S ECTION 2

R ESERVOIR
C HARACTERIZATION

WHY IS RESERVOIR CHARACTERIZATION NEEDED?

EXPERT'S OPINIONS
"WF success is dependent on reservoir geology"
"Geology is never known as well as it needs to be known"
"Many WF fall below expectations because of the flaws in reservoir characterization
"Most WF fail because of inaccurate reservoir characterization"
One needs to develop an in-depth qualitative understanding and an accurate quantitative
description of the reservoir state at the:
1. At the start of waterflood project
2. At any time during the recovery process
3. At the time of waterflood abandonment
The following features specify the reservoir state:
1. Pressure and Temperature
2. Rock Properties
Spatial (3-D) description (mapping) of all reservoir and non-reservoir rock properties:

Lithology, Porosity, Permeability, Anisotropy, Compressibility, Heterogeneity

Compartmentalization, Stratification, Faults, Fractures, Connectivity, Continuity
Mechanical strength, etc.

3. Fluid Properties
Detailed 3-D description of Oil, Gas, and Water properties:

Viscosity, Density, Solution Gas-oil ratio, Compressibility, Fluid distribution,

Change of Composition with Pressure/Temperature variation, Injection water and
Formation water interaction, etc.

4. Rock/Fluid Interactive Properties

Relative Permeability, Capillary Pressure, Wettability, Water/Rock interaction, etc.

Section 2

It should be clearly understood that accurate quantification of all of the above features is almost
impossible.
Reservoir characterization is therefore a dynamic process, requiring continual updating and
upgrading due to:

data becoming available only in a piecemeal manner,

data applicability and reliability is often uncertain and improves with time,

better interpretation techniques continue to become available,

newer insights are gained with time, and

unanticipated problems surface during the productive life requiring a

different/fresh look.

No one discipline alone generates, manipulates, and utilizes all the above data. Hence, reservoir
characterization is a multi-disciplinary effort. The following disciplines participate in the process:

Geophysics

Geology

Petrophysics

Hydrology

Reservoir Engineering/Production Engineering/Drilling Engineering/Facilities Engineering

Laboratory Specialists

A synergistic approach has proven efficient and productive, saving lots of time, effort,
money, and subsequent finger-pointing between various disciplines.
The total scope of a reservoir characterization project is depicted in Figure 2-1.

Reservoir Characterization

Figure 2- 1

Section 2

RESERVOIR HABITAT

A reservoir is a sub-surface, 3-dimensional rock body with special attributes such that
hydrocarbons can accumulate. These attributes are:

Porosity - void space for the fluids

Permeability - interconnected pore space to provide flow communication

Trapping Mechanism - cap rock above and oil/water contact below/pinch-outs

Common reservoir rocks are formed of limestone, dolomite, and sandstone.

Reservoirs come in various shapes and sizes. The most common are:

Domes

Anticlines

Faulted Structures

Stratigraphic - unconformity

Stratigraphic - sand lenses, shoe-string sands

Reefs

These shapes influence the development/production process, not only during the primary
depletion but also during the displacement type of IOR (Improved Oil Recovery) processes.

Traps with moderate to high relief are commonly developed under peripheral water
injection schemes.

Traps with low relief are generally developed under pattern flood schemes. Other factors
may favor the pattern flood low permeability, high heterogeneity, low well cost, shorter
project life.

Reservoir Characterization

All reservoirs are under the influence of two PRESSURE sources:

Pore (Reservoir) Pressure

Overburden Pressure (or Rock External Overburden Stress)

Figure 2- 2

Three types of reservoir pressure systems are

encountered. These are shown below:

Normal Pressure Reservoir

PR = 0.46 x Depth

Abnormally High (Geo-Pressure) Reservoir

PR > 0.46 x Depth

Sub-Normal Pressure Reservoir

PR < 0.46 x Depth

(Note: Pressure Gradient of salty formation water is assumed at 0.46 psi/ft.)

Section 2

PRESSURE - DEPTH PLOTS

The pressure gradient from a Pressure Depth plot, such as one the shown here, is indicative
of the type of fluid present as a continuous phase in the pore space of a reservoir.

Gas Gradient < 0.1 psi/ft

Oil Gradient = 0.3 to 0.4 psi/ft
Water Gradient > 0.434 psi/ft

(0.05)

The presence of more than one fluid in the reservoir is indicated by the
change of pressure gradient. The intersection of pressure trends shows the
position of the contact between the fluids.
RFT and MDT data (Schlumberger), SFT data (Halliburton), or FMT data (Baker Hughes)
is extremely useful for this purpose.

Reservoir Characterization

RESERVOIR TEMPERATURE
Reservoir temperature is obtained by:
1. Direct measurement using wireline thermometer
2. Calculation from regional thermal gradient and known depth
A generalized Depth versus Temperature plot is shown below. The thermal gradient, slope of this
curve, in most of the oil-producing areas of the world in the range of 1-2 degrees F per 100 ft of depth.

Section 2

During the primary recovery phase, reservoir temperature usually remains

essentially constant. All reservoir processes are assumed isothermal.

During a waterflood, three changes are brought about due to the injection of colder
water in a hot reservoir.
1. The reservoir rock around the injection well gets colder. With continuous injection,
the region of cooled rock expands outward away from the injector. The resulting
thermal shock causes rock contraction, thereby inducing rock cracking and fractures
in the reservoir.
2. High-pressure injection water increases pore pressure in the vicinity of the well and
thereby decreases the in-situ stress level. This reduced stress level can be sufficient
to cause shear failure of the rock and slippage of faults. As the water-front moves
outward away from the injection well, the region of shear failure and fault slippage
continues to grow.
3. Temperature decrease in the vicinity of the well results in a region of increased
viscosity. This region expands as water front moves outward into the reservoir.

In many waterflood projects, continual improvement in well injectivity has been noted.
Pressure transient well tests have confirmed presence of large negative skins and increased
formation permeability.
The combined effect of the three is rather hard to predict without simulating the thermal and
geo-mechanical behavior of the reservoir.

EFFECT OF STRESS CHANGE DURING A WF ON PERFORMANCE

During a WF process, the effective stress (P overburden - Preservoir) around an injector changes due to
increase in reservoir pressure and a decrease in reservoir temperature. This change has
resulted in one or more of the following changes in many WF projects:
1. Shear failure of rock resulting in hairline fractures
2. Elongation of existing fractures
3. Slippage of faults
4. Wellbore failure due to caving of wellbore wall and slipping of faults
In comparison, the effective stress increases due to decrease in reservoir pressure. This change
has resulted in reservoir compaction and surface subsidence in many projects.

Reservoir Characterization

POROSITY

Porosity is the measure of the void spaces in a rock where fluids (oil, gas, and water)
reside under reservoir conditions of pressure and temperature.
Porosity = =

=
Where:

Total Void Space

Total Bulk Volume
PV
BV

BV - GV
BV

BV = Total Bulk Volume

GV = Total Grain Volume
PV = Total Pore Volume

Porosity is dependent upon rock type, grain size distribution, shape of grains and their
arrangement, nature and degree of cementation, deposition history, and digenetic changes.
Rock Type

Common Porosity Range, %

Limestone

3-12

Sandstone

12-28

Porosity may be defined on the basis of:

TOTAL: which accounts for all the available void space

EFFECTIVE: which accounts for only that void space which is interconnected and which
participates in the fluid movement in the reservoir. All reservoir-engineering calculations
are based on this value as it pertains to pore space of economic interest.

Figure 2-3 shows the type of porosity in a thin section.

Section 2

Figure 2- 3

We need maps showing distribution of effective porosity under reservoir conditions of

pressure, temperature, and stress.

METHODS FOR POROSITY MEASUREMENT

1. Direct laboratory measurements on cores cut from the reservoir
2. Indirect calculation from physical measurement of a rock property (that can be
correlated with porosity) using logs

DIRECT LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS

10

Core samples of various sizes are used. Core plugs are used for homogeneous rocks
(sandstones, in general) while full size cores may often be used for limestone.

Direct measurements on cores in the laboratory under either reservoir conditions or

room (bench-top) conditions.

For clean and dry cores, the following methods are used:

Saturation Method the core sample is 100% saturated with a liquid of known density.

'Boyle's Law' Method the simplest, the fastest, and the least expensive method.

Reservoir Characterization

Gas

Figure 2- 4

The decision to duplicate reservoir conditions or room conditions in the laboratory

depends on the nature of rock. If effective porosity is stress dependent (such as Rock
C), reservoir conditions must be duplicated. If effective porosity is not stress dependent
(such as Rock A), room condition measurement would be satisfactory.

Figure 2- 5

Net Pressure = Overburden Pressure Reservoir Pressure

11

Section 2

POROSITY FROM WIRELINE LOGS

Well logs are depth records of a physical property of the reservoir rock,
which can be related to porosity through some physical or empirical relationship.

Most common relationships relate Porosity to Density, Acoustic Velocity, and

Neutron Population.

Comparison of log-derived porosity with core-measured porosity selects the

logging tool that is best suited for a particular area.

There are various practical reasons for the choice of logging over coring.
1. Log measurements are under reservoir conditions of pressure, temperature,
and stress.
2. Logging is cheaper and faster than coring. Hence, logs are run on all wells but
only a small number of wells are cored.
3. Porosity information is available shortly after logging.
4. A continuous porosity profile is made available.

12

Reservoir Characterization

PERMEABILITY

Permeability is the measure of the ease of flow of fluids through the interconnected pore
space.

It is the single most important property, since it governs the rate of fluid flow. Hence, the
economics of a project.

Darcy's Law, an empirical relationship, provides the basis for quantifying permeability.
It relates flow rate through a porous medium to the properties of rock and fluid, and to the
applied pressure differential, by the following expression:

q=
Where:

q
K
Pi
PO

K A (Pi - Po )
L

= Flow Rate, cc/sec

= Permeability, darcy
= Inlet Pressure, psig
= Outlet Pressure, psig
= Fluid Viscosity, cp
= Core Length, cm

Reservoir permeability varies over a wide range.

Rock Type

Permeability Range, MD

Average, MD

Limestone

0.1-----200

10-100

Sandstone

10-----3500

50-250

Permeability is the property of the rock alone and is independent of the type of fluid so long
as it totally fills the effective pore volume (100% saturation) and flows through the rock in a
laminar manner.

13

Section 2

Various methods are used for measuring permeability:

1. Laboratory Measurement
2. Well Tests
3. Porosity - Permeability Correlations
4. Potential Logging Approach

LABORATORY MEASUREMENT

Core samples of various sizes are used. Small plugs are used for a homogeneous rock
(sandstones, in general) while full size cores are used for a heterogeneous rock (limestone
and dolomite).

Rock (Absolute) permeability is routinely measured in the laboratory under room pressure
and temperature conditions. For stress sensitive cores, measurements must be made under
effective reservoir pressure.

For routine measurements of permeability, an apparatus named Permeameter and shown

in the figure below, is the apparatus commonly used.

Figure 2- 6

14

Gas (air, nitrogen, helium) is used as the test fluid as it is more convenient and
tests are rapidly conducted. If water is used as the test fluid, formation water or
synthesized brine is used.

Reservoir Characterization

A full diameter core is used for horizontal and vertical permeability measurements.

Horizontal Permeability
K(x) in a pre-selected direction
(parallel to bedding plane)
K(90) in the direction at 90 degrees
to the pre-selected direction

Vertical Permeability
K(z) is measured in the direction
perpendicular to the bedding plane.

Oriented cores duplicating their geographical placement in the reservoir provide very
important data on the directional permeability trends in a reservoir.

Through identification of permeability trends (grain orientation in clastic rocks

and fractures, joints, fossil alignments in carbonate rocks) this data assists in
injection/production wells placements to optimize sweep efficiency of a
displacement project.

Many waterfloods fail due to the limited knowledge of the anisotropic character
of the reservoir rock.

For stress sensitive rocks (friable, unconsolidated), laboratory measurements are made
under simulated reservoir conditions of pressure (net overburden pressure). Since
temperature has no significant effect, tests are made at room temperature.

Old Technology
New Technology:

Downhole Photos, Image Logs (FMI/FMS)

15

Section 2

PERMEABILITY FROM WELL TESTS

Well tests are very important sources for permeability (K oh to be exact) values for a
reservoir. The value is considered more representative as the well test is representative of a
much larger portion of the reservoir than is a core.

The measurements can be easily interpreted into effective Koh (md-ft) of a reservoir within
its radius of influence. The estimated value is valid under reservoir conditions of pressure,
temperature, and saturations.

Common well tests are:

Pressure Build Up
Pressure Fall off

Permeability data from well test analysis is continually integrated with that obtained from the
core analysis data. The objective is to evolve a consistent reservoir description.

PERMEABILITY FROM WIRELINE LOGS

No wireline log is available at the present time that directly measures permeability in a
reservoir.

Some newer tools such as NMR and CMR are currently under active research and
development. They are proving promising in some applications; especially after the log
response is conditioned to the available core data.

Whenever successful, significant savings will be realized in terms of cost and time.

16

Reservoir Characterization

FORMATION COMPRESSIBILITY

Reservoir rocks, just like reservoir fluids, are compressible and expand as pore pressure
decreases due to production and thereby provide a source of expulsive energy.

In reservoir engineering calculations, rock compressibility is reported on the pore volume

basis. Its value is obtained from:

Laboratory Measurements
Correlations
Hall
Van Der Knapp

In the oil reservoirs, total compressibility is given by:

Ct = Co So + CwSw + CgSg + Cf

when P > PBP

Ct = CQSw + CwSw + Cf
when P < PBP
gas compressibility dominates all others
rock compressibility is usually ignored Cr << Cg
Ct = CgSg as Cg >> Co or Cw or Cf

In the aquifer, total compressibility is given by:

Ct = Cw + Cf

For most competent rocks, the value ranges between 2 20 x E06 (1/psi). For
unconsolidated rock, this value can exceed 100 E-6 (1/psi).

17

Section 2

ROCK WETTABILITY

Wettability is the tendency of one liquid (oil or water) to preferentially spread over the
surfaces of a rock, when two or more fluids (oil, gas, and water) are present together.

Gas is always the non-wetting fluid. Hence, it preferentially occupies the centers
of the larger pores.

Reservoir rocks are made up of minerals (silica and carbonates) that are natively
water-wet. Hence, all reservoirs should initially be water- wet.

Many reservoirs exhibit a large range of wetting tendency (from strongly water-wet to
neutral-wet to strongly oil-wet); therefore, the change must have occurred some time
after oil accumulation.

A number of possible reasons for the alteration have been suggested: (1) some
crude oils contain surface-active ingredients and polar compounds, and (2) some
are rich in asphaltenes and wax-like material.

In some reservoirs, wettability depends on structural position high structural areas

are often oil-wet; upper flank wells are of neutral wettability; areas closer to OWC are
often water-wet.

CONTACT ANGLE is a common measure of rock wettability. It is measured in the

laboratory by using samples of reservoir fluids and a crystal of the rock that makes up
the pore surfaces in the reservoir. After equilibrium is established, the contact angle is
measured through the water phase.

Figure 2- 7

18

Reservoir Characterization

The contact angle scale below shows the ranges that classify rock wettability.

Most reservoir rocks exhibit intermediate wettability. However, many reservoirs exhibit
strongly water-wet or oil-wet behavior.

A number of other laboratory techniques are also utilized. Amott's method is very popular - it
uses a representative core that is either obtained under preserved conditions or is pickled
with reservoir fluids for a long time to insure that native state is re-stored.

The method subjects the core to an imbibition-drainage process, which duplicates the
reservoir processes of oil accumulation and waterflood displacement.

Accurate assessment of reservoir wettability is very important as it has a pronounced effect on:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Initial Distribution of Oil and Water

Connate Water Saturation
Fluid Flow through the Reservoir
Residual Oil Sanitation
Production Performance
Formation Resistivity

1. INITIAL DISTRIBUTION OF OIL AND WATER

The solid surfaces in the water-wet rock are totally covered with a
film of water. In addition, smaller pores are totally filled with water.

The solid surfaces in the oil-wet rock are totally covered with a thin
film of oil. The smaller pores are still filled with water.

19

Section 2

2. CONNATE WATER SATURATION

Connate water saturation in the water-wet rock is around 20 to 35% and around 5 to 15% in an
oil-wet rock.

Figure 2- 8

3. FLUID FLOW THROUGH THE RESERVOIR

Strongly Water-Wet Rock
Water prefers to wet solid surfaces and thereby advances along the walls of the pore spaces.
With continual advancement, it pushes oil from the edges until water cusps in at the pore exit. It
then retains some oil as disconnected, isolated droplets in the pore centers. This oil saturation is
called 'Residual Oil Saturation to Water - Sorw.

Figure 2- 9

20

Reservoir Characterization

Strongly Oil-Wet Rock

Water prefers to move through the pore centers pushing oil ahead of it. With continual
advancement, it drags oil from the edges until it establishes a continuous path through the
pores. It then retains oil as a connected film covering the solid surfaces. This oil saturation is
called 'Residual Oil Saturation to Waterflood - Sorw'.

Figure 2- 10

4. RESIDUAL OIL SATURATION TO WATERFLOOD

Sorw for a water-wet rock is of the order of 25 - 40% and in the 30-45% for an oil-wet rock.
Sorw is not a function of water throughput or applied pressure differential for a water-wet rock,
but is strongly dependent on the two for an oil-wet rock.

5. PRODUCTION PERFORMANCE
The idealized production performance (oil recovery and water-cut versus time) of a strongly
water-wet and oil-wet reservoir is compared below.

Strongly Water-Wet Rock

Large oil recovery prior to water breakthrough

Relatively small increase in oil recovery post breakthrough

Water-cut increases sharply after water breakthrough

Total oil recovery is essentially independent of the volume of water injected and the
applied flooding pressure gradients

21

Section 2

Figure 2-11

Strongly Oil- Wet Rock

Lower oil recovery prior to water breakthrough

Substantial increase in oil recovery post breakthrough

Water-cut increases gradually after water breakthrough

Total oil recovery is dependent on the volume of water injected and the applied flooding
pressure gradients

Figure 2- 12

22

Reservoir Characterization

Waterflood recovery is dependent on rock wettability

The generalized plot of Expected Ultimate Recovery versus rock wettability shows that for
similar oil/water viscosity ratio floods, recovery is higher from a water-wet rock than an oil-wet
rock. It also shows that recovery from a neutral-wet rock could even be higher than the two
extreme cases.

Figure 2- 13

23

Section 2

FLUID DISTRIBUTION IN A RESERVOIR

One of the most important factors responsible for the success of a waterflood is the fluid
saturation (oil, water, gas) and their distribution in the reservoir at the start of the project.
Saturation distribution is seldom known (except under the initial conditions prior to production)
and its accuracy is always a suspect. There are many reasons for this:
1. Initial static distribution is not exactly known, especially in a mixed lithology reservoir.
2. Reservoir development prior to waterflood is not uniform. Hence, the production
performance is varies both areally and vertically. Regional drift of fluids inside the
reservoir is hard to quantify.
3. Even with a dedicated effort, the sampling inadequacy poses a major handicap.
Since this information is essential as the starting point in a waterflood project, it has to be
obtained with reasonable degree of accuracy. Resources required are: a multi-disciplinary team,
a dedicated effort, and commitment of time, money, and resources.

At the start of waterflood

Estimate of saturation averages is rather straightforward. However, it requires that:
1. good estimates are available for pore volume and original oil-in-place,
2. accurate production records have been kept,
3. water influx rates can be estimated with accuracy, and
4. reservoir drive mechanisms can be assessed. Classical reservoir engineering methods
are employed.
The average oil saturation in the reservoir at the start of a WF is primarily related to the
primary drive mechanism, as shown by the figure below:

24

Reservoir Characterization

Figure 2- 14

Mapping of saturations is possible if:

1. A history-matched reservoir simulation model is available. Accuracy hinges on reservoir
description, however.
2. A well logging program is the best approach. Key wells are selected and appropriate
logs are run to calculate saturation distributions around producers.
3. Coring of new wells is another approach. However, the coring program (cutting, retrieval,
preservation, storage, testing) has to be designed such that meaningful interpretation is
possible.

25

Section 2

FLUID DISTRIBUTION IN A RESERVOIR UNDER INITIAL (STATIC) CONDITIONS

The simplified (idealized) model below depicts the initial distribution of fluids in a reservoir.

Figure 2- 15

This distribution is controlled by equilibrium between the gravitational and capillary forces.

Gravitational Force: It causes fluid segregation into gas above, oil in the middle and
water at the bottom.

Force = 0.433 ( W - O ) h

Capillary Force: It causes the wetting fluid (water in general) to occupy the smaller pores
while the non-wetting fluids (oil and gas) occupy the larger pores.

Force =

2 OW COS
R

A realistic model of Depth vs. Water Saturation is shown in the figure below:

26

Reservoir Characterization

Figure 2- 16

The length of oil-water transition zone is a function of pore size distribution. If pores are
of uniform size (higher permeability reservoirs), transition zone length is very small. For
a wide pore size distribution (lower permeability reservoirs), transition zone may cover
the entire reservoir thickness.

The oil-water transition zone is of great interest in designing a waterflood project.

There is no single definition of oil-water contact (OWC). An arbitrary choice is made

depending upon the local practice and the purpose of the analysis.

NOTE: Capillary Forces have a major effect on initial distribution of water in the
reservoir. HOWEVER, they will have minimal effect on water movement during a
waterflood where viscous forces and high Pressure Gradients dominate.

27

Section 2

Methods used for establishing initial fluid distribution are:

1. Direct Method

Production testing: well is production or DST tested over successively known depth
intervals

2. Indirect Methods

Coring: conventional core analysis is of limited use.

Logging: resistivity and porosity logs are used.

RFT/MDT: spot pressures are measured at known depths along the well path. Only
fluid contacts are established.

Laboratory Capillary Pressure Tests: representative preserved cores are used to

measure capillary pressure - water saturation data utilizing the following methods:

Porous Diaphragm Method

Mercury Injection Method

Centrifuge Method

Test is made under conditions that duplicate the reservoir process of interest Drainage or Imbibition.

28

Drainage: The wetting phase fluid is displaced from the pores by the non-wetting
fluid (Initial oil migration in the reservoir).

Imbibition: The non-wetting phase fluid is displaced from the pores by the
wetting phase fluid (waterflooding in a water-wet reservoir).

Reservoir Characterization

CAPILLARY PRESSURE DATA FOR WATERFLOODING

Waterflooding results in increasing water saturation in the reservoir as oil is displaced.
The laboratory-derived capillary pressure curve measured under the condition of increasing
wetting phase saturation is called "Imbibition" and is the data that is needed as input to reservoir
simulator to model the waterflood process.
The figure below shows a typical imbibition capillary pressure curve for a water displacement
process in rocks with different wettability preferences.

INTERMEDIATE WETTABILITY ROCK

Figure 2- 17

29

Section 2

STRONGLY WATER-WET ROCK

WF in a water-wet rock is an Imbibition process as Sw increases.

Figure 2- 18

STRONGLY OIL-WET ROCK

WF in an oil-wet rock is a Drainage process as So decreases.

\Figure 2-19

30

Reservoir Characterization

RELATIVE PERMEABILITY
Relative permeability curves are the 'road maps' to production rate and hydrocarbon recovery.
Hence, it is of paramount importance that data is as representative as possible.
Reservoir pore space is generally filled with two (oil and water) or with three fluids (oil,
water and gas). Flow of any one fluid in the presence of other fluids is treated by the concept
of relative permeability.
Relative permeability is defined as the ratio of the Effective Permeability to a fluid to the
Absolute Permeability of the rock. The value ranges between 0 and 1 (or 0 to 100%).
K RW =

Kw
K

K RO =

Ko
K

This is the most important key data for all calculations dealing with water drive reservoirs,
waterflood projects, and water coning - Hence, it is imperative that the data used is reliable.
The following guidelines are recommended.
1. Either use a preserved core or make sure that wettability is re-stored in the laboratory.
2. Either use the reservoir live fluids (cumbersome) or use fluids with laboratory oilwater viscosity ratio matched to the reservoir condition viscosity ratio.

31

Section 2

OIL-WATER RELATIVE PERMEABILITY

A typical oil-water relative permeability relationship is shown in the figure below:

Figure 2- 20

Swc = Connate (Irreducible) Water Saturation

Sorw = Residual Oil Saturation (where Kro = 0) at Swmax (Maximum Water Saturation)
(Krw)Sorw = End Point Relative Permeability to Water
(Kro)Swc = End Point Relative Permeability to Oil

32

Reservoir Characterization

Since hysteresis plays an important role, the relative permeability is also influenced by the
direction of change. The figure below is a typical example of this behavior.

Figure 2- 21

The water (wetting phase) relative permeability is generally not direction dependent it is a function of its saturation alone.

The oil (non-wetting phase) relative permeability is highly direction dependent. At any
given water saturation, it is lower for the imbibition process than for the drainage process.

Many times hysteresis effect is not modeled in reservoir simulations.

METHODS OF MEASUREMENTS
Relative permeability data is measured in the laboratory by one of the following methods:
Unsteady State Method, Steady State Method, and Centrifuge Method.
These testing methods differ from each other in the quantity and quality of the generated data,
and therefore in the time required and the cost incurred.

33

Section 2

Important Details of Direct Methods

Unsteady State Method
The experimental procedure is depicted below. Here, water is injected into a 100% saturated
(with oil and connate water) core at a constant pressure differential. The oil and water
production rates are continually measured until only the injected water is produced.

Figure 2- 22

Advantage: Takes only a few hours to complete the test.

Disadvantage: Calculations to convert production data into relative permeability

data are involved.

Steady State (Penn. State) Method

The experimental procedure is depicted below. Here, water and oil at a known ratio are
injected into a 100% saturated (with oil and connate water) core until saturation and pressure
differential across the core stabilize. This step is repeated with different known oil and water
injection ratios.

Figure 2- 23

34

Advantage: Calculations to convert production data into relative permeability are simple.

Disadvantage: This procedure takes a long time.

Reservoir Characterization

Centrifuge Method
This is a much faster method. It measures relative permeability of the phase that is produced
during the test.

Figure 2- 24

Comparison of the Methods

1. Water-oil relative permeability data from the steady state method covers the entire range of
saturation change.
2. Since the saturation range is Limited in the unsteady-state method, extrapolation of the data is
needed.
3. Data obtained from the centrifuge method is about the same within the experimental accuracy.
4. Agreement between gas-oil relative permeability data from gas- flood and centrifuge
method is quite good.
5. The centrifuge data provides a better estimate of residual liquid saturation as the
displacement process may be subjected to higher pressure gradients.

35

Section 2

Figure 2- 25

The steady-state method is generally considered to be superior to the other two methods.

36

Reservoir Characterization

Rock wettability has a pronounced influence on the shape of the relative permeability curves
and on the end-point values. Figure below demonstrates this.
Strongly Water - Wet Rock

S wc = 25-40%
Srw

SORW

K ro

SWC

= 0.1 - 0.2
0.85

S W 50% at K rw = K ro

Strongly Oil - Wet Rock

S wc < 15%
Srw

SORW

K ro

SWC

0.3
0.7

S W 50% at K rw = K ro

37

Section 2

Maintaining a core in its native (un-altered) state for SCAL laboratory tests is very important.
While it is a pains-taking activity and an expensive undertaking, it is absolutely essential to the
accuracy of recovery forecasting (project performance) and the project profitability.
The Extraction process - where core is cleaned off its oil and water and dried - may alter the
native wettability of the core.
The Restoration process - where the extracted cores are saturated with water and oil - may
partially restore the wettability character. Restoration may get better if the core is aged with time.

Figure 2- 26

OIL-GAS-WATER RELATIVE PERMEABILITY

Simultaneous flow of oil, gas, and water occurs at only a small combination of saturations due
to the mobility (K/ ) contrast between the fluids. The fluid distribution is rapidly arranged as:
WATER OIL BANK GAS
W/O
O/G
Rel Perm
Rel Perm

38

Reservoir Characterization

A typical three-phase diagram is shown below:

Figure 2- 27

Laboratory tests to obtain this data are very cumbersome and expensive. Hence, a
number of 'probabilistic' models have been developed to estimate three-phase data that is
needed for the reservoir simulation studies. These models (Stones Correlation) require the
routinely available two-phase water-oil and gas-oil relative permeability data.

Important Details of Indirect Methods:

Data from Analogous Reservoir
A fairly good source if similarity of reservoir type, depositional setting, fluid properties,
and development strategy is established.
Published Correlations
Many published correlations (between relative permeability and capillary pressure) are
available. Their use is highly questionable.

39

Section 2

Field Production History

Production history of a reservoir can also be utilized in estimating the field average or well
average effective permeability relationship, provided the drive mechanism is well understood.
Its use is however limited because the data becomes available after the fact.

CAUTION!!!
Fluid flow behavior and oil recovery estimate are a direct function of the
relative permeability relationship.
One must make sure to utilize the relationships which are obtained
from carefully designed laboratory tests on cores which are known to
maintain wettability character during the coring, shipment, storage, and
testing processes.

CURRENT THOUGHTS ON OIL-WATER RELATIVE PERMEABILITY MEASUREMENT

Steady-State method is better than the Unsteady-State method as it provides data over the
entire saturation range.

Unsteady-State method results in too high residual oil saturation because of insufficient
flooding.

The Centrifuge method provides a better estimate of the residual oil saturation.
SHELL recommends a combination method where Steady-State method provides
relative permeability data and Centrifuge method provides the residual oil saturation.

Relative permeability should be made under reservoir conditions using imbibition procedure
on representative preserved or restored-state (aged?) cores.

In the past, non-preserved cores were often used. These cores generally exhibited waterwet behavior due to changes introduced during coring, retrieval, storage, and testing
processes. Field examples below show significant changes in the residual oil saturation
values, suggesting higher displacement efficiencies.
Brent
Dunlin
Schiehallion
San
Francisco
Lekhwair
Maui

40

Current
15%
15
14
10

Old
28%
25 - 30
29
>=40

5
10

28
28

Reservoir Characterization

Volumetric sweep efficiencies need re-assessment in older waterfloods where displacement

efficiencies were based on older estimates of residual oil saturations.

41

Section 2

RESERVOIR HETEROGENEITY

Figure 2- 28

Figure 2- 29

42

Reservoir Characterization

Heterogeneity is the spatial variation of the reservoir properties. It can occur at various levels.

Large Scale Heterogeneity may be due to:

Reservoir Compartmentalization

Presence of Faults

Presence of Fracture clusters

Large Permeability Contrast

Small Scale heterogeneity is due to:

Shape and size of the sediments

Deposition history of the sediments

Subsequent changes due to digenesis and tectonics

Heterogeneity is the most difficult attribute to quantify; but has the greatest effect on the
efficiency of the WF processes.
While all reservoir properties may vary, both areally and vertically, change in permeability
values are most drastic (many fold changes are encountered).
Therefore, vertical heterogeneity is in general much greater than areal heterogeneity.

Figure 2- 30

43

Section 2

Two methods were introduced during the 40's and 50's for the quantification of vertical
heterogeneity on a scale of 0 (homogeneous) to 1.0 (heterogeneous). These are:
1. Lorenz Coefficient
2. Dykstra & Parsons Permeability Variation Factor
These were utilized in estimating vertical sweep efficiency of a WF project.
Areal heterogeneity was handled by conventional interpolation and extrapolation methods, such as:
1. The Assumed Trends
2. The Inverse Distance Method
3. The Inverse Distance Squared Method
Currently, numerous geostatistical techniques are being employed.

GEOSTATISTICAL TECHNIQUES
The conventional technique for mapping a property value is to contour the known values
and/or the estimated values, while incorporating geological trends, depositional features, and
personal experience of the user. Hence, these techniques are highly subjective.
The newest technique with a great deal of promise and non-subjectivity is geostatistical
treatment. It uses spatial correlations (variograms are relations of measured values
quantifying variation with distance and direction) to estimate the value of the property at all
XYZ locations. Additional soft data is incorporated honoring geological trends,
depositional features, and personal experience of the user.

44

Reservoir Characterization

RESERVOIR COMPARTMENTALIZATION ITS ASSESSMENT

Many reservoirs are compartmentalized into separate blocks. Each block may have its own oilwater contact and may contain an oil of different composition than the other blocks.
Barriers such as faults shown below may divide the reservoir into blocks that:

May not communicate with one another at all, or

May not communicate at the beginning but may start communicating under the
production-induced pressure differentials between the blocks.

Figure 2- 31

The project economics is impacted if compartmentalization information is not correct. Initial

development planning (number of wells and their locations and surface facilities requirements)
is dependent on this.
Initially, only the static data of various kinds is available. It must be analyzed to gain some
insight into the inter-block communication. Later on, dynamic (pressure and production)
data becomes available which is far more conclusive.

45

Section 2

The commonly employed methods are described below in detail.

1. RFT/MDT data
These data provide gas gradients in the gas cap, oil gradient in the oil leg, water
gradient in the water leg, and depth of free water level in each block.
2. PVT data
The oil density data under reservoir conditions (from PVT analysis) is compared
from wells in various blocks. The difference in density at similar depths can only exist if
there is no inter-block communication.
3. Well Test Data
Interpretation of long-term pressure drawdown/buildup test yields information on the
presence of lateral barriers within the well drainage radius. While such information is
non-unique, inferences may be drawn.
4. GC Fingerprinting
Oil samples from various wells are analyzed for C 10 - C12 components. These
analyses are compared statistically using cluster analysis to look for similarities and
differences between blocks.
5. Oil Maturity Indexing
Both oil samples and solvent-extracts of cores are analyzed for geo-chemical attributes
that are related to hydrocarbon maturity. These attributes are compared to look for
similarities and differences between the blocks.
6. Residual Salt Analysis (RSA)
The salts present in the non-preserved conventional cores are leached out by ultrapure distilled water and analyzed for 87SR/86SR isotopic ratio. Difference in ratios
indicates compartmentalization.
7. Fault Seal Modeling
Normalized Displacement ratio of fault displacement to reservoir thickness is
computed for each fault from the seismic data to determine what portion of sands are
in communication across the fault.

Note:
All single source evaluations provide only a partial answer due to their
individual limitations of areal coverage and measurement sensitivity. Hence,
integration of partial answers is needed to fully evaluate compartmentalization.
Accurate assessment is possible only after dynamic data becomes available.

46

Reservoir Characterization

VERTICAL HETEROGENEITY - LORENZ COEFFICIENT

List the data (k, ) fore each interval of thickness h. Calculate kh and h and arrange in a
descending kh order. The following quantities are then calculated.
1. Cumulative Fractional Pore Volume

(h / htot)

2. Cumulative Fractional Flow Capacity (kh / khtot)

A linear scale plot of 2 vs. 1 is made (shown below).

D
1.0

Figure 2- 32

The value of L for the successful floods is in the range of 0.2 to 0.4

47

Section 2

VERTICAL HETEROGENEITY - PERMEABILITY VARIATION: V

Dykstra & Parson introduced a statistical measure of reservoir heterogeneity and correlated it
with Vertical Sweep Efficiency.
List data (k) for each sample. Arrange in descending order of permeability (k). For each value,
calculate the % of number of values that are larger. Plot Perm vs. "% higher" on log probability
paper & fit straight line. Such a plot is shown below.

Figure 2- 33

This correlation was developed for California sandstone reservoirs and is applicable in a range of
mobility ratio floods at various stages (at various water-cuts) in stratified reservoirs. It is widely
used for this purpose in conventional forecasting of volumetric sweep efficiency of waterflooding.
Both L and V values are non-unique since various property distributions can result in the same
numerical value.

48

Reservoir Characterization

Note:
Ordering of property values in descending or ascending order is not
reflective of real situation. Hence, this method should not be used for layering the
reservoir for flow calculations.

The figure below shows:

On the right, the actual permeability profile of a reservoir

On the left, the permeability profile arranged in ascending order

Figure 2- 34

It is obvious that the two representations will manifest different behavior in a WF project.

It should be noted that for STATISTICAL PURPOSES, often different permeability zones are
arranged in descending k-h order (descending permeability if each zone is defined by the same
thickness, h) in order to calculate cumulative permeability thickness, or cumulative flow
contribution. For example, to set-up Lorenz and Dykstra-Parsons calculations, zones must be
ordered like this.

49

Section 2

AREAL HETEROGENEITY
Areal heterogeneity has been handled by conventional interpolation and extrapolation means.
These are described below:

THE ASSUMED TRENDS METHOD

Property distribution is contoured on the basis of a known trend. It is quite an effective method in
the hands of a person who is well versed in the regional depositional Trends.

THE INVERSE DISTANCE METHOD

The unknown value is estimated on the basis of weight factors associated with the entire data
set. The weight factors are calculated such that the influence of a known data point is inversely
proportional to its distance from the point of the unknown value.

i =

Where:

dj
n
i
VX

=
=
=
=

1

d i

i=1 d i
n

distance between the measured value and location of interest

number of nearby points
weight factor
unknown value at point x
W

VX =

V
i

i=1

50

Reservoir Characterization

THE INVERSE DISTANCE SQUARED METHOD

The unknown value is estimated on the basis of weight factors associated with the entire data
set. The weight factors are calculated such that the influence of a known data-point is inversely
proportional to the square of its distance from the point of the unknown value.

i =

1

d i

i=1 d i
n

i = 1

Figure 2- 35

51

Section 2

RESERVOIR CONNECTIVITY & PAY CONTINUITY & FLOODABILITY

Reservoir continuity and pay connectivity are the two most important factors that control
displacement processes such as waterflooding.
Figure 2-36 shows two major problems in a waterflooding project, especially in lenticular and
fluvial reservoirs.
Possible indicators of these problems include:

Poor Inter-Well Correlation

Low Net to Gross Thickness Ratio

Lower than expected Well Injectivity or Productivity

Large Difference in Reservoir Pressure from PBU & PFO Tests

Quantitative assessment is difficult at best because of the directional nature of flow. The
concept of floodable pay is demonstrated below:

Li
A

Hi

B
C

Figure 2- 36

Floodable Pay A:

Pay that completely participates in the flood. All the available

pore space is contacted by the encroaching fluid.

Partially Floodable Pay B:

Pay that partially participates in the flood. Some of the pore

space is not contacted and the resident hydrocarbons are
partially trapped by the encroaching fluid.

Non-Floodable Pay C:

Pay that does not effectively participate in the flood process.

The resident hydrocarbons remain essentially trapped and
unrecovered.

The pay continuity is quantified by the following Equation:

52

Reservoir Characterization

PERCENT CONTINUITY =

EFFECTIVE HL
TOTAL HL

There are two common methods for establishing the pay continuity in a reservoir. These fall
under two categories:
1. Tracer tests
2. Multiwell pressure interference tests
A tracer used in a waterflood project should meet most of the following criteria: safe, easy to
handle, environmentally friendly, water soluble, essentially insoluble in oil, non-adsorbent on
rock and metals, chemically inert, detectable in small amounts, inexpensive.
Tracers used are of the following types: (1) water soluble Alcohols, (2) inorganic salts such as
Ammonium, Sodium, Potassium, (3) fluorescent dyes, and (4) Radioactive substances such as
Tritiated water.
Single well pressure (PBU/PFO) tests and multi-well pressure (Pulse/Interference) tests are the
best way to assess zonal connectivity and connectivity, to locate fractures/faults, and to assess
directional property trends in a reservoir.
There are many ways to establish reservoir continuity qualitatively, once reservoir data is
available and production trends are established.
1. Regional Pressure and Production Trends
2. Ratio of OOIP estimate from Volumetric and MBE
If this ratio is = 1, all pay is participating.
If this ratio is < 1, some pay is isolated and not participating.
3. Ratio of EUR (estimated ultimate recovery) from a simulation model study
(utilizing a history-matched model) and the decline curve analysis.
If the two values are close, all pay is participating. If simulation estimate is greater than
the decline curve analysis, some pay is not connected to the producing wells.
Continuity/connectivity between two wells can be quantitatively measured and plotted
versus the horizontal distance. Figure 2-37 below shows such a relationship for the Means
San Andres reservoir (under a pattern waterflood earlier and now under a pattern CO2 - Flood)
in West Texas.

53

Section 2

Figure 2- 37

Note:
Sands may not be correlative between wells, but they may still be connected
(in the 3-D pore space).

FLOODABILITY
Floodability of pay is a very important aspect in a WF process. To be floodable, a pay interval
must be:
1. Continuous between injector and producer
2. Injection supported
3. Effectively completed in a producer
Hence, all the continuous pay is not necessarily floodable.
The two-well schematic below illustrates the difference between continuity and floodability.

54

Reservoir Characterization

Figure 2- 38

Layers A, D, F, and H are geologically continuous. They together contain 2/3 of the inter-well pore
volume.
Layers C and H are injection supported.
Layers D and H are completed effectively in the producer.
Layer H is the only one that is effectively floodable.

55

Section 2

EMPIRICAL LAWS OF HETEROGENEITY

1. All reservoirs are heterogeneous in rock and fluid properties
When we know little about them, we assume them to be homogeneous
2. The more we get to know them, the more heterogeneous they become
Heterogeneity is proportional to the amount of time, effort and money spent
3. Heterogeneity has major impact on reservoir risks and uncertainty related to:

Volumes of hydrocarbons-in-place

Recovery Efficiency

Well Productivity

Reservoir Performance

4. Unless you walk a mile or two along the outcrop of the reservoir formation, you will
have little appreciation of rock heterogeneity

56

Reservoir Characterization

HYDROCARBON CLASSIFICATION
Hydrocarbons are classified with respect to their state under the reservoir Pressure and
Temperature conditions. Surface conditions (P & T) are also considered when classifying
the production.
Hydrocarbon systems in the reservoir are divided into five main categories;
1. Dry Gas
2. Wet Gas
3. Gas Condensate
4. Volatile (high shrinkage) Oil
5. Black (low shrinkage) Oil
A simple sub-division on the basis of solution gas-oil ration is given below.

Figure 2- 39

Black Oils and Volatile Oils are candidates for a WF project. A volatile oil requires more
serious consideration due to its nature of rapidly changing into gas when pressure falls below
the bubble point pressure.
Gas reservoirs (dry, rich, or condensate) are never intentionally waterflooded, as a large
fraction of the gas is left trapped in the reservoir due to the water-wet nature of the rock.

57

Section 2

CANDIDATE RESERVOIRS FOR WATERFLOODING

Figure 2- 40

58

Reservoir Characterization

PHASE BEHAVIOR
Classification of a Multi-Component System

Figure 2- 41

59

Section 2

Definitions
Bubble Point Curve: The locus of the points of pressure and temperature at which the first
bubble of gas is formed in passing from the liquid to the two-phase region.
Dew Point Curve: The locus of the points of pressure and temperature at which the first droplet
of liquid is formed in passing from the vapor to the two--phase region.
Two-Phase Region: That region enclosed by the bubble point line and dew point line wherein
gas and liquid co-exist in equilibrium.
Critical Point: That state of pressure and temperature at which the intensive properties of each
phase are identical. Also, the junction of the bubble point and dew point curve.
Critical Temperature: The temperature at the critical point.
Critical Pressure: The pressure at the critical point.
Iso Vol or Iso Volume Lines (quality lines): The loci of points of equal liquid volume percent
within the two-phase region that intersect at the identical point..
Saturation Pressure: Bubble point pressure (for liquid systems) or dew point pressure (for
gaseous systems).

60

Reservoir Characterization

BLACK (LOW SHRINKAGE) OIL

Conditions

Critical point lies to the right of the Cricondenbar

Quality Lines are closely spaced near the Dew Point line

Production Behavior During Pressure Depletion

Produced fluids in the separators are in two phases

Substantial amount of liquids recovery
GOR <1,000 SCF/STB
Oil Gravity < 45 API
Color is black to dark brown/green

Producing GOR continues to increase with time, as shown on

the right

Oil gravity decreases gradually during most of the producing

life. Later in the life (when the producing gas becomes wet),
gravity increases due to the addition of gas condensate to
the oil

Production Behavior During Waterflooding

Waterflood projects have been initiated at various pressure levels ranging between A and
B. Their performance differs from one another.

61

Section 2

VOLATILE (HIGH SHRINKAGE) OIL

Conditions

Critical Point lies to the right of the Cricondenbar

Reservoir temperature is closer to the Critical temperature

Production Behavior During Pressure Depletion

Produced fluids in the separators are in two phases

Low liquid recoveries
GOR <1,750 SCF/STB
Oil Gravity 40 Degrees API
Some color
FVF > 2 RB/STB

Producing GOR increases with time but far less than for the
Black Oils

Oil gravity increases gradually with the addition of condensates

from the gas into the produced oil phase

Production Behavior During Waterflooding

Waterflood projects have been initiated at various pressure levels ranging between A and
Bubble Point Pressure (or not very far from there).

62

Reservoir Characterization

Figure 2- 42. Volume Relationship for a black oil system.

63

Section 2

PVT PROPERTIES OF BLACK OIL

64

Reservoir Characterization

Relationship Between Surface & Reservoir Conditions

Figure 2- 43

65

Section 2

Oil Formation Volume Factor = Bo

Units: BBL / STB

This is the volume in BBL that one STB of oil and its dissolved solution gas (Rso) occupies
in the reservoir at P and T.

Water Formation Volume Factor = Bw

Units: BBL/STB

This is the volume in BBL that one STB of water and its dissolved solution gas (Rsw)
occupies in the reservoir at reservoir P and T.

Gas Formation Volume Factor = Bg

Units; CF/SCF

This is the volume in Cubic Feet that one Standard Cubic Feet of gas occupies in the
reservoir at reservoir P and T.

Solution Gas-Oil Ratio - Rs

Units; SCF/STB

This is the volume of gas in SCF that is dissolved in one STB of oil under reservoir P and T.

Two-phase Formation Volume Factor = Bt

Units: BBL/STB

Bt = Bo + (Rsi - Rs) Bg
This in the volume in the reservoir (P&T) that is occupied by one STB of oil and its dissolved
gas (P&T) plus the free gas evolving out of the oil due to pressure drop from Pb to P.

66

Reservoir Characterization

OILFIELD WATERS
FORMATION WATER
The naturally occurring water in the reservoir pore space at discovery is called the formation
water or the interstitial water. Since it has been associated with the particular reservoir rock and
crude oil over a long period of time, it is in the state of complete chemical equilibrium.

INJECTION WATER
Injection waters are procured from various ground and underground sources.
Ground Water; Sea, River, Lakes
Underground Water: Shallow Aquifers, Recycled Produced water from oil reservoirs
Four properties of interest are:
1. Dissolve Salts (TDS in parts per million)
Cations:

Na +, K+, NH4+, Ca++, Mg++, Ba++, Sr++, Fe++

Anions:

Cl-, Br-, OH-, HCO3-, CO3--SO4--, BO2--, CO3--, PO4--

Fatty Acids:

Formic, Acetic

2. Dissolved Gases CO2, H2S, CH4, O2

3. Suspended Solids of various sizes and concentration.
4. pH Value
Below are illustrative examples of various waters from a Saudi Arabian project.
Ions

Sodium
Calcium
Magnesium
Sulfate
Chloride
Carbonate
Bicarbonate
Hydroxide
Total dissolved solids

Arab-D
Produced
Water
26,339
6,668
1,228
648
55,263
0
433
0
90,580

Wasia
Aquifer
2,206
560
116
1,099
3,800
0
206
0
7,987

Ras. Tanura
Sea Water
13,200
516
1,690
3,240
23,700
6
103
0
42,500

67

Section 2

WATER PROPERTIES
The following physical properties are of interest:
1.

2.

3.

68

Density of Water is 1.0 gm/cc (350 Pound/BBL)

Amount of Dissolved Natural Gas in Water, Rsw
Solubility of natural gas in water is quite low
Average of 10 to 20 SCF/STB
Formation Volume Factor of Water, Bw
Assume equal to 1.0 RBBL/STB

4.

Compressibility of Water, Cw

5.

Viscosity of Water

Reservoir Characterization

CHEMISTRY OF WATER MOVEMENT THROUGH THE RESERVOIR

As the injection water (varying concentration of dissolved salts) moves through the reservoir, it
contacts the formation water and hydrocarbons.

Stripping takes place and water picks up some light ends, CO2 and H2S, as shown in
the figure below.

Figure 2- 44

Solubility of natural gas in water is a function of temperature, pressure and TDS.

69

Section 2

Figure 2- 45

70

Reservoir Characterization

ROCK AND FLUID PROPERTIES

FOR AN IDEAL

WATERFLOOD PROJECT

1. Homogeneous and Non-Fractured Reservoir

2. Non-Partitioned, Isotropic (Kx = Ky), and Continuous Pay
3. High Porosity & Permeability Rock
4. Low Permeability Contrast between Layers
5. High Ky/Kh Ratio for High Relief Structures
6. Low Kv/Kh Ratio for Flat Structures
7. No Water Sensitive Clays
8. Water-Wet Rock
9. High Transmissibility between Flanks and Center (for Peripheral Injection Scheme)
10. High Oil Target
11. Low Oil Viscosity
12. Reservoir Average Pressure Higher than Bubble Point Pressure (No Free Gas Saturation)
13. Thick Oil Column with Small Oil-Water Transition Zone
14. Low Initial Water Saturation in Oil Column
15. Minimal Gas Saturation in Oil Column
16. No Gas Cap
17. Availability of Injection Water
18. Quality of Water
19. Chemical Compatibility between Waters & Oil
20. On-Shore Location

71

Section 2

CASE STUDY NO. 1

CHANGE IN GEOLOGIC CONCEPTS FORCE A CHANGE IN WATERFLOOD PLAN

The San Andres carbonate reservoir in the Denver Unit in Wasson San Andres field, Texas
was produced at 40-Acre well spacing under the solution gas drive recovery scheme. A
waterflood project was thereafter initiated to increase oil rate and recover additional oil.
Based on the initial geological concept that reservoir is continuous with a common OWC, water
was injected below OWC in the edge wells. Water was expected to move laterally in the aquifer
and push oil vertically upwards.
The peripheral waterflood did not perform as expected:
1. IPR (injection-production ratio) could not be sustained, as injectivity in the edge wells
was low due to lower Kh.
2. Oil response was erratic; some up-dip wells showed rate gain while others did not
experience any pressure or rate increase
A detailed geologic study incorporating pressure-production data showed that pay zones are
not only discontinuous (not floodable on the 40-Acre well spacing) but also have different
OWC's.
Based on the new geological concept, the peripheral plan was modified into a pattern flood and
infill wells were drilled on 20-Acre well spacing.

72

Reservoir Characterization

The pattern flood had a great success. After the waterflood reached its economic limit, a
CO2-flood was initiated and the well spacing was further reduced to 10-Acre spacing. It is
currently an ongoing successful EOR project.

73

Section 2

CASE STUDY NO. 2

NEW TECHNOLOGY AIDS RESERVOIR CHARACTERIZATION
Peripheral water injection in the Ghawar Arab-D reservoir, Saudi Arabia, efficiently displaced oil
from the flanks of the reservoir to the crestal producers, until water breakthrough occurred in an
erratic manner in some flank wells while others in similar structural locations continued to
produce dry oil. This is depicted in the figure below.
No hard data was there to indicate faults and fractures in the reservoir. No well had ever
crossed a fault, and well tests had not positively identified any fault or major discontinuity. In
addition, there was a common belief (miss-belief) that faults in limestone and dolomite
reservoirs cannot exist and will heal up if induced.

To match flood fronts and water-cut history in wet wells, reservoir simulation models of the 1960
through 1980's resorted to dramatically increasing rock permeability in localized areas arbitrarily.
These models resulted in good history-matches (of course), but their forecasts deviated badly
from performance data on flood front and water production.
In the late 1980's and early 1990's, 3-D seismic surveys and Image Log data positively
confirmed for the first time the existence of fracture clusters and faults in the reservoir. The
newer simulation models, based upon the geological models that incorporated faults and
fracture clusters in the reservoir maps, matched history with only minor changes and
produced forecasts that were in good agreement with the performance data.

PROBLEM NO. 1
Oil reservoirs A, B, and C, shown in the figure below, share a common aquifer and are in
hydrodynamic equilibrium.

74

Reservoir Characterization

How would you classify these pressure systems at discovery?

Normal Pressure

Geo Pressure (Abnormal)

Sub-Normal Pressure

PROBLEM NO. 2
RFT pressure data has been collected in an infill well in a stratified sand/shale reservoir.
Interpret this data for the effect of the shale layers on reservoir flow continuity. What other
information can you deduce?

75

Section 2

PROBLEM NO. 3
Estimate oil-water contact in the reservoir shown below. The available data is:
1. The discovery well A found full oil (oil gradient = 0.35 psi/ft) column with pressure of
400 psig at 450 ft ss.
2. The first delineation well B was wet (water gradient = 0.45 psi/ft) with pressure of 1,750
psig at 1,800 ft ss.

76

Reservoir Characterization

PROBLEM NO. 4
Below are Samples taken from 5 different layers in a reservoir, one sample is taken from each
layer.
Samples were taken from 3 different wells
1) Average the data and develop a semi-log Permeability - Porosity correlation for the entire
reservoir.
2) Should you use one Permeability - Porosity correlation for the entire reservoir?
Well #1

Well #2

Well #3

Interval Porosity
Thickness
h (ft)

k(md)

k(md)

k(md)

0.05

0.1

0.2

0.2

10

0.10

0.8

0.5

30

0.15

10

3.2

1.2

25

0.20

100

12.6

3.0

10

0.25

1000

50.0

7.5

77

Section 2

PROBLEM NO. 5 & 6

Below are Samples taken from 5 different layers. Samples have been analyzed from each
layer. 3 different rock types with different Perm-Porosity relationships (the same Porosity in this
example is used for simplicity) have been developed for this reservoir.
1) Determine the Lorenz Coefficient of Heterogeneity for each rock type.
2) If these rock types can be identified easily in different areas of the field, then which areas will
make the best candidate for Waterflooding?
Well #1

Well #2

Well #3

Interval Porosity
Thickness
h (ft)

k(md)

k(md)

k(md)

0.05

0.1

0.2

0.2

10

0.10

0.8

0.5

30

0.15

10

3.2

1.2

25

0.20

100

12.6

3.0

10

0.25

1000

50.0

7.5

For PROBLEM #6
1) Determine the Dykstra Parsons Coefficient of Heterogeneity for each rock type. Make the
assumption that each sample represents a sample for every foot of pay. (In other words, for
Rock #1 there 10 samples of 1000 md perm, 25 samples of 100 md perm, etc.)
2) COMPARE THESE RESULTS WITH THE NUMBERS OBTAINED FROM THE LORENZ CALCULATIONS AND IDENTIFY
ANY KEY DIFFERENCES.

PROBLEM NO. 7

An irregular shaped sand body, shown below, is to be water flooded.

78

Reservoir Characterization

Identify the following sand bodies:

1. Attic oil
2. Dead Ends (Trapped) oil
3. Floodable oil

PROBLEM NO. 8
Estimate permeability value at the observation well X from the data given on four of the wells
in a waterflood pilot, by using all conventional methods.

79

Section 2

PROBLEM NO. 9
Calculate continuity percent between Wells 1 and 2 in the reservoir with the stratification shown
below:

What will be the benefit of drilling Infill Well 3 on the continuity percent?

PROBLEM NO. 10
Red Reservoir, Average Relative Permeability Characteristics
Two samples having porosity values of 12.3% and 22.7% have been tested to determine their
water-oil relative permeability characteristics. These are provided on the attached Data sheet.
Questions
1. What definition of absolute permeability was used to prepare these curves?
2. For the sample with 22.7% porosity, what are the effective permeabilities to oil and water at
a water saturation of 49 percent?
3. Does the rock from which these samples were obtained appear to be water-wet or oil-wet?

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Reservoir Characterization

Laboratory Relative Permeability Results

Sample 3A
Porosity (frac) =
Air Permeability (md) =
Permeability to Oil at Swir (md) =
Sw
0.231
0.318
0.404
0.491
0.577
0.664
0.750

Kro
1.000
0.680
0.430
0.250
0.120
0.050
0.000

0.227
23.8
21.4

Krw
0.000
0.020
0.045
0.078
0.130
0.190
0.280

Sample 7C:
Porosity (frac) =
Air Permeability (md) =
Permeability to Oil at Swir (md) =
Sw
0.350
0.423
0.496
0.569
0.642
0.715
0.789

Kro
1.000
0.700
0.500
0.330
0.160
0.060
0.000

0.123
5.3
4.5

Krw
0.000
0.015
0.050
0.080
0.110
0.190
0.300

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Section 2

PROBLEM NO. 11
Calculate injection water requirement for maintaining average reservoir pressure at 3,000 psig
and temperature of 100F in order to provide for voidage replacement balance, at the time
when oil production rate is 5,000 STB/Day, gas production rate is 10 MMSCF/Day, and water
production rate is 1,000 STB/Day.
Fluid properties and given below:
Oil Formation Volume Factor = 1.2 RB/STB
Gas Formation Volume Factor - 0.001 RB/SCF
Water Formation Volume Factor = 1.0 RB/STB
Solution GOR at 3,000 psig & 100F = 500 SCF/STB

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