Topic 3: Human Population, Carrying

Capacity and Resource Use

3.1.1
Over time the numbers of individuals in populations change. For example if we
were to examine bacteria we would see that within a 24 hour period the number
of bacteria would increase dramatically. Bacteria are
able to reproduce asexually by splitting so 1
becomes 2, 2 becomes 4, and so on. This is called
exponential or geometric growth. Exponential
growth of bacteria is represented graphically by a Jcurve as seen alongside. Time is on the x-axis and
number of individuals on the y-axis.
The human population has also been growing at an
exponential rate. Exponential growth occurs only
when species are living in optimal conditions, have enough food, water and
space. Limiting factors often reduce or stop population growth. There are two
types of limiting factors: density-dependent; and density-independent
limiting factors.
Density-dependent limiting factors: are biotic and their effects increase
with increased population size. They act as a negative feedback mechanism and
lead to stability or regulation of the population. They are divided in to internal
and external factors.
Internal factors act within species (intra-specific competition),
example: limited food supply (leads to competition), limited
availability of territory (weaker animals forced out); and
density-dependent fertility (some species show reduced
fertility with greater population densities). External factors
act between different species (inter-specific competition),
for example: predation (increased numbers of prey lead to
increased numbers of predators which will eventually lead
to decreased numbers of prey and thus predators); and
disease (high population densities diseases spread fast
and have strong effect on population size).

for

Density-independent limiting factors:

tend to be abiotic and their effects are not
related to population density, for example:
weather (short term, i.e. storm); climate
(long term, i.e. cold winter); volcanic
eruptions; and floods. These factors are not
part of a feedback mechanism as their effect
is not related to population size.

These two different types of limiting factors give rise to two different growth
patterns: S-curves and J-curves.

S-curve

J-curve

S-curve: population growth rate is exponential at first, but then slows

gradually. This is indicative of a population affected by density-dependent
limiting factors (E.g. availability of food resources decreases). The point at
which the population stabilises is known as the carrying capacity (the
maximum number of individuals of that species that the ecosystem can
support). The point at which population growth is slowed is caused by an
environmental resistance factor (lack of food).
J-curve: population growth is exponential at first until it drops drastically. This
point is called a dieback. Diebacks are caused by the rapid rate at which the
carrying capacity is reached. The carrying capacity can be overshot for a brief
moment as affects to the population size take effect. The human race can be
considered to be at this point. Human population growth obviously varies from
country to country with most MEDCs, population grow is slowing, but with most
LEDCs the population rate is still relatively high in comparison.

3.1.2
Demographics: refers to the study of the dynamics of population change. Too
many people in one geographical area, using local natural resources beyond a
sustainable level and producing waste at a rate greater than can be assimilated

back into the environment can be viewed as an environmental problem

associated with the size of the population. Human population affects the
environment:
More people require more resources
More people produce more waste
The more people that there are, the greater the impact that they have
Control population increase and you control resource demand
Therefore population control and sustainability are intrinsically linked
Measures of population change: Four
main factors affect population size of
organisms, they are: birth rate; death rate;
immigration; and emigration.
Therefore the four aspects which measure
population change are crude birth rate,
crude death rate, doubling rate, and
natural increase rate.
Crude birth rate (CBR): is the number of
births per thousand individuals in a population per year. The current crude birth
rate for the world is 20.3 per 1000 per year.
Crude death rate (CDR): is the number of deaths per thousand individuals
per year. The crude death rate for the world is 9.6 per 1000 per year.
The crude death rate and birth rate are calculated by dividing the number of
births or deaths by the population and then multiplying by 1000.
Natural increase rate (NIR): is calculated as follows: (crude birth rate crude
death rate) divided by ten. This gives the natural increase rate as a percentage.
It excludes the effects of migration.
Doubling rate is the time it takes in years for the population to double in size.
Population growth: can be defined in terms of birth rate, doubling time, and
fertility rate.
Total fertility rate: is the average number of children each woman has over
her lifetime. A fertility rate higher than 2.0 results in population increase, while
a rate lower than 2.0 will result in population decrease. Fertility rate is the
number of births per thousand women of child bearing age. The difference
between fertility rate and birth rate is that birth rate is expressed as a
percentage of the population, not of each woman. However crude birth rate is
usually more commonly used (births per 1000 individuals).
See Pg 168: To do exercise for examples.

3.1.3
Population pyramids: show how many individuals are alive in different age
groups in a country for a given year. They also show how many are male and
female. Population numbers are always on the x-axis and age groups on the yaxis. The overall stage can depict the stage of development of the country at a
particular time. LEDCs tend to have expanding populations so they are wide at
the bottom, whereas MEDCs tend to have stationary or contracting pyramids as
birth rates fall and individuals live longer.

Stage 1: High birth rate; rapid fall in each upward age group due high death
rates; short life expectancy.
Stage 2: High birth rate; fall in death rate as more living to middle age; slightly
longer life expectancy.
Stage 3: Declining birth rate; low death rate; more people living to old age.
Stage 4: Low birth rate; low death rate; higher dependency ratio; longer life
expectancy.
Demographic transition model: describes the pattern of decline in mortality
and fertility of a country as a result of social and economic development.
It is compromised of four stages:

1) Pre-industrial Society: high birth rate due to no birth control; high

infant mortality rates; cultural factors encouraging large families. High
death rates due to disease, famine, poor
hygiene, and little medicine.
2) LEDC: Death rate drops as sanitation and food
improves, disease is reduced so lifespan
increases. Birth rate is still high so population
expands rapidly and child mortality falls due to
improved medicine.
3)
Wealthier LEDC: As a country
becomes more developed, birth
rates also fall due to access to contraception, improved
health care, education, emancipation of women. Population
begins to level off and desire for material goods and low infant death
rates mean that people have smaller families.
4) MEDC: low birth rates and death rates. Industrialized countries. Stable
population sizes.
5) MEDC: Population may not be replaced as fertility rate is low. Problems of
aging workforce.
The model seeks to explain changes in some countries but not others. Some
countries due to war and civil unrest do not follow the model. It has been
criticized as extrapolating the European model worldwide.

3.1.4
Models may be very generalized and simple to use, or so complex that they are
difficult to use. They should present the significant factors without extra detail
that may confuse people. They should serve to help us make predictions and
sense of the real world. There are various population growth models including
computer models. All of these models have their advantages and
disadvantages. Most criticisms are based on the fact that they are over
simplified or represent only certain types of populations for example only
LEDCs or MEDCs. Pyramids are a fairly useful graphical representation of
populations and their demographics. Extrapolation of population curves is often
rather inaccurate but doe serve to assist us in making predictions and while
they often over-exaggerate the problem this often serves to inspire quicker
action and solutions.

3.2.1
Natural Income: refers to the yield or harvest or services provided by the
environment. The most important aspect of natural income is that it is natural
and we do not need to give anything to get it, we only need look after it.
Therefore the Earth has presented us with a wealth of resources which we can
and do profit from. They will also continue to produce profit for us if we utilize
them in a sustainable manner.

3.2.2
Natural Capital: refers to the goods
and services that are not manufactured
but have value to humans. We are able
to process this natural capital in order
to add value to them; however we can
not manufacture them. Natural Capital
can also refer to processes, such as
photosynthesis which provides us with
oxygen in order to respire. It also
includes the water cycle and all other
processes that we require in order to
maintain our natural ecosystems.
Renewable resources: refers to living resources that can be replaced or are
able to restock themselves, i.e. they can grow back. Timber, for example, can
be harvested and then more trees planted to be harvested once again in the
future. But renewable resources (natural capital) can run out if the standing
stock is harvested unsustainably, i.e. more is taken than can be replaced by
natural growth rates.
Replenishable resources: is arguably the middle ground between renewable
and non-renewable, however they tend to be replaced over such a long period
of time that they can not be considered renewable. A good example is
groundwater, which can be used as a resource but can be depleted. The same is
true for oil and gas which can be depleted however
they will not replenish themselves. Water can be
considered either a renewable resource if you live in
an area which experiences plentiful rainfall, or a
replenishable resource if you live in a desert area
where aquifers take time to replenish.

Non-renewable resource: are resources that exist in finite amounts on Earth

and are not renewed or replaced after they are depleted. These include fossil
fuels such as oil, gas, and coal. As the resources are used the natural capital or
stocks are depleted.

3.2.3
The importance of a resource varies with time. Resource available now may not
be available in the future; likewise a resource available in the past may not be
available today. The value of resources changes with time too. Technocentrics
believe that new discoveries will provide new solutions to old problems, for
example, harvesting algae as a food source. Arrowheads made from flint rock
are no longer in demand and Uranium for nuclear power generation is.
Resources can be valued in several ways:
Economic: having marketable goods or services, e.g. timber and food.
Ecological: providing life-support services, e.g. water storage and gas
exchange by plants.
Scientific/technological: useful for applications, e.g. genetic, medicinal
use.
Intrinsic: having cultural, aesthetic, spiritual or philosophical values.
The main issue revolving around resources and
resource use is that of sustainability. Are we using a
resource in a sustainable manner? Agriculture or
logging might be viewed as being sustainable,
however if the soil fertility and structure degrades
over time, and the forests are enable to replenish
themselves, it is no longer sustainable. The key is to
harvest below the maximum sustainable yield, i.e. the amount that nature is
able to replace.

3.2.4
Since the early 1980s UNEP has been attempting to
utilise a system of intergrated environmental and
economic accounting (or socio-economic environmental
assessment SEEA) to try and value the environment
and track resource depletion. If countries would include
the cost of degrading their natural environments and
resources within their
GNP (gross national
product) the real cost
and health of a nation
would be clearer to
see. By acknowledging
our
environmental
impact as a cost we can better make
decisions on what is or is not profitable to our
nations and our people in the long run.
SEE ALSO ABOVE INFORMATION

3.2.5
Sustainability very basically refers to living in a way that we can do so
indefinitely by utilising the environment, with all its natural resources and
services, in a manner that we allow it to replenish itself. We have already
established that natural capital refers to those goods and services that the
environment provides us with. If we are to truly live in a sustainable way we
need to make use of those goods and services in a manner that the natural
capital can be renewed. Therefore as with a business which can only survive if it
makes enough profit to cover its costs we need to only use (cost) the
environment that which its profit or natural income allows us.

3.2.6
Sustainable
development:
is
development
that
meets current needs
without compromising
the ability of future
generations to meet
their needs and without
degrading
the
environment. Therefore
in order to develop in
a sustainable way the
economic growth of a
nation and our planet as
a whole needs to be
considered from within a
sustainable
framework. In order to
develop
in
a
sustainable manner we
therefore
need
to
consider
firstly
the
planet (environment) then society and lastly our economic needs.

SEE ALSO ABOVE INFORMATION IN TABLE.

3.3.1
All our energy on Earth originates with the sun. The suns energy drives the
climate, geochemical cycles (carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, etc),
photosynthesis, animal life, and everything else. Humans obtain their energy
from the sun via plants and via fossilised plants in the form of fossil fuels. Fossil
fuels are sources of stored energy from the sun,
from
remains of organic life from
millions of
years ago, which can now
be
extracted and burned by
humans. Oil is our greatest
source of energy at the
moment, supplying 37% of
all
energy demands. Coal is
the

next with 25% and then natural gas with 23%. Fossil fuels therefore power 80%
of the worlds economy. The other energy comes from nuclear (about 5%) and
renewable resources (about 15%).
Of the 15% of renewable energy 3%
comes from burning biomass, 3% from hydro-electric power, and the other
sources (solar, wind, geothermal) provide the remainder. Obviously fossil fuels
will not last forever and estimates predict the following:

Oil 50 years
Natural gas 70 years
Coal 250 years

However these estimates are all dependent on how much we use and how fast
as well as the technologies that are developed. What is for certain is that we will
run out.
3.3.2
Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of two contrasting energy
resources
Energy Source
From
Advantages
Disadvantages
Non-Renewable:
Coal
Fossilised
plants Plentiful
supply. Non-renewable
laid down in the Easy to transport energy
source.
coniferous forests, as a soil. Needs Cannot
be
mined from the no
processing. replaced
once
seems
of
coal Relatively cheap used.
Burning
which are in strata to
mine
and releases
carbon
between
other convert to energy dioxide and other
types of rock. May by burning. Up to greenhouse
be
open
cast 250 years of coal gases, especially
mined,
or
by left.
sulphur
dioxide
tunnels
which causes acid
underground. Burnt
deposition.
to provide heat
Particles of soot
directly
or
from burning form
electricity
by
smog and cause
burning to turn
lung
diseases.
turbines in power
Coal
mines
stations.
degrade
the
environment.
Lower heat of
combustion than
other fossil fuels,
i.e. less energy
released per unit
mass.
Renewable:
Wind Power
Wind turbines turn Clean
energy Need the wind to
wind energy into supply
once blow. Often windy

electricity. Can be
found
as
wind
farms with many
turbines
or
individually.

turbine
shave
been made. Little
maintenance
required.
Renewable
and
sustainable.

sites not near

populated areas.
Manufacture and
implementation
of wind farms can
be costly. Noise
pollution.
Some
local
people
object to on-shore
wind farms, as
spoils
countryside.
Question
of
whether birds are
killed
or
migratory
patterns
interfered with by
presence
of
turbines.

3.3.3
Factors affecting the choice of energy resources
The world is currently in an energy crisis yet we continue
to use non-renewable resources at an increasing rate.
Renewable resources and nuclear energy are the only
choices that we are presented with now. Unless we revert
to a smaller population which can be supported by solar energy alone we need
to find alternative resources, such as hydrogen economy where hydrogen is the
fuel that provides energy for transport, industry and electrical generation. There
prototype engines and cars that use hydrogen fuel releasing water as their
waste product. But hydrogen is highly flammable and therefore difficult to
handle and transport.

In nuclear fusion, energy can be released by the

fusion of two nuclei of light elements, e.g.
hydrogen. In theory we could generate energy
sustainably in this way. Obviously we need to look
to renewable and therefore sustainable ways to
generate the energy we require in order to satisfy
our needs and the need to take care of the
environment.
Nuclear fusion

3.4.1
Soil is a very important abiotic factor in any ecosystem, without adequate soil
no ecosystem can function in a stable and sustainable manner. Soil is made up
of four major components, namely:
Mineral particles mainly from
underlying rock
Organic remains of dead plants
and animals
Water in the spaces between soil
particles
Air in the spaces between soil
particles
Soil provides a habitat for not only
plants but also burrowing animals such
as invertebrates, micro-organisms, and
larger animals such as rabbits, moles,
meerkats, etc.We can therefore say
that they are constitutes of the soil
along
with
air,
water,
humus
(decomposed organic matter), and rock
particles.
Soil Profile: if you were to dig a trench the side of the trench would show a
cross-section of the soil or a soil profile. Most soils will have more or less clearly
defined layers or horizons. When organisms die they often end up on top of the
soil. There fungi, bacteria and other decomposers will start to decompose the
dead material. Often, however, the decomposition process is not completed and
you end up with a dark layer of organic matter called humus.
Under the humus layer the soil consists of inorganic matter which is formed by
erosion of rocks. Within this layers are formed by water either moving up or
down, translocation. In hot, dry climates where precipitation is less than
evaporation, water is evaporating at the soil surface and water from lower soil
layers is being moved upwards. When it does so it carries dissolved minerals to
the soil surface and then evaporates leaving them there, this is called
salinization.

In colder climates, however, water is carried down through the layers and
therefore carries minerals down with it, which we call leaching. The soil layer
that loses minerals is called the eluvial or eluviation layer. The layer in which
the minerals are deposited is called the illuvial or illuviation layer. When this
process is intense the soil becomes acidic and podsolization occurs as the soil
becomes a podsol with nutrient poor and bleached A horizon and a B horizon
full of iron oxide which is red. In gleying water can not drain away and the soil
becomes water logged and anerobic conditions occur, iron oxide is then reduced
and becomes blue-grey forming gley soil.
Many tropical soils are red due to the high temperature and precipitation which
leaches the soil, speeds up chemical weathering and results in silica forming
from clay breakdown. The silica is leached away leaving sequestered iron and
aluminium oxides which are not translocated, so the soil looks red. This is called
ferallitization.

Soil Horizons:
O horizon: many soils also contain an uppermost layer of newly added
organic matter such as leaf litter. This is called the O horizon.
A horizon: upper layer. This is where many soils humus builds up. Humus
that contains a high quantity of alkaline mineral is called mull humus
whereas that which contains low alkaline minerals forms acidic mor
humus.
E horizon: is not always present but in older soils it is the layer where
minerals and organic matter have been leached from the soil, leaving a
pale layer which is mostly silica.
B horizon: is the layer where soluble minerals and organic matter tend to
be deposited from the layer above. In particular clay and iron salts can be
deposited here.
C horizon: mainly weathered rock from which the soil forms.
R horizon: parent material (bedrock or other medium).
SEE ALSO ABOVE INFORMATION IN TABLE

3.4.2

Soil texture: The mineral portion of the soil can be divided up into three
particles based on size: sand; silt and clay. Most solids consist of a mixture of
these, and the texture therefore depends on the relative proportions of these
particles.
Sandy soils are gritty and fall apart easily.
Silty soils feel slippery when wet and hold together better than sandy soils.
Clay soils feel sticky and can be rolled into a ball very easily. If fairly equal
proportions of these soil particles exist in a soil it is said to be loam.
Loam soils are fairly fertile, drain well and can be worked easily, which makes
them the soil of choice for agricultural use. Soil texture determines the soils
fertility and primary productivity. Loam soils encompass the best qualities of all
three types of soil particles. The sand particles ensure good drainage and a
good air supply to the roots. The clay soil retains water (water-holding capacity)
and supplies nutrients. The silt particles help to hold the sand and clay particles
together.

Composition (%)
Sand
Silt
Clay
Mineral Content
Potential to hold
organic matter
Drainage
Water-holding
capacity
Air Spaces
Plants
and
Animals
Primary
Productivity

Sandy soil

Clay soil

Loam soil

100
High
Low

15
15
70
High
Low

40
20
40
Intermediate
Intermediate

Very Good
Low

Poor
Very High

Good
Intermediate

Large
Low

Small
Low

Intermediate
High

Low

Quite Low

High

3.4.3 Soil degradation

It could be argued that land degradation is the most pressing environmental
and social problem facing society today. For the worlds poor, soil and soil
fertility and therefore productivity is the most pressing issue In addition the
depletion of fuel wood supplies due to unsustainable rates of use, lack of
drinking water and poor sanitation, all of which can be linked to poor soil
management. As populations expand and as the social and cultural changes
occur, ever greater demands are being made on greater areas of landscape and
soil.
Two types of processes can give rise to soil degradation:
Processes that take away the soil (erosion). This mainly occurs when there
is no vegetation on the soil. Wind and water can then simply take the soil
away.
Processes that make soil less suitable for use. In these processes
chemicals end up in the soil and make the soil useless in the long run.
Soil Erosion:
Three major processes of soil erosion exist:
1) Sheet wash: large areas of surface soil are
washed away during heavy storms, moving as
landslides in mountainous areas
2) Gullying: channels develop following rainfall.
Over time these channels become larger.
3) Wind erosion: on drier soils high winds
continually remove the surface layer.
Each of these processes can be triggered by a number of causes. Examples of
human activities that lead to soil degradation are: overgrazing and
overcropping;
deforestation;
and
unsustainable agriculture. Overgrazing leads to
a loss of plant life which is necessary to hold the soil
together.
Overcropping
depletes soil nutrients, which
reduces soil fertility as no
nutrients are able to be
returned
to
the
soil.
Deforestation is the removal of forests. Obviously the
more trees that are removed the greater the soil erosion.
The leaves of trees and other plants deflect and slow down
rain which would otherwise cut into the soil and cause
greater
amounts
of
soil
to
be
washed away.
Unsustainable agriculture techniques
are techniques that cannot be applied
over a long period of time without
decreasing
productivity.
Examples
include: total removal of crops after

harvest; growing crops in rows with gaps in between; ploughing in the direction
of the slope; excessive use of pesticides; and irrigation, in many methods a lot
of the water evaporates before the crops can absorb it.

3.4.4 Soil Conservation Measures

There are various techniques that can
be employed in order to conserve soil
and soil nutrients. The following are
examples of such measures:
Addition
of
soil
conditioners, for example lime
(reduce acidity for acid rain)
and organic materials (straw,
green
manure
crops
add
nutrients to soil)
Wind reduction, for example
by planting trees or bushes or
by alternating low and high
crops (strip cultivation) Alternatively build fences
Soil conserving cultivation techniques:
Cover crops (planting fast-growing crops to
cover soil & reduce erosion)
Terracing (reducing steepness of slope by
replacing with series of horizontal terraces, e.g.
Asian wet rice fields)

Ploughing (helps break up lumps and increase drainage, and mix

in humus)
Contour
farming
(ploughing
and
cultivating along the contour of a slope
(parallel) which prevents water rushing
downhill however modern machinery has
problems with this

Improved irrigation techniques, careful planning

evaporation and desalinization (trickle flow irrigation)

can

reduce

Crop rotation, some crops require

more fertile soils than others (for example
legumes add nitrogen to soil / cereals take out
a lot of nutrients)

 Stop ploughing marginal fields (some land is not suitable for growing
crops and could be used for grazing but overgrazing is a threat)

3.4.5
See case studies Pg 241 and Pg242

3.5.1 There is enough food in the world but an imbalance exists in its
distribution.
According to data from the Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations (FAO) in 2007, it was estimated that
854 million people in the world do not get enough energy
from their food (under-nourishment). Chronic undernourishment, during childhood leads to permanent damage:
stunted growth, mental retardation, and social and
developmental disorders. Many are also suffering from
malnutrition (enough energy but not enough essential nutrients).
In many MEDCs, the cost of food is relatively cheap and people choose food
based on preference not nutritional need. Seasonal foods have almost
disappeared as foods are readily available all year
round. Modern technology and transport systems mean
that foreign foods can be bought in almost any market.
In LEDCs, many populations struggle to produce enough
food to sustain them. Arable land is scarce. There may
also be political agendas as well as simple
environmental limitations on food production. Crops that
are grown are often exported for profit (cash cropping) and not for the local
communities. Arable land is in finite supply. There are large differences in food
production in the world (SEE Pg 246 Fig. 13.3) but distribution is the problem.
Countries like USA, Canada, and Australia produce more food than they need
but who should pay for it to be distributed to poorer countries in need such as
Bangladesh, Sudan and Ethiopia. The political angle attached to this means that
perhaps the receiving country maybe in the others debt, and prone to
exploitation. Who decides who gets this food? These are issues that revolve
around the topic of food distribution.
The diets of MEDCs and LEDCs, differ as well. MEDCs average calorie intake is
about 3314 whereas LEDCs is only about 2666 per day (see table below). As we
adapt more and more of the net primary productivity on Earth to human needs,

use and degrade more land, demand more meat, we must be reaching our
limits.
Food Composition (%)
Meat
Fish/Seafood
Cereals

MEDCs
12.9
1.4
37.3

LEDCs
7.3
0.9
56.1

3.5.2 Terrestrial and Aquatic food production

Terrestrial food production systems food is harvested at a first (crops) or second
(meat) trophic level. This ensures that these production systems are relatively
efficiently using solar energy. In aquatic food production systems, most food
comes from higher trophic levels. As there are energy losses at each level, the
energy efficiency of aquatic food systems is lower than aquatic food systems.
Although the efficiency of aquatic systems is greater than terrestrial systems
the initial intake of solar energy in aquatic food chains is less due to sunlight
being absorbed and reflected by the water.

3.5.3 Comparison
Systems

of

two

Food

Production

Traditional, extensive rice production in

Indonesian Borneo: characterized by low
inputs of energy and chemicals, high labour
intensity and low productivity. Rice yield is low,
however, the energy efficiency is high (energy
output over energy input). As no fertilisers or pesticides are used, the rice
yield is the only output (no pollution).

Intensive rice production in California: characterized by high inputs

of energy and chemicals, low labour intensity, and high productivity. The
energy inputs are in the form of diesel or petrol,
not in the form of labour. Large amounts of
fertilisers and pesticides are used. As a result,
high rice yields are obtained but because of the
large energy inputs, the energy efficiency is
much lower than the traditional extensive rice
production. In some situations the inputs are
greater than the outputs. The intensive production system also has more
outputs compared to the traditional, extensive approach in the form of
pollution excess fertilizer and pesticides.
Types of farming systems
Framing
system
Where
Type
Inputs
Outputs

Efficiency
Environment
al Impact

Shifting
cultivation
Amazon
rainforest
Extensive
subsistence
Low labour
and hand
tools
Low enough
to feed the
family
High
Low only
enough land
to move to
and time for
forest to regrow

Cereal
growing
Canadian
prairies
Extensive
commercial
High use of
technology
and fertilizers
Low per
hectare but
high per
farmer
Medium
High loss of
natural
ecosystems,
soil erosion,
loss of
biodiversity

Rice growing Horticulture

and dairying
Ganges valley Western
Netherlands
Intensive
Intensive
subsistence
subsistence
High labour,
High labour
low
and
technology
technology
High per
High per
hectare, low
hectare and
per farmer
per farmer
High
Low padi
rice has a
poly-culture,
stocked with
fish. Also grow
other crops

High
High
greenhouses
for salads and
flowers are
heated and lit.
In dairying,
grass is
fertilized and
cows produce
waste

3.5.4 Social systems and food production

What determines how we produce food?
There are many factors that come into consideration as to the method and level
of sustainability of food production methods. Population density/size, culture,
soil fertility, and method of agriculture are some of these factors. If the
population density in an area or country is high then the number of people that
that need food is high. Thus the demand is high, which usually leads to
intensive farming practices which incorporate the use of fertilizers, machinery
and possibly genetically modified seed in order to maximise yields. If the
population density is low then the need is lower and the stress needed to be
placed on the land is lower, which eliminates the need for intensive agricultural
practices. Culture also has a role to play. Some cultures and traditions have
higher demands for meat some for grains. The cultures that require more meat
are going to need more land and resources, as it takes more energy to produce
meat. Those cultures or traditions where more grains are consumed will require
less energy and therefore less intensive methods (depending on the population
size). The greater the demands fro crops or live stock the greater the demands
placed on the soil. Therefore different agricultural methods have to be
considered in order to maintain viable fertile soils. Shifting cultivation refers to
moving from one site to another for long enough to give the ecosystem and
therefore the soil enough time to recover before the next crop is harvested. This
is possible if the population size, and therefore the demand for food, is small,
however, is not always possible for larger populations. For some nations food
systems represent a significant proportion of their GDP and therefore their
economy relies on high food production yields. Therefore the focus is more on
turning a profit than on the sustainable use of the land. All these factors need to
be taken into consideration and balanced if the food production method of
choice is to be both viable and sustainable.

3.6.1 Earths water budget

About 70% of the
Earths surface is
covered by water.
Only about 3% of
water is fresh and
97% salt water
from the oceans.
About 69% of the
fresh water stores
are contained in
polar ice caps and
glaciers and about
30% in ground
water.
Water
contained on the
surface of Earth, in
lakes, rivers and
swamps, is only
about 0.3% of the
total.
The
atmosphere only holds 0.001% of the Earths total water volume.

3.6.2
Sustainable use of a resource refers to using a resource in a manner that is
slower than the rate at which it is reformed.
See above and Case Studies on pages 218-222

3.7.1

Carrying capacity: is defined as the maximum number or load of individuals

that an environment can sustainably carry or support. The major problems
associated with attempting to predict the human carry capacity are the fact that
humans use a huge variety of resources and can which from one to another at
any point and when required by needs. The other problem is that humans can
import resources from other environments so therefore not all our requirements
have to come from our immediate environment. Importing resources raises the
carrying capacity of the local community or population but has no effect on the
global carrying capacity.
Ecocentric thinkers attempt to find ways to reduce their non-renewable resource
use and attempt to use more renewable energy and thus reduce their impact on
the carrying capacity.
Technocentric thinkers believe that the human carrying capacity can be
expanded continuously through technological innovation and development.
Conventional economists argue that trade and technology increase the carrying
capacity. However, ecological economists believe that the efficiency of use of
resources can be increased however the carrying capacity is set and that any
developments can not be done sustainably.
See also above information in table

3.7.2
Humans can reduce their environmental
demands by reuse, recycling, remanufacturing,
and absolute reductions in energy and material
use.
Reuse: the object is used more than once.
Examples include reuse of soft drink bottles
(after cleaning) and second-hand cars.
Recycling: the objects material is used again
to manufacture a new product, an example of
this is the use of plastic bags to make plastic

poles for gardens. A second example is the recycling of aluminium. Obtaining

aluminium from aluminium ore requires vast amounts of energy, as melting
used aluminium to make new objects only takes a fraction of this energy
recycling saves a lot of energy. However this increases the human carrying
capacity.
Remanufacturing: the objects material is used to make a new object of the
same type, an example is the manufacturing of new plastic (PET) bottles from
used ones.
Absolute reductions: means that we can use fewer resources, e.g. use less
energy or less paper. Unfortunately the advantages of reductions in resource
use, i.e. increased carrying capacity, are often eroded by population increase.

3.8.1 Ecological footprint

The ecological footprint of a population is the
area of land that would be required to sustainably
provide all of a particular populations resources
and assimilate (absorb and process) all its wastes.
This is the inverse of carrying capacity (the
population size that an area can sustainably
support). It provides us with a quantitative estimate
of the human carrying capacity.

See also above information in table

3.8.3
The ecological footprint of a country depends on several factors: its
population size and consumption per capita, in other words, how many people
and how much land each one uses, It includes the cropland and other land that
is needed to grow food, grow biofuels, graze animals for meat, produce wood,
dig up minerals and the area of land needed to absorb wastes, not just solid
waste but water, sewerage and carbon dioxide. Countries can be viewed either
as creditors or debtors. Creditors
have smaller footprints than their
biocapacity (living capacity or natural
resources) and the debtors have
larger footprints represented below
by changing the sizes of the
countries in proportion.
Debtors could be harvesting goods
unsustainably in their own countries,
importing goods and exporting
wastes. The main factor to remember
is that there is no such thing as

throwing away (all wastes must go somewhere) on Earth as it is a closed

system.
The US has the biggest footprint at 10.3 hectares with Australia second at 9.0.
To compare the average person in India has a footprint of 0.8 and in China 1.6
hectares. While China produces a lot of carbon emissions and has a high level of
productivity because it has such a large population, per capita it does not have
nearly the same impact on the planet as the US or Canada for example. The
relationship between development and ecological footprint is fairly stable
whereby LEDCs generally have lower standards of living and therefore use less
resources (for example eat less meat which requires more land to produce than
grain) than the MEDCs who use far more resources and produce more waste
than their LEDC counterparts.

3.8.4 See above information

3.8.5

The importance of resources varies over time. A resource available today may
not be in the future. Technocentrics believe that new discoveries will provide
new solutions to old problems. Resources can be valued in several ways:
Economic: having marketable value, e.g. timber and food
Ecological: providing life-support systems, e.g. water storage and gas
exchange by forests
Scientific/technological: useful for applications, e.g. genetic, and
medicinal
Intrinsic: having cultural, aesthetic, spiritual or philosophical values
Everything we do needs to be sustainable.
Agriculture is only sustainable if the crops
we grow can continue to grow in the same
way. In other words we need soil fertility to
be maintained and the environment overall
not to be degraded, in order for it to be
considered a sustainable practice. Any
society that supports itself in part by
depleting natural capital is unsustainable.
There are finite amounts of materials on
Earth and we are using much of it in an
unsustainable manner. At the moment we
are in ecological overshoot as we are living
off natural capital but not returning
anything to the planet. This is not
sustainable. We are consuming resources
too fast and even with technological
advances we are not acting wisely.
Technological advances or developments
only achieve an increased carrying
capacity. They help to meet the current
demands; however, they do not consider
future consequences. Even with technology we are not accounting for the
damage we are doing to the planet. Until material economic growth becomes of
secondary importance to sustainability then our extinction is a major concern.