UNIT 5 RESEARCH IN HOSPITAL

ADMINISTRATION
Structure
5.0

Objectives

5.1

5.2

Introduction
Evolution of Research as a Method of Study

5.3

Concept and Definition of Research

5.4

Pecularities of Research in Hospital Administration

5.5

Pu~poseof Research in Hospital Admnistration

5.6

Types of Research

5.7

Components of Research

5.8

Categories of Research
5.8.1 Basic Research

5.8.2 Applied Research

5.9

Xfodels of Research

5.10

Prerequ~sitesto Conduct a Research

5.1 1

Steps in Conducting the Research

5.12

Areas of Medico Administrative Research Study

5.13

Let Us Sum Up

5.14

Answers to Check your Progress

5.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
define the research and enlist its types;
describe the various models of research;
enlist the pre-requisites for conducting research;
describe the steps in conducting a research;
explain the purpose of research; and
identify the areas of research in the field of hospital administration.

5.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit you will learn about the importance of Research Methodology in Hospital and
Health Care Management. You will appreciate that the concept of Research Methodology is
an important prerequisite for analysis of the problems, planning and operation of the health
care system and hopsital otganisat~on.You would further learn about the concept and
definition of research. You will also learn the application of research in hospital and health
care management. Towards the end you will learn conduction of research and its
documentation and report writing, what is research, how is it applicable in hospital and
health care management and how to go about conducting a research, as well as its
documentation and report writing.

5.2 EVOLUTION OF RESEARCH AS A METHOD

OF STUDY
Until about 2500 BC people acquired knowledge by observing the nature and facts. The
observation were explained merely in acts of the God or other supernatural power. The first
attempts to supply rational explanations for their observations were made by the Greeks.

Challenges i n Hospital
Management

Their hypothesis appears naive today but it must be borne in mind that our present
hypothesis which appears very sophisticated today will not be so impressive 2,000 yrs from
now. The importance of a Greek hypothesis lies not in its correctness but the break through
in the approach to research from traditional explanations.
The evolution of scientific research was initiated by the writings by Hippocrates
(460-370 BC) but thwarted by those of Plato and Aristotle. They allowed the development
of rational hypothesis but prevented the appearance of the third step of scientific research,
i.e. experimentation. And the Greeks remained, in general, theoriticians and they did not
verify their theories by experiments.
Experimentation, fust appeared on the scene with Archimedes in 287-212 B.C. He was the
first experimentalist. However, the birth of modern science dates back to 1543 - the year
of the publication of Copernicus, "The Revolutions of Heavenly Bodies" and Vesaliuis,
"The Structure of Human Body", the two monuments to mark, the beginning of modern
science. From then on the growth of modem science was continuous and rapid and the
work of Galileo Galilei (1564-1643)provided a final direction which modem science and
scientific research was to take.
Check Your Progress 1
Fill in the blanks:
1) Evolution of scientific'research was initiated by .................
2)

.................was the'fust experimentalist.

3)

Birth of modern science dates back to year .........................

5.3 CONCEPT AND DEFINITION OF RESEARCH

You must be knowing that research is a systematic enquiry, seeking facts through objective
verifiable methods in order to discover the relationship among them and to deduce from
them broad principles or law. American Public Health Association, in 1962 has defined
"Research as a systematic study to describe facts accurately to develop common principles,
to put these principles into practice and finally evaluate the results." The emphasis may be
observational, to develop new hypothesis or experimental, to test such hypothesis. In new
areas observational studies predominate until enough facts emerge to form testable
hypothesis.
Professor Clifford Moody said, "It compromises defining and redifining problems,
formulating hypothesis or suggested solution; collecting, organising and evaluating data;
making deductions and making conclusions; at last, carefully testing the conclusions to
determine whether they fit the formulated hypothesis."
To put it in a simplifed way-research is essentially an attitude of mind and the application
of a technique in confronting a problem. This attitude is synonymous with an open mind,
whether in collecting facts or interpreting them, i.e. a mind with the maximum possible
freedom from prejudices and preconceptions.

5.4 PECULIARITIES OF RESEARCH IN HOSPITAL

ADMINISTRATION
Problems peculiar to Research in Administration partly in the scarcity of testable
hypothesis and partly in the implication that the findings of such research should be rapidly
applied to the programme under study. To solve the first problem, many initial administrative
studies must be descdptive in order to develop testable hypothesis; then the planned
experiments may follow. Possibly, the second problem will be solved only by compromise.
If we aim seriously at producing new knowledge, investigators may have to be satisfied
when their results are applied to other similar programmes rather than the programmes under
study. Valid administrative research may create human stresses that prevent findings being
applied by programme directors who have been disturbed by the resutls. The alternative
course, of converting the project into attitude--changing exercise, often produces findings
of little general value.

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Unlike the researches m other subjects which derives its prestige largely from occasional
new discoveries which advance the level of knowledge, the administrative research raises
questions like:

What is the cost involved in conducting the research?

I

Who would be benefitted and by how much?

Whether the output from this particular research would outweigh the inputs i.e.
efficiency and effectiveness of the study.

How much is the practical implication of the topic chosen?

Are the users competent to use the techniques suggested?
The application of research methods to administrationinvolves the following problems:
The definitions. assumptions and other parameters that are not clearly defined.

Many variables are difficult to hold constant. Thus, findings may be unrealistic when
taken out of context.

Few testable hypothesis have been stated. In beginning a programme of administrative

research, one should first define some reasonable area for study, then develop methods
for measuring the effects of the programme under study.

5.5 PURPOSE OF RESEARCH IN HOSPITAL

ADMINISTRATION
Before discussing the purpose of research in Hospital Administration you must understand
the goal, objective and the philosophy of Hospital Administration in contemporary socioeconon~icscenario.

I
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Research in Hospital Adminisbation is concerned with the way in which hospital services
arb provided and with all factors that have bearing on providing these services.
Administrative research develops new knowledge about institutions,programmes,
operations, the people working in these activities, or the individuals or communities served
by them. Administrative studies in the hospital focus primarily on these subjects, while
diseases and patients tends to be side issues, sometimes acting as yardsticks for
identifying the success and failure of patient care. Human behaviour and motivation, the
economic results of programmes, the pattern and consequencesof administrative decisions,
the collection and interpretationof diseases, statistics. physical facilities operational
management are all among the many facets of Administrative Research.
Administrative Research also aims at developing norms, standards and a series of gradual
prescriptions against the shortfalls of Hospital Management. Such prescription in earlier
yean were based on long expenence and at times on common sense which does not
withstand the test of time. Particularly, into ways of scientifically-derived principles in
administration. The goal of Administrative Research, therefore, is to plant new scientific
principles amongthe empirical foundations.

Check Your Progress 2

1)

List the peculiarities of research in administration.

Research in
Hospital Management

Challenges i n Hospital
llanagernent

2)

List four purposes of research in Hospital Administration.

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5.6 TYPES OFRESEARCH

The types of research can be distinguished according to the degree of abstract thought
underlying them. There are thee types of research:

Discovery of Facts
In this type gathering of facts is the dominant objective as in social surveys. It utilises the
"Primary Datan ( f i t handcolection of data) techniques e.g. Rural credit survey of the
Reserve Bank of India.

Interpret Already AvailaMoIhfonnation

This largely inteprets already available information. It is bibliographical in approach i.e.
makes use of "Secondary data" (assimilation of data collected by other investigators).
Emphasis is more on analysis and interpretation of existing information.

Research in Purely Theorising Type

The essence of this type is building up of higher reaches of pure theory based distantly
upon Primary and Secondary data and some times on the basis of pure reasoning.
Research planning in health departments tends to originate in two ways:
The solo approach, where individuals attack specific problems andcarry out research
independently of other health department operations. In a large department, it may
eventually result in a central coordinating mechanism to eliminate the duplication of
research activities.
The integrated approach where a small team is employed to stimulate and help others
develop research projects which may be closely related.

5.7 COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH

Research as you know in any science and of any kind has some broad features. Some of
these are presuppositions, forming the permanent framework of any type of study and
others are the varibale framework related to particular sciences or groups of sciences. You
will also appreciate that the permanent framework of any research uses symbols, often
mathematical and the logical processes. These approaches aims at:
giving precision and effect a saving in time and energy
standardising and systematizing the thinking process
describing the objects themselves and relation between them
publication of results obtained and techniques en~ployed.
This means the fUndamenta1article of faith of scientific research lies in Objectivity.
Reproductivity, Validity and Reliability.That is, the sine qua non feature of any research is:
Each one of these can be explained as follows:

Objectivity

It is the unbiased devotioll to look for facts and to establish

the truth.

Reprod uctivity

It means that the results obtained in the study are same if two
different researchers apply the same methodology
independently in similar circumstances.
It means the method involved in the research evaluates what
it is intended to evaluate.

Reliability

This refers to the internal excellence of a method used in a

research project.

5.8 CATEGORIES OF RESEARCH

You must be knowing that all researches can be categorized into two i.e. the basic research
and the applied research.

5.8.1 Basic Research

It is the search for basic principles and synthesis without any immediate utilitarian objective.
It arises from a instatiable iiltellectual curiosity like that of i.e. Einstein's theory of relativity.
Basic research resembles "Sowing" of Seeds and its path radiates".

5.8.2 Applied Research

It is associated with particular projects and problem oriented. It relates to current activity
and practical situations e.g. field survey techniques in market research. Applied research
rrsenlbles "halvesting" and it follows the path of convergence. All administrative
researches are of applied variety and basic research has its limitations in administrative
Issues.
Check Your Progress 3
1)

Enl~stthree types of research?

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2)

What is Primary data?

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3)

What is a secondary data?

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4)

Name the four components of research.

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5)

Fill in the blanks :

a) .......................reselnbles "sowing" of seeds and its path radiates.

b) All administrat~veresearches are ....................... variety.

5.9 MODELS OF RESEARCH

ln this section you will learn about different models of research. There dre five models of
researc 11:

Research i n
Hospital Management

Challenges i n Hospital
Management

I ) Problem Oriented Model

This requires the knowledge of entire configuration of the problem and of the different
possible research devices that might help the analysis. The second fact which is
emphasised is that the broader the purpose and wider the problem; the more composite the
tool should be.
Behavioural sciences such as psychology, sociology, social anthropology and public
relation issues of administration are problem orieyted method of research, pa~ticularlyin the
hospital and health care administration.
The model verifies general propositions, use carefully refined concepts and do not attempt
predictions.

2) Method Oriented Study

The documentary sciences such as history, law and political science deal largely with
method and study of documents. Method oriented study explains unique events or
situations, utilise common language, though in a refined and careful way, and attempt to
predict by comparing cases.
3) Scientific Method of Research

The scientific method pursues the path of systematic analysis of doubt and is not satisfied
with psychological certitude, and remains ready to abandon a theory when the facts so
demand.
It is a collective term denoting the various processes by the aid of which the sciences are
built up. In a wide sense any method of investigation by which scientific or other impartial
and systematic knowlege is acquired is called a scientific method.
The scientif~approach has two components:

The procedural components are observation, hypothesis and verification. Observation

is something, on which a hypothesis is built, is itself based on data currently available
to the researcher before he begins his investigation. Such a knowledge dep-nds on the
available literature and personal observation as well as researcher's hunches, if any.
The Hypothesis which is described later. is a tentative conclusion based on inadequate
and necessarily vague observational data. Its main purpose is to guide the collection
and processing of facts and to indicate the direction of investigation. All the
succeeding steps in the investigation centres around the verification of the hypothesis.

Verification, the third step, in the most crucial step and forms the core of research and
the scientific approach. It comprises of four different facets, namely, collection.
analysis and interpretation of data leacding to hypothesis testing and the
generalisation.
Personal component relates to the researcher's knowledge of the field he investigates
so that he should know broadly where to find the data: As you know and has been
said by Eigelbarner "one needs the scientific imagination to construct hypothesis. the
analytical ability to devise crucial experiments to test the hypothesis, the
resourcefullness, persistence to cany through the experiment, the perspective which
distinguishes the essential from the non-essential and the reasoning which coordinates
individual facts into a principle".
This is known as scientific attitude which depends on:

Professional qualities (i.e.) the knowledge, training and devotion for the subject.
Personal qualities (i.e.1 the ability to assess the adequacy, relevance and value of data
Integrity (i.e.) honesty, sincerity of purpose and truthfullness.
These qualities are essential in a researcher.
4) Descriptive Method of Research
This is the simplest and method applicable to a number of social problems especially in
under developed countries. It is essentially a fact finding approach related lagely to d ~ e

present, and abstracting generalisation by the cross-sectional study of the current situation.
It comprises mainly of collection of data; however, mere collection is not research unless
there is adequate interpretation in the form of elaboration of casual connection, the
descriptive method to some extent also interprets the data.
This is extensively used in physical and natural sciences, for instance, when physics
measures, biology classifies, zoology disects, geology and administration studies, as in
socio-economic surveys and job and activity analysis in administration.

5 ) Historical Method of Research

The word is self explanatory. It is the study of the past and its casual relation to the present.
This is an important method of research in social science where the history has impact on
the present'and future social cultural structure. It is useful to analyse the past to have a
vision of future and make prediction of discussing opinion.
However, the limitation here is the more distant the past, the greater in the difficulty to get
the relevant facts. Secondly, neither the data or the inferences are capable of verification
and repetition. Thirdly. calculation and measurement as in statistical studies are not possible
in this method.
So, after understanding the various methods and models of research it is evident that
scientific method of research in the ideal method. Therefore, in the subsequent section we
shall be discussing only the scientific method of research.

Check Your Progress 4

1)

Name the models of research in Administration.

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2)

Name the two components of scientific approach.

3)

What are procedural components'.'

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4) Scientific attitude for research depends on what'?

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5.10 PREREQUISITES TO CONDUCT A RESEARCH

Before you can conduct a research, there are certain prerequisites. They are:
Selection of a problen~
Rev~ewof Literature to:
-find the resemblence of work carried out previously.

Research ia
Hospital Managenle~rt

< ' I i ~ l l e n g c si n Hospital

\Ianagemcnt

-understand
-find
-avoid

the problems encountered by the precedor ?

out alternatives to overcome the problems

the mistakes committed by the predecessor

to develop a hypothesis
to define the.tools and techniques which will be used while conducting the research
to test the validity of the tools.
You will learn about these prerequisites in detail in this section.
1 ) Selection of the Problem
This is the analysis of problem from all sides and to understand it in broad prospective.
While selecting a prob1em;the points to be kept in mind are as follows :
i)

Practicability: It is to assess if the time and energy spent on a particular project is

worthwhile or not.

ii) Urgency: All problems leading to investigation are, no doubt, important but some are
more so than the others. Therefore, one must assess the relative urgency of alternative
projects.
iii) Utility: This is to see, how useful the project would be for the organisation to reach the
organisational goal.
iv ) Anticipation of problem: It is to foresee problems, leading solutions which would fit
into immediate future. This requires a great deal of experience in judging the current
situation and its repercussions and also imaginative assessment on the part of the
investigator.
v)

Resources (tools and techniques): Research project is conditioned by types of facilities

available. These resources relates to the tools and techniques used.

vi) Available information: This is another facet of resource, which relates to the evidence
or information that can be found before starting a project which needs to be verified
with the data collected.
vii) Field of specialisation: For the efforts to be effective and its findings accurate,
comprehensive and meaningful research must concentrate on a particular. though
broad, area of knowledge.
viii) Administrative consideration: The incidence of administrative work depends on the
size and nature of the project. The organisation must balance
administrative burden of the enquiry against the large component of technical
personnel.

ix) Equipment: The resources needed for sorting, tabulating, processing etc.
x)

Operation funds and miscellaneousconsiderations : Operation funds is the working

capital necessary for operational purposes.

Miscellaneous includes the size of problem to be investigated and the consideration in

terms of resources as well as the time needed for effective conclusion of the research
project.

2) Review of Literature
After defining the problem, a preliminary review of literature is carried out. This is to note
the similar work resemblances and to get guidance for developing the plan of action.

3) Final Statement of Problem

After completing the first two steps the researcher can focus readily on real issues ~nvolved.

This is to define the problem clearly and precisely to avoid getting involved into newer
problems.
4) Developing a Hypothesis
Now a tentative assumption is made based on inadequate and necessarily vague
observational data. Its main purpose is to guide the collection and processing of facts and
to indicate the direction of investigation and to prove whether the assumption is right or
wrong. Hypothesis need not be documented always, however, it is always necessary to
proceed with the study.
Types of Hypothesis

a) Null hypothesis : neutral hypothesis

b) General hypothesis : purposeful hypothesis
c)

Complex hypothesis : interrelation of multiple variables

Criteria for Good Hypothesis

1)

Conceptual clarity

2) A moral, empirical, reference word i.k. should, bad, good etc. words should be avoided
3)

Specific and precise

4)

Relevant techniques

5) It should be related to the tools of the theory

6)

Design of study: A good design can characterise a good hypothesis. Design of study
depends on:
-The

tools of technique which have been fmalised.

-The

decision of the time frame within which the study would be conducted.

-How much the hurdles have been anticipated and logistic limitations therein.
5) Secondary Review of Literature
Once the problem is defined and working hypothesis is finalised the actual study begins
with the detailed review of literature i.e. the secondary review of literature. This is to have a
detailed study of the work of previous investigators who have addressed the similar issue
and to understand the problem in a better way, so as to reduce the wastage of time.
6) Tools and Techniques
,

'

The tools of collection and analysis are the available techniques at hand and should be
used wherever possible as checks and counter checks.
Facets of a good tool are:

It helps in collecting a comprehensive data which is correct, consistent, objective and

uniform recording of concrete relevant details.

It should not be generalised enquiry of details.

Concepts are clearly defined in a good tool of enquiry.

All the above qualities depends upon the variety, zppropriateness and accuracy of the
observational and measuring devices.

7) Testing the Validity of Tools

It is done through a pilot study i.e. a trial run of the actual project.
Check Your Progress 5
1) While selecting a problem of research, what are the points to be kept in mind ?

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Research i n
Hospital M a n a g e r n e ~ ~ t

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Cl~allengesi n Hospital
Wanagement

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2) Define hypothesis.

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3) Enlist the types of hypothesis.

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4) How will you test the validity of tools?

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5.11 STEPS IN CONDUCTING THE RESEARCH

After you have defined the problem, made a hypothesis to work on, designed the tools you
would be using and seen into the history of the subject about the type of mistakes your
predecessors have committed, you should consciously make an effort not to commit the
same mistake and start on with your actual work.
Your work starts with :
Data collection
Analysis and interpretation of data
Verification and proving the hypothesis you have defined earlier
Writing the report
Making recommendation which can be used practically

1) Data Collection
Data is the raw, unprocessed details which is collected during the course of study. The data
collecting tools and techniques are:
a)

Survey: It is a fact finding study.

b) Interviewing: It is the conversation with a purpose and therefore is more than a meagre
oral exchange of information. It is usually direct and is the only way by which certain
types of information can be obtained.
c)

Questionnaire: It comprises of a series of questions to a person who can give the

information required without the need of any personal contact i.e. the interviewing
technique.

d) Observations: It comprises of recqrding of data, as they come to the investigator's

notice when he plays largely a passive part. It consists of collecting facts in direct
knowledge of the investigator. It depends on three qualities of the investigatorsensation, attention and perception.

Observation is of two types :

Controlled and non-controlled type : The latter is characterised by the absence of any
attempt to use precision instruments to measure and record facts and to check their
accuracy. Mechanical aids are not used, and data are collected without standardising
procedure and without resorting to a random sample.
t

Participant and non-participant type :Both controlled andnon-controlled observations

could be of the non-participant types. In the latter the observer keeps himself outside the
situation he is studyihg. For example snap shots taken by a tourist rather than a studio
photograph. This is less accurate study of situation and does not enable penetration
behind the apparent.
While, by and large, participant observation is more accurate and dependable. Its operability
depends on the particular situation and the problem at hand.
2)

Analysis and Interpretation of Data

After the raw material is collected, it is put in a systematic form e.g. tables, bar diagrams etc.
Now in this systematic form it becomes easy to analyse details and interpret the data. This
becomes an "information" for the researcher which he can document and use in drawing
conclusions and making recommendations.
3) Discussion

Once you have interpreted the data, the next step is to discuss the results. It should
highlight two aspects:
Bring out the implications of the data.
Establish continuity in the scientific knowledge between what was already known to
what has been now added or rejected.
There are thus three aspects being incorporated in discussion:
a)

Interpretation: This is, how can one explain what has been done and what was
observed. Irrelevant findings should be omitted and the important factuals should be
put statistically to support the original hypothesis beyond doubt.

b) Disputation: This is how one's work fit into the general body and knowledge of the
subject? This is where references to the published work will come. The chain of others
can be discussed and unsettled issues if any, can be stated.
c)

Disquisition: This defines what are the implications of one's work for disciplines and
how they might affect current practices? This in the section for opinion, philosophy
and a little theory, some of which may alert another investigator to plan further
experiment or a purpose of new hypothesis.

4) Verification of Hypothesis
Once the analysis and interpretation of data is done it automatically verifies whether the
hypothesis with which we started the study is right or wrong. This further helps in result
generalisation. It forms the core of a research project.
5)

Conclusion

After the work has been completed the study in concluded. Most of the results of scientific
study falls m the following categories :
The conclusion agrees with what everybody already knows.
The conclusions sustain ideas and views suspected to be true for which-there was
previously little col~oborativeevidence.
The findings are entirely new and have not been thought of befqre. Fortunate indeed is
the author whose work comes into this category.
6) Summary
A

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Research in
Hospital Managernelit

c lrrllenges

and findings. The summary in a brief resume of the major findings, conclusions and
recommendations. It should faithfully reflect the earller phases of the investigation. No idea
or fact is introduced in the summary.

i n Hospital
kla~%agrmcnt

7)

Writing the Report and Recommendation

Research reporting is the oral or written presentation of the evidence and findings in such
detail and form as to be readily understood and assessed by the reader to enable him to
verify the validity of conclusion.
This requires considerable thought, effort, patience, skill and penetration and overall
approach to the problem, data and analysls as well as firm control over language and greater
objectivity.
There are three types of written report:
a) To the layman: This is Intendedto disseminate the broad facts, findings and
recomrnendahons. It must be particularly lucid, simple and yet dignified, scrupulously
avoiding distortion, jargon and technical camouflage.

b) Report to the administrator:This should be of medium size, with some technlcal details
and supporting data followed by a summary and principal recommendations. The
language in this should lean towards simplicity and directness with technical terms and
jargon interspersed a Ilttle.

- c) Technical report:Thls is meant forfellowprofess~onals.The four important facets of

technlcal report are:
i)
ii)

The problem and its nature

Method and scientific accuracy

iii) Data and dependability

iv)

The logical relabonship of data and its interpretat~on

Technical report can be presented in four different types:

I) Detailed report
ii) Monograph
iii) &isle
iv) Full technical report
8)

Dissemination of the Report

Although this forms the tail end of an investigation, it should begin much earlier. Infact,
there are two stages of dissemination :
i)

Dunng the investigation

ii)

After data collection, analysis and interpretation

The major factors influencing a good write up are:

i)

The reader's view

ii) How technical the problem is ?

w) The researcher's hold over his facts and techniques
iv) His command over language
v) The form and fullness of the notes.
The writing may have to be done quite a few times:
.

a) First draft: This concentrates on substance i.e. fullness of facts, accuracy of facts,
coherence or logic of facts, movement or transition of facts.
b) Second draft: In the second draft the researcher concentrates on form and language.
C)

9)
T

Third draft: This is the final draft. It concentrates namely on the finish and final touches
i.e. on documentatlonand polish to make the report weighty, a-lthoritative,convincing
and attractive.
Documentation

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in order to decide whether the information is valuable for his own investigation.
However, in research reporting the word has a different meaning. It indicates the references
to the sources, other previous and current work and views additional data and discussion,
and suggested further reading on the specific problem. In other words, it is, on one hand,
evidence of thoroughness of Investigation and on the other, a guide to further work.
Documentation has five components :
Footnotes: This is the most important component of a document. It is cited below
every page. It serves the following purpose to:

i)

acknowledge facts and ideas borrowed.

provide reference of the source which may be consulted.
illustrate statements not relevant to the text.
acquint reader with larger context of the problem.
Usage
1)

Alfred Marshall : Principles of

Economics, p. 305., Macrnillan
and Co.. London, 1921.

Explanation
First citation of a "book"
Cite the page. Give
preferably place, edit~onvolume
and date of publication. Underline
(~talic~se)
the title of book and not
that of author.

ii) Bibliography: This contains information about books, reports, articles and other sources
relevant to investigation.
How to present ?
Make the list, alphabetically.
Put the surname of the author first and then his personal and other names.
Capltalise all important words in the title and italicise the full title.

For articles, italicise the name of the journal and not the title of the article which must
be within inverted commas (' ....................... '). Invariably mention the pages in the
journal.
..

If the author is not known. put it under the first important word of title.
Mention also date of publication, publisher, edition, volume, pages etc.
It is to be included at the end of each chapter or part at the end of the completed
repolt. e.g. Pautinr, V. Young: Scient~ficSocial Surveys andResearch Prentice Hall:
N.Y.. 1951.

iii) Tables, Charts and Graphs :This is very useful when the investigation is statistics
based. Some useful points to bear in mind while making them are:
Be selective and discriminative in introducing tables and charts.
It should be able to put the voluminous data in a compact form.
It should be self explanatory.
Better limit each table in a single page.
Do not repeat in table whatever is in the text and vice versa.
Space tables to'facilitate reading.
Avoid statistical sophistication.
iv) Quotations: They are opinion and facts which may be cited to support the investigators
own finding. It can be in original language or in translation with or without the original
passage.
v ) Appendices: They are useful for placing cumbersome material, breaking the continuity of

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main text. They are not dumping ground for irrelevant materials, rather are either
technical or non-technical informations. Under technical head, 3 types of material are
included.
discussions of particular techniques
elaboration of concepts, terms, definitions
mathematical deviations and formulae
additional graphs and charts.
The non-technical appendices are more numerous and common. They include:
Information useful and relevant but too elaborate for the text.
Raw on supporting data and lengthy tables
Lengthy quotations
Forms of questionnaire, schedules, interview forms etc.
Sometimes bibliography is also included.
Check Your Progress 6
1) What-are the tools and technique for data collection'?

2) Fill in the blanks :

a) Data after interpretation and analysis becomes...................

b) Three aspects ..........., ........... and ........... are incorporated in discussion.
c) The brief resume of major finding, conclusions and recommendations of research is
called as ................................

3) What are the five components of documentation?

4) To summarize, what are the four stepsin conducting a scientific research?

5.12 AREAS OF RESEARCH

Until now you have learnt what is research, what are the methods, prerequisites and steps
in research. You have also learnt about the peculiarity and purpose of research in hospital
and health administration. In this section you will learn about the Medico Administrative
areas where research can be conducted. These are:
i) Hospital planning and architectural studies
-Planning of CSSD, Laundry, Blood Bank

I
I

-Planning

ii) Utility service studies

I
II

Research i e
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of OPD, Ward, OT and ICU Services

-0rganisation

and layout of Dietary, Linen and Laundry services.

ii) Supportive service shidies

--Organisation and layout of Blood Bank
-Medical
IV)

Record, Phaimacy and Mortuaiy.

Study of services provided in clinical department

-Study

of emergency services department

--Study of psychiatry, ENT, Eye and General Surgery services.

v) Disaster management studies
-Study

of existing prehospital services in a particular zone of the counhy

-Study

of existing disaster management strategy of a hospital.

vi) Study of hospital waste management

vii) Utilisation studies
-Manpower utilisation
-Equipment utilisation
-Bed

utilisation

-Inpatient

vs. Day Care Procedures

~ i i i Cost
)
evaluation studies
-Costing

of inpatient, OT, ICU Services

-Costing

of Housekeeping, Hospitality and OPD services

k) Patient satisfaction studies

X)

Job satisfaction studies

xi) Employees nlotivation studies

xii) Human resource management studies
-Study

of absentism

-Study of employee turnover

-Study on Public Relation vis-a-vis Health services
xiii)Evaluationof hospital and health care services
si\]) Study of en~ployees'health services scheme

xv) Medical ethics and Organ Transplantation

wi) Financing of health care services

wii) Study of hospital and health infoin~ationsystem

-Role

of computers in health care delive~ysystem

-Planning and developing a soft ware package for store management

vviii) Role of hospitals in Primaly Health Care.

5.13 LET US SUM UP

In this unit you have leapt the peculiarities, puipose and the scope of research in hospital
administl-ation. While studying the categories and the models of research you have learnt

C'hallenges i n Hospital
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the administrative research is of applied nature and is problem oriented, and follows
scientific approach to problem solving. You have also studied the pre-requisites to carry out
a research study and the different steps in conducting the same, such as data collection,
compilation, analysis and interpretation of data, proving the hypothesis and writing the
report with recomrnendations.You have also learnt the method of documentation in a
research study. At the end of this unit some examples of areas of medico-administrative
research have been enumerated for your guidance. The list is however not exhaustive.
Before initiating an administrative research what you need to remember is that whether the
study would be cost-efficient, technically feasible, has practical usefulness and would
benefit the organisation.

5.14 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Cheqk Your Progress 1
1) Hippocrates.
2) Archimedes.
3) 1543.

Check Your Progress 2

1) a) Scarcity of testable hypothesis.
b) Needs rapid application.
c) Disturbing results leading to stress.
d) Talks about efficiency and effectiveness of a particular research.
e) Many variables are difficult to hold constant.
f ) Cannot be undertaken without any practical implication.
g) Definitions, assumptions and other parameters are not clearly defined.

2) a) Find the way in which hospital services are provided.

b) Develop new knowledge.
c) To find consequences of administrative dec~slons.
d) To develop terms and standards.

Check Your Progress 3

1) Type of research can be distinguished according to the degree of abstract
thought underlying them:
a) Discovery of facts
b) Interpret already available ~nformation
c) Purely theorising type
2) It is the first hand data collected by direct observation or surveys.

3) It assimilates and interprets the data already collected by other investigators.

4) a) Objectivity

b) Reproductivity
c) Validity
d) Reliability

5) a) Basic Research
b) Applied

1
I

Check Your Progress 4

1) a) Problem or~entedresearch
b) Method oriented research
C) Sc~entificmethod of research
d) Descriptive method of research
e) Historical method of research

2) a) The procedural
b) The personal

3) a) Observation
b) Hypothesis
C)

Verificatio~i

4) a) Personal qualities
b) Professional qualities

c) Integrity
Check Your Progress 5
I ) a ) Practicability
b) Urgency
C)

Utility

d ) Anticipat~onof problem
e ) Resources (Tools and techniques)
t) Available mfolniation

g) Field of specialisation
h ) Administrative consideration
i) Equ~pment
j) Operation funds and miscellaneous consideration

2) It is a tentative assu~nptionmade based on inadequate and necessarily vague

observational data.

3) a) Null hypothesis
b) General hypothesis
C)

Complex hypothesis

4) By doing a pilot study.

Check Your Progress 6

1) a) Survey
b) Interviewing
c) Questionnaire
d) Observation

2) a ) infomiation
b) interpretation, disputation, disquisition
cl summary

3) a) Footnote

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b) Bibliography
c) Quotations and translations
d) Tables, charts and diagrams
e) Appendices
4) a) Observation
b) Hypothesis
c) Experimentation
d) Induction

5.15 FURTHER READINGS

Gopal, M.H. ( 1964), An Introduction to Research Procedure in Social Sciences, Asia
Publishing House: Bombay.
Research in Public Health Administration-I/, ( 1963). School of Hygeine and Public Health,
John Hopkins University: Maryland, USA.
Research in Public Health Administration-Ill,, (1964). School of Hygeine and Public Health;
John Hopkins University: Maryland.

Sodhi, H.S., Ahuja M.M.S., (1975), A Practical Aspect of Medical Research; AmoldHeinemann Publishers: Delhi.