, ablation, spalling, or galling.

Structural integrity: The ability to withstand a maximum-rated load while resisting fracture,
resisting fatigue, and producing a minimal amount of flexing or deflection, to provide a
maximum service life.

Carbon steel[edit]
Very few metals react to heat treatment in the same manner, or to the same extent, that carbon
steel does, and carbon steel heat treating behavior can vary radically depending on alloying
elements. Steel can be softened to a very malleable state through annealing, or it can be
hardened to a state nearly as rigid and brittle as glass by quenching. However, in its hardened
state, steel is usually far too brittle, lacking the structural integrity to be useful for most
applications. Tempering is a method used to decrease the hardness, thereby increasing the
ductility of the quenched steel, to impart some springiness and malleability to the metal. This
allows the metal to bend before breaking. Depending on how much temper is imparted to the
steel, it may bend elastically (the steel returns to its original shape once the load is removed), or
it may bendplastically (the steel does not return to its original shape, resulting in permanent
deformation), before fracturing. Tempering is used to precisely balance the mechanical properties
of the metal, such as shear strength, yield strength, hardness, ductility and tensile strength, to
achieve any number of a combination of properties, making the steel useful for a wide variety of
applications. Tools such as hammers and wrenches require good resistance to abrasion, impact
resistance, and resistance to deformation. Springs do not require as much rigidity, but must
deform elastically before breaking. Automotive parts tend to be a little less rigid, but need to
deform plastically before breaking.
Except in rare cases where maximum rigidity and hardness are needed, such as the untempered
steel used for files, quenched steel is almost always tempered to some degree. However, steel is
sometimes annealed through a process called normalizing, leaving the steel only partially
softened. Tempering is sometimes used on normalized steels to further soften it, increasing the
malleability and machinability for easiermetalworking. Tempering may also be used
on welded steel, to relieve some of the stresses and excess hardness created in the heat
affected zone around the weld.[3]

Quenched-steel[edit]
Tempering is most often performed on steel that has been heated above its upper critical (A 3)
temperature and then quickly cooled, in a process called quenching, using methods such as
immersing the red-hot steel in water, oil, or forced-air. The quenched-steel, being placed in, or
very near, its hardest possible state, is then tempered to incrementally decrease the hardness to
a point more suitable for the desired application. The hardness of the quenched-steel depends
on both cooling speed and on the composition of the alloy. Steel with a high carbon-content will
reach a much harder state than steel with a low carbon-content. Likewise, tempering high-carbon
steel to a certain temperature will produce steel that is considerably harder than low-carbon steel
that is tempered at the same temperature. The amount of time held at the tempering temperature
also has an effect. Tempering at a slightly elevated temperature for a shorter time may produce
the same effect as tempering at a lower temperature for a longer time. Tempering times vary,
depending on the carbon content, size, and desired application of the steel, but typically range
from a few minutes to a few hours.
Tempering quenched-steel at very low temperatures, between 66 and 148 C (151 and 298 F),
will usually not have much effect other than a slight relief of some of the internal stresses.
Tempering at higher temperatures, from 148 to 205 C (298 to 401 F), will produce a slight
reduction in hardness, but will primarily relieve much of the internal stresses. Tempering in the
range of 260 and 340 C (500 and 644 F) causes a decrease in ductility and an increase in
brittleness, and is referred to as the "tempered martensite embrittlement" (TME) range. Except in
the case of blacksmithing, this range is usually avoided. Steel requiring more strength than
toughness, such as tools, are usually not tempered above 205 C (401 F). Instead, a variation in

hardness is usually produced by varying only the tempering time. When increased toughness is
desired at the expense of strength, higher tempering temperatures, from 370 to 540 C (698 to
1,004 F), are used. Tempering at even higher temperatures, between 540 and 600 C (1,004
and 1,112 F), will produce excellent toughness, but at a serious reduction in the strength and
hardness. At 600 C (1,112 F), the steel may experience another stage of embrittlement, called
"temper embrittlement" (TE), which occurs if the steel is held within the TE temperature range for
too long. When heating above this temperature, the steel will usually not be held for any amount
of time, and quickly cooled to avoid temper embrittlement.[3]

Normalized steel[edit]
Steel that has been heated above its upper critical temperature and then cooled in standing air is
called normalized steel. Normalized steel consists of pearlite, bainite and sometimes martensite
grains, mixed together within the microstructure. This produces steel that is much stronger than
full-annealed steel, and much tougher than tempered quenched-steel. However, added
toughness is sometimes needed at a reduction in strength. Tempering provides a way to carefully
decrease the hardness of the steel, thereby increasing the toughness to a more desirable point.
Cast-steel is often normalized rather than annealed, to decrease the amount of distortion that
can occur. Tempering can further decrease the hardness, increasing the ductility to a point more
like annealed steel.[8] Tempering is often used on carbon steels, producing much the same
results. The process, called "normalize and temper", is used frequently on steels such as 1045
carbon steel, or most other steels containing 0.35 to 0.55% carbon. These steels are usually
tempered after normalizing, to increase the toughness and relieve internal stresses. This can
make the metal more suitable for its intended use and easier to machine.[9]

Welded steel[edit]
Steel that has been arc welded, gas welded, or welded in any other manner besides forge
welded, is affected in a localized area by the heat from the welding process. This localized area,
called the heat-affected zone (HAZ), consists of steel that varies considerably in hardness, from
normalized steel to steel nearly as hard as quenched steel near the edge of this heat-affected
zone. Thermal contraction from the uneven heating, solidification and cooling creates internal
stresses in the metal, both within and surrounding the weld. Tempering is sometimes used in
place of stress relieving (even heating and cooling of the entire object to just below the
A1 temperature) to both reduce the internal stresses and to decrease the brittleness around the
weld. Localized tempering is often used on welds when the construction is too large, intricate, or
otherwise too inconvenient to heat the entire object evenly. Tempering temperatures for this
purpose are generally around 205 C (401 F) and 343 C (649 F).[10]

Quench and self-temper[edit]

Modern reinforcing bar of 500 MPa strength can be made from expensive microalloyed steel or
by a quench and self-temper (QST) process. After the bar exits the final rolling pass, where the
final shape of the bar is applied, the bar is then sprayed with water which quenches the outer
surface of the bar. The bar speed and the amount of water are carefully controlled in order to
leave the core of the bar unquenched. The hot core then tempers the already quenched outer
part, leaving a bar with high strength but with a certain degree of ductility too.

Blacksmithing[edit]
Main article: Blacksmith
Tempering was originally a process used and developed by blacksmiths (forgers of iron). The
process was most likely developed by the Hittites of Anatolia (modern-day Turkey), in the twelfth
or eleventh century BC. Without knowledge of metallurgy, tempering was originally devised
through a trial-and-error method.
Because few methods of precisely measuring temperature existed until modern times,
temperature was usually judged by watching the tempering colors of the metal. Tempering often
consisted of heating above a charcoal or coal forge, or by fire, so holding the work at exactly the
right temperature for the correct amount of time was usually not possible. Tempering was usually
performed by slowly, evenly overheating the metal, as judged by the color, and then immediately

cooling, either in open air or by immersing in water. This produced much the same effect as
heating at the proper temperature for the right amount of time, and avoided embrittlement by
tempering within a short time period. However, although tempering-color guides exist, this
method of tempering usually requires a good amount of practice to perfect, because the final
outcome depends on many factors, including the composition of the steel, the speed at which it
was heated, the type of heat source (oxidizing or carburizing), the cooling rate, oil films or
impurities on the surface, and many other circumstances which vary from smith to smith or even
from job to job. The thickness of the steel also plays a role. With thicker items, it becomes easier
to heat only the surface to the right temperature, before the heat can penetrate through.
However, very thick items may not be able to harden all the way through during quenching. [11]
Tempering colors[edit]

Pieces of through-tempered steel flatbar. The first one, on the left, is normalized steel. The second is
quenched, untempered martensite. The remaining pieces have been tempered in an oven to their
corresponding temperature, for an hour each. "Tempering standards" like these are sometimes used by
blacksmiths for comparison, ensuring that the work is tempered to the proper color.

If steel has been freshly ground, sanded, or polished, it will form an oxide layer on its surface
when heated. As the temperature of the steel is increased, the thickness of the iron oxide will
also increase. Although iron oxide is not normally transparent, such thin layers do allow light to
pass through, reflecting off both the upper and lower surfaces of the layer. This causes a
phenomenon called thin-film interference, which produces colors on the surface. As the thickness
of this layer increases with temperature, it causes the colors to change from a very light yellow, to
brown, then purple, then blue. These colors appear at very precise temperatures, and provide
the blacksmith with a very accurate gauge for measuring the temperature. The various colors,
their corresponding temperatures, and some of their uses are:

Faint-yellow 176 C (349 F) engravers, razors, scrapers

Light-straw 205 C (401 F) rock drills, reamers, metal-cutting saws

Dark-straw 226 C (439 F) scribers, planer blades

Brown 260 C (500 F) taps, dies, drill bits, hammers, cold chisels

Purple 282 C (540 F) surgical tools, punches, stone carving tools

Dark blue 310 C (590 F) screwdrivers, wrenches

Light blue 337 C (639 F) springs, wood-cutting saws

Grey-blue 371 C (700 F) and higher structural steel

Beyond the grey-blue color, the iron oxide loses its transparency, and the temperature can no
longer be judged in this way. The layer will also increase in thickness as time passes, which is
another reason overheating and immediate cooling is used. Steel in a tempering oven, held at
205 C (401 F) for a long time, will begin to turn brown, purple or blue, even though the
temperature did not exceed that needed to produce a light-straw
color. Oxidizing or carburizing heat sources may also affect the final result. The iron oxide layer,
unlike rust, also protects the steel from corrosion through passivation.[12]
Differential tempering[edit]
Main article: Differential tempering

A differentially tempered sword. The center is tempered to a springy hardness while the edges are
tempered to a very high hardness.

Differential tempering is a method of providing different amounts of temper to different parts of

the steel. The method was often used in bladesmithing, for makingknives and swords, to provide
a very hard edge while softening the spine or center of the blade. This increased the toughness
while maintaining a very hard, sharp, impact-resistant edge, helping to prevent breakage. This
technique was more often found in Europe, as opposed to the differential hardening techniques
more common in Asia, such as in Japanese swordsmithing.
Differential tempering consists of applying heat to only a portion of the blade, usually the spine,
or the center of double-edged blades. For single-edged blades, the heat, often in the form of a
flame or a red-hot bar, is applied to the spine of the blade only. The blade is then carefully
watched as the tempering colors form and slowly creep toward the edge. The heat is then
removed before the light-straw color reaches the edge. The colors will continue to move toward
the edge for a short time after the heat is removed, so the smith typically removes the heat a little
early, so that the pale-yellow just reaches the edge, and travels no farther. A similar method is
used for double-edged blades, but the heat source is applied to the center of the blade, allowing
the colors to creep out toward each edge.[13]

Interrupted quenching[edit]
Interrupted quenching methods are often referred to as tempering, although the processes are
very different from traditional tempering. These methods consist of quenching to a specific
temperature that is above the martensite start (Ms) temperature, and then holding at that
temperature for extended amounts of time. Depending on the temperature and the amount of
time, this allows either pure bainite to form, or holds-off forming the martensite until much of the
internal stresses relax. These methods are known as austempering and martempering. [14]
Austempering[edit]
Main article: Austempering

Time-temperature transformation (TTT) diagram. The red line shows the cooling curve for austempering.

Austempering is a technique used to form pure bainite, a transitional microstructure found

between pearlite and martensite. In normalizing, both upper and lower bainite are usually found
mixed with pearlite. To avoid the formation of pearlite or martensite, the steel is quenched in a
bath of molten metals or salts. This quickly cools the steel past the point where pearlite can form,
and into the bainite-forming range. The steel is then held at the bainite-forming temperature,
beyond the point where the temperature reaches an equilibrium, until the bainite fully forms. The
steel is then removed from the bath and allowed to air-cool, without the formation of either
pearlite or martensite.
Depending on the temperature, austempering can produce either upper or lower bainite. Upper
bainite is a laminate structure formed at temperatures typically above 350 C (662 F) and is a
much tougher microstructure. Lower bainite is a needle-like structure, produced at temperatures
below 350 C, and is stronger but much more brittle.[15] In either case, austempering produces
greater strength and toughness for a given hardness, and reduced internal stresses which could
lead to breakage. This produces steel with superior impact resistance. Modern punches and
chisels are often austempered. Because austempering does not produce martensite, the steel
does not require further tempering.[14]
Martempering[edit]
Main article: Martempering
Martempering is similar to austempering, in that the steel is quenched in a bath of molten metal
or salts to quickly cool it past the pearlite-forming range. However, in martempering, the goal is to
create martensite rather than bainite. The steel is quenched to a much lower temperature than is
used for austempering; to just above the martensite start temperature. The metal is then held at
this temperature until the temperature of the steel reaches an equilibrium. The steel is then
removed from the bath before any bainite can form, and then is allowed to air-cool, turning it into
martensite. The interruption in cooling allows much of the internal stresses to relax before the
martensite forms, decreasing the brittleness of the steel. However, the martempered steel will
usually need to undergo further tempering to adjust the hardness and toughness. [14]

Physical processes[edit]
Tempering involves a three-step process in which unstable martensite decomposes into ferrite
and unstable carbides, and finally into stable cementite, forming various stages of a
microstructure called tempered martensite. The martensite typically consists of laths (strips) or
plates, sometimes appearing acicular (needle-like) or lenticular (lens-shaped). Depending on the
carbon content, it also contains a certain amount of "retained austenite." Retained austenite are
crystals which are unable to transform into martensite, even after quenching below the
martensite finish (Mf) temperature. An increase in alloying agents or carbon content causes an
increase in retained austenite. Austenite has much higher stacking-fault energy than martensite
or pearlite, lowering the wear resistance and increasing the chances of galling, although some or
most of the retained austenite can be transformed into martensite by cold and cryogenic
treatments prior to tempering.
The martensite forms during a diffusionless transformation, in which the transformation occurs
due to shear-stresses created in the crystal lattices rather than by chemical changes that occur
during precipitation. The shear-stresses create many defects, or "dislocations," between the
crystals, providing less-stressful areas for the carbon atoms to relocate. Upon heating, the
carbon atoms first migrate to these defects, and then begin forming unstable carbides. This
reduces the amount of total martensite by changing some of it to ferrite. Further heating reduces
the martensite even more, transforming the unstable carbides into stable cementite.
The first stage of tempering occurs between room-temperature and 200 C (392 F). In the first
stage, carbon precipitates into -carbon (Fe24C). In the second stage, occurring between 150 C
(302 F) and 300 C (572 F), the retained austenite transforms into a form of lower-bainite
containing -carbon rather than cementite. The third stage occurs at 200 C (392 F) and higher.
In the third stage, -carbon precipitates into cementite, and the carbon content in the martensite
decreases. If tempered at higher temperatures, between 650 C (1,202 F) and 700 C
(1,292 F), or for longer amounts of time, the martensite may become fully ferritic and the

cementite may become coarser or spheroidize. In spheroidized steel, the cementite network
breaks apart and recedes into rods or spherical shaped globules, and the steel becomes softer
than annealed steel; nearly as soft as pure iron, making it very easy to form or machine.[16]
Embrittlement[edit]
Embrittlement occurs during tempering when, through a specific temperature range, the steel
experiences an increase in hardness and a reduction in ductility, as opposed to the normal
decrease in hardness that occurs to either side of this range. The first type is called tempered
martensite embrittlement (TME) or one-step embrittlement. The second is referred to as temper
embrittlement (TE) or two-step embrittlement.
One-step embrittlement usually occurs in carbon steel at temperatures between 230 C (446 F)
and 290 C (554 F), and was historically referred to as " embrittlement." This embritttlement
occurs due to the precipitation of Widmanstatten needles or plates, made of cementite, in the
interlath boundaries of the martensite. Impurities such as phosphorus, or alloying agents
like manganese, may increase the embrittlement, or alter the temperature at which it occurs. This
type of embrittlement is permanent, and can only be relieved by heating above the upper critical
temperature and then quenching again. However, these microstructures usually require an hour
or more to form, so are usually not a problem in the blacksmith-method of tempering.
Two-step embrittlement typically occurs by aging the metal within a critical temperature range, or
by slowly cooling it through that range, For carbon steel, this is typically between 370 C (698 F)
and 560 C (1,040 F), although impurities like phosphorus and sulfur increase the effect
dramatically. This generally occurs because the impurities are able to migrate to the grain
boundaries, creating weak spots in the structure. The embrittlement can often be avoided by
quickly cooling the metal after tempering. Two-step embrittlement, however, is reversible. The
embrittlement can be eliminated by heating the steel above 600 C (1,112 F) and then quickly
cooling.[17]

Alloy steels[edit]
Many elements are often alloyed with steel. The main purpose for alloying most elements with
steel is to increase its hardenability and to decrease softening under temperature. Tool steels, for
example, may have elements like chromium or vanadium added to increase both toughness and
strength, which is necessary for things like wrenches and screwdrivers. On the other hand, drill
bits and rotary files need to retain their hardness at high temperatures.
Adding cobalt or molybdenum can cause the steel to retain its hardness, even at red-hot
temperatures, forming high-speed steels. Often, small amounts of many different elements are
added to the steel to give the desired properties, rather than just adding one or two.
Most alloying elements (solutes) have the benefit of not only increasing hardness, but also
lowering both the martensite start temperature and the temperature at which austenite
transforms into ferrite and cementite. During quenching, this allows a slower cooling rate, which
allows items with thicker cross-sections to be hardened to greater depths than is possible in plain
carbon-steel, producing more uniformity in strength.
Tempering methods for alloy steels may vary considerably, depending on the type and amount of
elements added. In general, elements like manganese, nickel, silicon, and aluminum will remain
dissolved in the ferrite during tempering while the carbon precipitates. When quenched, these
solutes will usually produce an increase in hardness over plain carbon-steel of the same carbon
content. When hardened alloy-steels, containing moderate amounts of these elements, are
tempered, the alloy will usually soften somewhat proportionately to carbon steel.
However, during tempering, elements like chromium, vanadium, and molybdenum precipitate
with the carbon. If the steel contains fairly low concentrations of these elements, the softening of
the steel can be retarded until much higher temperatures are reached, when compared to those
needed for tempering carbon steel. This allows the steel to maintain its hardness in high
temperature or high friction applications. However, this also requires very high temperatures
during tempering, to achieve a reduction in hardness. If the steel contains large amounts of these
elements, tempering may produce an increase in hardness until a specific temperature is

reached, at which point the hardness will begin to decrease.[18][19] For instance, molybdenum
steels will typically reach their highest hardness around 315 C (599 F) whereas vanadium
steels will harden fully when tempered to around 371 C (700 F). When very large amounts of
solutes are added, alloy steels may behave like precipitation hardening alloys, which do not
soften at all during tempering.[20]

Cast-iron[edit]
Cast-iron comes in many types, depending on the carbon-content. However, they are usually
divided into grey and white cast-iron, depending on the form that the carbides take. In grey cast
iron, the carbon is mainly in the form of graphite but, in white cast-iron, the carbon is usually in
the form of cementite. Grey cast-iron consists mainly of the microstructure called pearlite, mixed
with graphite and sometimes ferrite. Grey cast-iron is usually used as-cast, with its properties
being determined by its composition.
White cast-iron is composed mostly of a microstructure called ledeburite mixed with pearlite.
Ledeburite is very hard, making the cast-iron very brittle. If the white cast-iron has a hypoeutectic
composition, it is usually tempered to produce malleable cast-iron. Two methods of tempering
are used, called "white tempering" and "black tempering." The purposes of both tempering
methods is to cause the cementite within the ledeburite to decompose, increasing the ductility.[21]

White tempering[edit]
White tempering is used to burn off excess carbon, by heating it for extended amounts of time in
an oxidizing environment. The cast iron will usually be held at temperatures as high as 1,000 C
(1,830 F) for as long as 60 hours. The heating is followed by a slow cooling rate of around 10 C
(18 F) per hour. The entire process may last 160 hours or more. This causes the cementite to
decompose from the ledeburite, and then the carbon burns out through the surface of the metal,
increasing the malleability of the cast-iron.[21]

Black tempering[edit]
Unlike white tempering, black tempering is done in an inert gas environment, so that the
decomposing carbon does not burn off. Instead, the decomposing carbon turns into a type of
graphite called "temper graphite" or "flaky graphite," increasing the malleability of the metal.
Tempering is usually performed at temperatures as high as 950 C (1,740 F) for up to 20 hours.
The tempering is followed by slow-cooling through the lower critical temperature, over a period
that may last from 50 to over 100 hours.[21]

Precipitation hardening alloys[edit]

Main article: Precipitation hardening
Precipitation hardening alloys first came into use during the early 1900s. Most heat-treatable
alloys fall into the category of precipitation hardening alloys, including alloys
of aluminum, magnesium, titanium andnickel. Several high-alloy steels are also precipitation
hardening alloys. These alloys become softer than normal when quenched, and then harden
over time. For this reason, precipitation hardening is often referred to as "aging."
Although most precipitation hardening alloys will harden at room temperature, some will only
harden at elevated temperatures and, in others, the process can be sped up by aging at elevated
temperatures. Aging at temperatures higher than room-temperature is called "artificial aging".
Although the method is similar to tempering, the term "tempering" is usually not used to describe
artificial aging, because the physical processes, (i.e.: precipitation of intermetallic phases from
a supersaturated alloy) the desired results, (i.e.: strengthening rather than softening), and the
amount of time held at a certain temperature are very different from tempering as used in carbonsteel.