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was a cord of three threads, each of nine twisted strands, made of cotton, hemp or
wool for Brahmans, Kshatrias and Vaisyas respectively.
Education According to the ideal of the sacred text, the training of the
Brahmacarin takes place in the home of a Brahman teacher (guru). Among the
first lessons of the student is the performance of sandhya: the morning, noon and
evening devotions which include reciting the Gayatri (a verse from a hymn of the
Rg Veda, addressed to the old solar god Savitr; restraint of the breath, sipping and
sprinkling water, and pouring libations of water to the sunk, which was looked on
rather as a symbol of the special deity of the worshipper.
The subjects of the study are the Vedas and the other fields notably the
Limbs of the Veda or the Vedangas in which there are six: (1) kalpa or the
performance of sacrifice; (2) siksa correct pronunciation or phonetics; (3)
chandasmetre and prosody; (4) niruktaetymology or the interpretation of
obscure words in the Vedic texts; (5) vyakaranagrammar; (6) jyotisascience
of the calendar.
III. Marriage A young man in his early twenties returns home to resume the everyday
Life of his caste. He would take a ritual bath and reward his teacher according the
means of his family. From now on, he is a snataka (one who has bathed) and he
might enjoy all the worldly pleasures and eat any kind of food usually eaten by
his class and wear fine clothes and jewelry, which he puts on at a special
homecoming ceremony or samavartana. He should marry as soon as possible, for
unless he had taken a vow of religious celibacy, marriage and the procreation of
children were a positive duty.
Marriage has three purposes: (1) the promotion of religion by the
performance of household sacrirfices; (2) progenywhereby the father and his
ancestors were assured of a happy after-life and the line is continued, and ; (3) rati
or sexual pleasure.
With the marriage ceremony completed, the householder might devote
himself to the Four Ends of Life/Man which are: (1) Dharmagaining religious
merit through following the sacred law; (2) Arthagaining wealth by honest
means; (3) Kamapleasure of all kinds; and (4) Mokshadeliverance from the
wheel of rebirth.
Artha and Kama need little explanation but the first, Dharma, involves
numerous religious duties, notably the performance of birth, marriage and funeral
and other religious duties, notably the regular crrying out of the Five Great
Sacrifices or the Panca-Mahayajna.
The greatness of these sacrifices lay not in their expense or complexity but
in their importance. They are to be performed daily and consist of:
1. Brahmayajnathe worship of Brahman, the World Spirit, by
reciting the Vedas;
2. Pitryajnathe worship of the ancestors, by libations of water and the
periodical sraddha;
3. Devayajnaworship of the gods, by pouring ghee on the sacred fire;
V.
Brahmanas Texts pertaining to the Brahman or the creative power of word and rite.
Aranyaka (Forest Books/Treatises)complementary concernthe interrelationship
between the text and the human person involved in the ritual.
Brahmanas and Aranyakasformally structured by the rites they are expounding and
interpretingno such structure is imposed on the Upanishad.
Srauta Sutrasmanuals on the performance of the ritualsattached to the principal
schools is a secondary literature the most important of which are the Grhya or Brhya
sutrasmanuals on the practical performance of the domestic ritual (rites of passage,
marriage, etc.) and the Dharma Sutrasrules of correct conduct.
Vac (speech)pronounces the names of he three worlds: bhuh bhuvah- svah (earth,
atmosphere and heaven)
Hari Om----God PrajapatiLord of Creatures (the Creator)
--out of the void, desire takes place, the first germ of willand out of tyad, the
yon, the sat is born existing here and now, summarized in the satyas, the true.
(In the early philosophical school, the Sankhaya, the evolution of the World is
really the evolution of he primeval man.)
Prana (breath), the cessation of which signals death
Atmanconsciousness, entirety (soul), which the real nature is satyam (true)
*The year and the Cycle of Life
Based on the Puranic architecture of space, the measure of time is the life
of Brahma, the Creatormeasured in days and nights. During his day, the World
exists, in his sleep, the world is in abeyance. A day of Brahma is 4,320,000
years, multiplied by 360 (mortal Hindu days in year), multiplied by 12 is the
grand year and three times that is the year. Time is kala the calculator and the
calculated.
The Vedantain a way is a proper term, at some point in time, for Hinduism, a
philosophy founded on a set of mystical truths that are in complete agreement
with the fundamental teachings of all the great religions.
At its core, based on three propositions:
1. The true nature of Self of man is Godman is divine, predicated on
the existence of an infinite and transcendental Being. (Only our own
private delusion creates separate habitations for Man and God.
2. The purpose of life is to know that this divinity is within usto
discover this Self within ourselves and realize its identity with
Brahman, the transcendental Godhead.
3. The spiritual truth is universal and is found at the heart of all
religionsSri Ramakrishna said: A common man through ignorance
considers his own religion to be the best and make such clamor.but
when illumined by knowledgesuch clamor disappears.
VII. Extension of the Vedic LiteratureThe Legal Literature
When the sacrificial instructions of the Brahmanas became obscure, a new group
of texts was composed to elucidate themthe Srauta Sutras. Sutra means thread but
by passing references to law and custom in general literary inscriptions, and the writings
of foreign travelers.
Approx. Date
General Contents
Four Vedas
Brahmanas
800--600 BCE
Priestly rituals,sacrifices,
prayers, spells
Upanishads
600300 BCE
Code of Manu or
Dharmashastra
250 BCE
400 BCE250 CE
(probably earlier)
Maha Bharata
Ramayana
+300 BCE
Puranas
Various dates
Bhagavad Gita
CE 200s
There are 18 puranas, six devoted to Vishnu, six to Brahma, six to Shiva,
anddivided into twelve skandhas or books.
--books Ten and Eleven are the most important
--Books TenLife story of Sri Krishna
--Book ElevenContains Krishnas teachings to his friend Uddhava.
C. The Tantrasteach that the creative principle of the World is Shakti or God
the Mother, which is united with Shiva or Brahma. Shakti therefore is not
indistinct from Shiva the Absolute of the Upanishad, but is the power of the
Absolute. To realize this is the purpose of the Tantra. By means of Tantric
disciplines, the devotee comes to know his Brahman nature which is the Satchittananda(Absolute Existence; Consciousness; and Bliss)
D. Brahma Sutras (Vedanta Sutras) of Badarayanaexpound the philosophy
of the Upanishads in a series of terse, penetrating and sometimes obscure
statementsdivided into four chapters:
First Chapterdeals with Brahman and its relation to the World and man.
Second Chaptermeets the objection to the view of Brahman, the soul and the
Worldexposes the errors of rivaling theories in Hinduism.
Third Chapterexamines the methods by which one can attain the knowledge of
Brahman
Fourth Chapterdiscusses he final result of knowledgeliberation (moksha)
and the two paths possible after death (if one fails to attain moksha
the return or rebirth (punarjanma) and non-return or gradual
liberation.
D. Manus Laws (Dharma Shastras), twelve bookseducation, marriage,
domestic life, organization of the caste system, punishments, reincarnation.
4. Delhi Sultanate
5. Mughal
6. British Occupation
a. East India Company
b. Viceroy of India
7. Independence
*Hindu Fundamentals
One GodBrahman, Called TAT ThatHari Om
Three Gunas
The word Guna means disposition which indicates the state of mind of
a person. The various mental dispositions bind a person by forging him into
action.
Sattvogunais of the nature of knowledge, balance, harmony
Rajogunais of the nature of activity, ambition; passion
Tamasogunais of the nature of inertia/dullness
Three Manifestations
Sattvicserene
Ragasicactive
Tamasicdestructive
Four Varnas (castes)
Brahminsthe intellectuals; religious teachers, philosophers, scientists
Kshatriyasthe ruler and protectors; government, judges, warriors
Vaisyasthe commercialists, industrialists, trades, farmers
Sudrasthe labor force, artisans, service occupation
Four Ashrams (Stages of Life)
Particular duties are prescribed at each stage
Brahmacharinstudents/seeker/celibate
Grhastahouseholder (married)
Vanaprastharetired from active work
Sannyassinrenunciate, contemplates on God
Five Human Values
SatyaTruth
Dharmaright conduct
PremaLove
AhimsaNon-violence
ShantiPeace
strength of body mind and soul. Live according to dharma, which is the law of life..
The Vedic Texts
(Branch)
Sakha
Rg Veda
a. Sakala
b. Baskala
(Compilation)
Samhita
Brahmana
Sakala
Baskala
Aitareya
Kausitaki
Yajur Veda
Black
a. Kathaka Kathaka
Katha
b. Maitrayani Maitrayani
c. Taittiriya Taittiriya
Taittiriya
Katha
Katha
Kathaka
Maitrayani Manava varaha
Taittiriya Taittiriya Baudhayana
Svetasvatara Vadhula
Bharadvaja
Apastamba
Hiranyakesin
Vaikhanasa
White (Vajasaneyi)
a.Madhamdina Madhyamdina
Brhad
b. Kanva
Kanva
Sama Veda
a. Kauthuma Kauthuma
Atharva Veda
a. Saunaka Saunaka
Mundaka
Vaitana
Gopatha
Mandukya
b. Paippilada Paippilada
Prasna
* work
*work
*work
*knowledge
portion portion
portion
portion
hymns,
rules of
(Forest
mantras
conduct
Treatises)
& performance concerned with
of rites
symbolic rites and ceremonies
Varnas
Ritually
Clean
Brahmins*
Priests
Expossitors
Wearers
Clean
Kshatrias*
Warriors-Rulers
Readers
Wearers
Clean
Vaisyas*
Merchants
Hearers
Wearers
Clean
Sudras
ServiceOccupations
Excluded
Non-Wearers
Clean
Harijans
Low-level
Occupation
Excluded
Excluded
Unclean
*The twice-born castes relate closely to the scriptures and the Sacred Cord. The
ceremony wherein young males first don the Sacred Cord constitutes their second birth,
the beginning of their new life as caste members responsible for ritual obligation.
*The Hindu Calendar, the Vikram Samvat, came into being 57 years before the Christian
calendar in the reign of King Vikramaditya.
Calendar of Hindu Festivals
Month
Chaitra
Festivals
Chedi Chand(New Year), beginning of the Hindu year
(around March/April)
Vaishakha
Jaistha
Asadha
Month
Sravana
Raksha Bandhan
Janmashtami* (Lord Krishnas birthday)
Bhadra
Harvest Festival
Aswina
Kartik
Agrahayana
Pausa
Magha
Phalguna
**
*Ganesh ChaturthiThe birthday of the elephant-faced god, Ganesh, remover of
obstacles is celebrated by the whole community in the temple.
A big clay idol of Ganesh is installed on the stage in the Social
Hall of the temple and is worshipped for seven to ten days.
Special bhajans and prayers are sung and laddos are offered.
Aarti is performed every morning and evening. On the last day,
after Aarti in the afternoon (Ganesh is born at midday), there is
much singing and dancing. Sweets offered to Ganesh are then
distributed as Prasada and then the idol is ceremoniously taken
to the sea and transferred to a boat, from which it is
ceremoniously immersed in the sea with cries of Ganapati
Bappa Morya, Puchachya Varshi Lavakarya (O lord Ganesha,
come soon, next year.
*Janmashtamiis one of the most popular Hindu festival, celebrating the birthday of
Krishna, the 8th incarnation of Vishnu, who came to protect mankind from
aura of lights.
In the evening, the whole house, offices, temples are brilliantly
illuminated with fairy lights and earthenware diyas to welcome Lakshmi
Mata, the goddess of wealth and prosperity. Hindus perform Lakshmi
Pooja with family and friends wishing each other Happy Diwali.
*Raksha Bandhan symbolizes the abiding and chaste bond of love between brother and
sister. The rakhi, which is a delicate, sometimes decorated thread is tied
by the sister on the wrist of her brother as a symbol of this affection. This
makes the brother bound to protect his sister from any trouble or wound.
When one does not have a brother, or wants to be a sister of someone, she
can tie the rakhi to him. The day starts with an early bath and pooja. The
sister then offers Aarti to her brother and ties the rakhi on his right wrist.
A tilak is applied to the forehead of the brother and the brother blesses the
sister. The brother gives a gift, a token of love and affection to her and the
brother is treated with sweets.
*Holi is a spring festival and is one of the gayest and most colorful. People let themselves
go on this occasion (varna is not strictly observed). The young and old go
into the streets indulging in good-humored battles of colored water and
gulal (powder). One the legends associated with Holi refers to the story
of Holika, who could not be burnt by fire. She was asked by her brother,
the demon-king Hiranyakashipu to sit on a burning pyre with Prahlad on
her lap to burn him to death but she got burned instead. Hiranyakashipu
wanted his son Prahlad punished for refusing to worship him as god but
Prahlad was an ardent devotee of Vishnu, so he refused to oblige.
Holi is also associated with the divine love between Radha and
Krishna and episodes from Kishnas life, especially his playing with the
gopies is re-enacted in a riot of color.
JAINISM
- is the religion of the person who aspires to become Jina or conqueror of wordly
passions, hence, the adherents of this religion are called Jains.
In most of the non-Jain writings, Vardhamana Mahavira (real name: Nigrantha
Nattaputta) who lived from 599 to 527 BCE/549-477 BCE is identified as the founder of
the religion but the Jains then claim that he was the last Tirthankara, or saving
pathfinder of the present half of time cycle. The appearance of a Tirthankara is bound
with the moral and religious decay of the people and hence, their need for reawakening
and religious revivification.
Mahavira, the Great Victor, was born the son of the Kshatriya Chief Siddharta
and his Queen Trisala in Vaisali (in Basaarh, Bihar). He married Yasoda, a fellow
Kshatriya, who bore him a daughter, Anavadya, whom he gave in marriage to a member
of he same caste, Jamali. Mahaviras parents were the followers of Parsvanatha and he
was brought up in the Jain tradition.
horizontal region called Jambudvipa, centered around Mount Mandara or Meru, and a
small fraction of it is Bharata Varsa or India.
Animals, include not only what zoology studies but all plants and atoms of
earth, fire, water, wind, each of which has a soul, a jiva, perceptible or subtle and
developed or undeveloped.
The number of soul (of all animated beings) is eternally the same. Men constitute
a small fraction, and their souls witness the mental functions they discharge or upayoga;
their casual efficacy or labdhi; and reason or samjnana. Human souls, however, can
never know the truth of anything with absolute certainty. Every proposition they make is
valid only under a set of several presuppositions (aneka), and its contrary is just as valid
provided it is made to rather than simultaneously with it. Jainism hence developed a
totally relativistic theory of knowledge (nayavada).
Central theme of Mahaviras teachings were satya or truth, ahimsa or nonviolence and aparigraha or non-attachment. Jains are expected to develop mental
discipline and purity of thought and introspection (pratikramana). In addition, hey may
do one or more daily Kshanayaks, periods each of 48 minutes duration, of meditation and
study of religious literature.
Samgha is the collective name of the adherentscomposed of monks and nuns;
nirgranthasfree from civil ties; bhiksamendicant; and sadhupious man; and the
laity: upasakaservant; and sravakalistener.
For salvation, one must go through the 14 stages of ascent from false belief
(mithya-drasti) to that of omniscience (kevalajnana) and finally to moksha.
In the practice of their religion, Jains tend to divide themselves into two distinct
groups: the majority who cannot afford to leave their homes and accept the rigors of the
ascetic life, and the minority, who can and do become monks. The latter represent the
ideal life for a Jain. Jain monks take five vows to guide their lives.
1. They vow non-injury of life (ahimsha). According to Jain tradition Mahavira taught:
He who injures these (animals) does not comprehend and renounce the sinful
acts; he who does not injure these, comprehends and renounces the sinful acts. Knowing
them, a wise man should not act sinfully toward animals, nor cause others to act so, nor
allow others to act so. He who knows these causes of sin relating to animals, is called a
reward-knowing sage. Thus I say. (Ayaranya Sutra 1, 1, 6, 6)
This vow has become the most dominant characteristic of all Jains and the mark
by which they are known to the world. A Jain will go to great lengths to avoid harming
any living creature. They are vegetarian and avoid such products as leather, which require
the death or suffering of life. Jain monks, following Mahaviras example, sweep the path
before them when they walk to avoid treading on insects, and they strain the water they
drink to protect whatever life may have been in it. In certain extreme cases, Jains have
been known to extend care to rats (When rats were a problem in Bombay, Jains
established hospices for them. Captured rats were given a home, separated by sex so they
could not reproduce, fed, and cared for until they died of natural causes.). The Jain
principle of not injuring life has had widespread influence among non-Jains, such as
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi and Albert Schweitzer.
2. Jain monks vow always to speak the truth; because of this vow, they are widely
respected for their truthfulness. In its search for truth, however, Jainism has tended
to view truth as relative rather than absolute. (The best example of this is the story of
the elephant where each blind man perceives the animal from a different point and
the descriptions varied tremendously.).
3. Jain monks vow to refrain from taking anything that is not given to them. This too
had to the Jains reputation for honesty.
4. The monks 4th vow is to renounce sexual pleasures. This is in keeping with
traditional asceticism, which views the pleasures of the flesh as evil; because sex is
one of the greatest pleasures of the flesh, it must be forsaken. (Mahavira went even
further, but not only renouncing sexual pleasures but by also renouncing women in
general. He is said to have declared that women are the greatest temptation in the
world.)
5. The final vow is to renounce all attachments. Attachments to and love for other
persons or things is one of the elements that keep humans bound to life. (It was for
this reason that Mahavira renounced his family and possessions and refused to stay
in any place any longer than one day lest he form new attachments.) (*In the 4 th
century BCE, when Alexander the Great entered India, he encountered the naked
Jain philosophers and was fascinated by them. The Jains only stamped their feet in
Alexanders presence. When he inquired about this strange behavior, he was told,
King Alexander, every man can possess so much of the earths surface as this we
are standing on. You are but human like the rest of us, save that you are always busy
and up to no good, traveling so many miles from your home, a nuisance to yourself
and to others. Ah well! You will soon be dead, and then you will own just as much
of the earth as will suffice to bury you.from Arrian 7:1.4-7:2.1)
Generally, all Jains seek to follow the first three vows as much as possible whereas
those who enter the monastic life keep all five. Thus, a Jain layperson may marry
and have a family and possessionswith the understanding that he or she is not
leading he ideal life and may not expect release in this life.
The scriptures of the Jains are called Agamas, which means precepts, or
Siddhantas, which means treatises. Orthodox Jains believe that these Agamas are
the actual sermons or teachings that Mahavira gave to his disciples.
Jain Sects
By 80 CE, the Jains severely divided over what was to become the true meaning
of Jainism, and they split into two sects that still exist today. The sect that interprests
Jain teachings more liberally is the Svethambara (literally,the white clad). Today,
this group is located mainly in the northern part of India. They are liberal in their
interpretation of Mahaviras teachings regarding the wearing of clothing and are
called white clad because they reject the necessity of nudity and allow their monks
to wear a white garment. They are also liberal in that they allow women into the
religion and into their monasteries and even accept the possibility that a woman may
find release. Of the two sects, the Svethambara is the most popular.
The second sect, the Digambara (literally,the sky clad), is the more
conservative of the two, and its members live mainly in southern India. The
Digambaras adhere to the old ideals and require their monks to go about nearly
nude; total nudity is reserved only for those of greatest holiness. In addition, they
believe that women have no chance of achieving release and are to be regarded as
the greatest of all temptations to man. Therefore, women are prohibited from
entering the monasteries and the temples. The Digambaras even refuse to believe
that Mahavira was ever married.
In 1473, a third sect arose as a splinter group from Svethambara. This group ,
known as the Sthanakavasi, is distinguished by its opposition to temples and idols. It
also differs from other Jain sects by accepting only thirty-three Agamas as
authoritative, whereas others accept as many as 84.
Jain Festivals
Although Jains do not place heavy emphasis upon corporate worship and rituals,
they do celebrate certain major annual festivals. These festivals are connected with
the five major events in the life of each of the Tirthankara. These events are the
Tirthankaras entering into the womb, birth, renunciation, attainment of great
knowledge, and final release from this life. Mahaviras birthday is celebrated in
early April.
Paijusana
This celebration comes at the end of the Jain year, usually in the month of
August/September and is the most popular festival. During this 8-day period, each
Jain fasts and attends special worship. All Jain laity are encouraged to live as a
monk for at least one 24-hour period. During this time, the layperson is to live in a
monastery, fast, and meditate. At the conclusion of this period, Jains do acts of
penance and seek forgiveness in order to begin the New Year with a clean slate. The
festival ends with a procession of adherents carrying the image of a Tirthankara
through the village, and of giving alms to the poor.
Divali
Jains have appropriated the Hindu holiday of Divali, which is celebrated in
November. Instead of worshiping the Hindu goddess Kali, Jains use this period to
remember the liberation of Mahavira by the lighting of lamps. In addition to these
festivals, Jains fast at each full moon and make pilgrimage to various holy sites.
Schism divided the Jains into Digambara (sky-clad or nude) and Svethambara or
white-robed.
SIKHISM
The word Sikh is derived from the Sanskrit shishya (disciple) and it is a branch of
the Hindu Bhakti movement and from Islamic Sufism drew inspiration.
The founder, Guru Nanak, accepted the theory of punarjanma, karma and
preached strict monotheism and forbade idolatry, emphasized the unity of the godhead
using the Vedantic concept of Aum or Om and added the qualifications of singleness and
creativity and thus made ik (one) Aum Kar (Creator) a figurative representation as
.
The opening lines of the celebrated morning prayer Japji, which are known as the mool
mantra (root belief) of Sikhism define God as the One, the Truth, Creator, Immortal and
Omnipresent. He is also Nirankarformless and beyond human comprehension.
Sikh scriptures use many names, both Hindu and Muslim for GodNanaks
favorites were Sat Kartar (True Creator) and Sat Nam (True Name). Later,Wahe Guru
(Hail Guru). Sikhism is often described as Nam Marga (The Way of Nama) since it
emphasized the constant repetition (Jap) of the name of God, and the gurbani (divine
hymn of the gurus). Nama cleanses the soul of sin and conquers the source of evil, and
the haumain (I am) or the ego and induces a super conscious stillness (divya dritst).
At the heart of Sikh religion lies the idea of the guru.
*God is the true guru: Gods divine and creative word (shabad) came to mankind
in a distinctive way through ten historical figures, each of whom was called a guru.
*The Sikh community, continuing the faith of the 10th guru, is itself called the
guru.
*And the sacred scriptures are said to be a guru (the Guru Granth Sahib).
One of the distinctive feature of Sikhism as a guru religion is that Nanak and his
nine successors are seen as making up a definite historical phase of individual of living
gurus. They are said to share the same truths, to have possessed the same distinctive
insight into God, and even to have held a basic common identity. The Sikhs say that the
ten gurus are like candles which have been lit from each other.
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Most of them served as the guru and leader of the Sikhs only in later life. Each
was chosen for the task by his predecessor on the basis of his spiritual insight and
worthiness.
During the period of the first five gurus, most of the Sikh doctrines were
developed. The community emerged as a devotional group of religious seekers. This
group had much in common with the north Indian tradition of the mystics, who sought a
union with God through devotion and love. Many people see the Sikh religion as
possessing two basic features, one being this mystical aspect, the other more aggressive,
military and world-affirming.
This first major period of Sikh historyfrom about CE 1500 when Nanaks
active ministry began until roughly 1600 when the Muslim Empire passed from Akbar,
the friend of the Sikhs, to his evil successor Jahangirwas not devoid of worldly and
political interest. Each of the early gurus contributed something which would become
important later, when open conflict broke out between Muslims and Sikhs.
*Guru Nanak taught that there is no Hindu, there is no Muslim. This came to serve as
the basis for a separate Sikh identity. What was chiefly a religious idea for Nanak later
became the justification for a distinctive political and military community.
*Guru Angad had a liking for physical fitness. He organized games among his
followers. These activities were not aimed at military training, but when such training
became necessary, they were seen to have prepared the way for it.
*Guru Amar Das established the langar or communal eating facilities served by a
common kitchen. This was paid for by the Sikhs associated with a particular temple. The
aim was to encourage Sikhs of all castes to eat together without the caste prejudice which
characterizes much of the ordinary Indian way of life. It strengthened community and
helped the under-privileged. Non-Sikhs, too, were welcome.
This great ideal of the Sikh gurus was a reaction against the Hindu caste system
and involved their rejection of orthodox priesthoods such as the Brahmins. During the
later period of Sikh history, when they were facing fierce aggression from the Muslims, it
was relatively easy for caste divisions to be submerged in the defense of the Sikh
community. Contemporary Sikhism, however, still possesses internal divisions of caste.
Although the Sikh ideal speaks of the casteless community of fellow-seekers after God, in
practice this ideal has not been completely achieved.
*Guru Arjan, the 5th, served as a turning point in Sikh history. After him, there was a
marked increase in political strife between Sikhs and Muslims. He built the renowned
Hari Mandir, the Golden Temple, at Amritsar, which became the centre of Sikh religious
and national life. It was the focal point of Sikh identity and expressed many of the basic
Sikh hopes and beliefs.
Guru Gobind Singh in 1699 formed the Khalsa (Arabic/Persian meaning pure
(Khalis). Sikhism later became a reform movement; SingSabha of the1890s and the
Akali (1920s) or immortal and took care of Sikh temples: Gurdwaras.
BUDDHISM
(continuation)
The Four Noble Truth:
1, That Life is Sorrow (Dukha)
2. The Cause of Sorrow is Desire/Craving (Tanha)
3. To Annihilate Sorrow, Annihilate Desire (To annihilate dukha, annihilate
tanha)
4. To annihilate Desire, Practice the Eight-Fold Path/The Middle Way
The Eight-Fold Path:
1. Right Belief is the renunciation of worldly things and the dedication to a
humanitarian faith;
2. Right Resolveis the means by which the individual dedicates himself to the
achievement of Nirvana.
3. Right Speechenables the individual to serve as a model for others to follow
.
4. Right Conductacknowledges the sanctity of life.
5. Right Livelihoodis a life of service rather than selfishness.
6. Right Effortthe individual keeps his inner self free of evil thoughts
7. Right Mindfulnessconstant awareness that craving is pointless.
8. Right Concentrationenables the individual to be selfless in his mind and
overt acts.
Therevada Buddhism
Given a personal name, Siddharta, family name Gautama, later contemporaries
called him Sakyamuni or Sage of the Sakyas and the Buddha generally referred to
himself as the Tathagata or One Who Has Found the Truth.
According to traditional account, millions of years ago, Siddharta met the
Buddha of the Previous Age, Dipankara, then the former made a firm resolve that he,
too, one day would become a Buddha, a teacher of gods and men. In pursuance of this
goal/vow, during countless lives hereafter, he had practiced the Ten Paramita or
perfections needed for the attainment of that goal: generosity, morality, renunciation,
wisdom, effort, forbearance, truthfulness, determination, loving kindness, equanimity.
During this long period of training, he was known as a Boddhisattva, a Buddha to be.
After a series of trials, he sat under the papal tree, to be known later as the Bodhi
(Enlightenment) Tree and assumed the Unbreakable Posture or Vajrasana until the time
he assumed the level of supreme Enlightenment.
Self-indulgence is low, vulgar, ignoble; Self-mortification is painful and crazy
both are profitless. There is the Middle Way, the good life, hence the Eight-Fold Path.
As the Buddha thus expounded his Doctrine, the Dhamma, followers asked to be
ordained as monks by him, hence the third member of the Buddhist Trinity (The Buddha,
Dhamma), the Sangha (the order). In the beginning, there were very few rules, mainly
the vows of celibacy, non-violence and the absence of any personal property other than
the barest minimumneeded for existence: an alms bowl, two sets of robes, a needle, a
rosary, a razor, and a filter (for removing little insects from monks drinking water). As
he numbers increased, the rules reached 227.
Three months after Parnirvana, 500 of his Chief disciples or arhants met in a
cave near Rajagraha and at a Council or Sangiti, they followed the Buddhas injunction
that his place as teacher was not to be taken by any monk or group of monks but by
Doctrine, the Dhamma. The teachings were accordingly collected together into Three
Pitakas or baskets: (1) Vinaya Pitaka (Basket of Discipline)contains the rules and
regulations for monks and nuns; (2) Sutta Pitaka (Basket of Discourses)consists of
five collections (Nikayas) of the teachings of theMaster, collectively known as the
Dhamma, hence the Dhammapada, and also discourses of his disciples, both monks and
nuns; (3) Abhidhamma Pitakacontains the more philosophical and psychological
terms found in the Doctrine classified, analyzed and expounded. These 3 Pitakas are also
known as the Pali Canon (the language, Pali of the Buddha).
Buddhas Teachings:
The Doctrine of Karma (Kamma in Pali)is briefly stated, the Law of Cause and
Effect, a self-operating law and the nature of the act and therefore its resultant effect,
depends on the quality of the will or volition (cetana) behind it. As a result of ones
action, one may be born as a human being, a deva or deity, an animal, a peta or
wandering spirit, or in one of the several nirayas or places of woe.
*Samsaracontinued existence
Anatta or no-soulthe Buddhas teaching of No-soul is not negative; it is a
reality and as such, positive. Belief in a permanent soul plunges beings into Samsara.
The unexhausted force of Karma at a persons death produces rebirth. The Buddha
promulgated the teaching of Paticca-Samuppada or Depandent Origination: This being
present, that comes to be; this being absent, that ceases to exist.
Because of ignorance, Karmic activities (deeds of body, speech and mind) are
performed, the aggregate of which produces the dying consciousness: Vinnana.
When the Arhant dies, he has entered Panirvana and cannot be said that he exists
or does not exist (both propositions equally false)one of the synonyms used by the
Buddha for his stage is Amataa state in which there is no participation in any
describable form of existence or non-existence.
Buddhism, a religion of Enlightenment has its basiscompassion and its climax
transcendental insight or gnosis (Panna)the whole teaching consists of the cultivation
of three factors: (1) Ethics (Sila); (2) Contemplation (Samadhi); and Wisdom (Panna)
Samadhi is the acquisition of the mental tranquility (Samatha) by the complete absence
of conflicts and tensions acquired through Bhavana (more than meditation). It is through
contemplation that one gets a clear knowledge or Vipassana.
MAHAYANA BUDDHISM
San Chiao or Three Teachings/Schools of Thought in China: Buddhism,
Confucianism and Taoism
The unfinished task of Mahayana Philosophy in India was accomplished by the
Chinese Buddhist: Totalistic Philosophy of the Hua Yen School, the Lotus
phenomenology of the Tien Tai school and Chan or Zen Buddhism.
Buddhist and Taoist Philosophiesmetaphysical synthesis of the two traditions
Chinese Madhyamika which extended Nagaarjunas Sunyavada (doctrine of emptiness).
Li Huo Lun (Disposition of Error)avoiding ideological confrontation between
Buddhist and Confucian doctrines.
In translating Buddhist doctrines into Chinese, Taoist philosophy was heavily
relied upon. In oral discourse, written translation and exegesis, the Buddhist often used a
device called ko-yi (matching concepts)match a grouping of Buddhist ideas with a
plausibly analogous grouping of indigenous ideas:
the Buddhist tathata
(suchness/thusness) with the Taoist pen-wu (original non-being); sila (morality) with the
Confucian Hsiao-shun (filial obedience) or nirvana with the Taoist wu-wei (non-action).
By the end of the 3rd Century CE, both Hinayana and Mahayana sutras had been
rendered into Chinese including the Prajnaparamita sutras (wisdom literature.).
The famous Kumarajiva rendered into Chinese Nagarjunas Mula-madhyamaka
karika, the Vimalakirti-nirdesa, the Saddharmapundarika sutra (the Lotus Scripture of
Wonderful Law), the Vajracchedika-prajnaparamita sutra (the Diamond Sutra), the
Sukahavati-vyuha (the Pure Land Scripture).
schools: (a) Cheng-shih; (b) Chu-she; (c) the Lu; and seven
Chen-yen (esoteric school of Mahayana) used mantras (mystic words) and mandalas
(magical diagrams) for spiritual emancipation
From the philosophical point of view, the Hua-Yen (Flower Garland) and the
Tien Tai (Lotus) are the most influential Mahayana school in China.
The name Flower Garland comes from Avatamsaka-Sutrawhose main
teaching consists in the theory of the universal causation of the Realms of the Law,
according to which all dharmas arise simultaneously and are in the state of thusness. In
its static aspect, thusness is the Void (sunyata) or the noumenal realm of Principle (Li).
In its dynamic aspect, it is manifested on the phenomenal realm of Facts (Shih).
The school that reflects the practical, non-speculative, and this-worldly
mindedness of the Chinese is that of Chan or Meditation (dhyana). Its unique style is
fully expressed in the Chan jargon: A special transmission (from mind to mind)
outside the scriptures, non-reliance upon verbalism, a direct pointing to mans mind and
seeing into ones own Nature for the attainment of Buddhahood.
Satorithe here and now of Chan
Zenuses shock therapy of shouting and beating, as well as kung-an (Japanese
koan) exercises of mindsharpening question and answer between the Chan master
and his disciples. Later, the moderate tsuo-chan (sitting in meditation) is recommended.
Mahayana
-SukhavativyuhaDescription of the Paradise of Sukhavati
-SadharmapundarikaLotus of the Good Law (Tendai Sect of Japan)
-Prajnaparamita-sutraGuide to Perfect Wisdoma comprehensive
explanation of the State of Being a Buddha
Vajrayana Buddhismdiamond vehicleseeks to pass beyond the appearances of
things into an emptiness through which the individual is identified with absolute
(Sunyata Eva Rpam; Eva Rpam Sunyataform is emptiness; emptiness is
form); to achieve this, specific techniques are used:
1. mantraOm mani padme humHail to the Jewel in the Lotus
2. mudraShaktrinithrough directly orgiastic worship, the worshippee
is joined to the universal feminine
3. mandalamystical diagram of the Buddhist universe
Boddhisattva (Buddha-to-be)The most famous of which is the Goddess of Mercy,
known as the Avalokiteswara Kuan Yin Ma or plain Kuan Yin Ma in Chinese, Kwannon
in Japanese, Kwanom-Posal in Korean, Kwan-Am in Vietnamese.
There are many Boddhisattvas: The Dalai Lama (Ocean of Wisdom) of Tibet,
believed to be the 14th reincarnation of Chenrezig, the Patron Saint o Tibet.
-Lamaism:
-King Srong-btsan-sgam-po (7th Century CE)
-PadmasambhavaIndian missionary who blended Bon and Vajrayana Buddhism
-after 11th Century, Lamaism came into decline
-Tsong-kha-pa, 14th Century reformerleadership succession
--reincarnation of the BuddhaAvalokiteswara-Dalai LamaGreat Ocean of
Wisdomreincarnation of the Buddha Amitabha
--Panchen LamaJewel of the Scholars
---(chubilghontransformation of the body of Lama to another)
ZenBoddhidharmaSatori, Zazen, and koan
Trikayathe three bodies of the Buddha:
1. DharmakayaAbsolute Being
2. NirmanakayaBuddhas Transformation Body
3. sanskSambhogakayaBuddha in Earthly Body
-Dharmakaya: Adibuddhaoriginal Buddhahas set out for himself five
meditation Buddha or Dhyanibuddhas:
(a) Amitabhathe one of immeasurable brilliance;
(b) Vairocanathe radiant one;
(c) Akshobyathe unshakable;
(d) Rathnasambhavathe one born of precious stone;
(e) Amoghasiddhithe one of unfailing strength.
2.
3.
4.
Dates
Independence
1947
European Christianity
1858
1763
1611-13
1526-1858
Zoroastrianism ( Bombay)
700s
Islam
600s
650-1206
c. 450-533
320-500
Religions
Dates
326
Jainism
500s
Indian Dynasties
Buddhism
circa 500
Vedic Brahmanism
Animism
3200 (?)
Dravidians
Prehistoric
Early Hunter-Gatherers
History of India
Indus Valley Civilization
The Indus Valley (or Harappan) civilization began some time after 3,000 BCE to
flourish around 2,400 to 1,750 BCE and vanished some time after 1,500 BCE. The
scores of cities for a thousand miles along the Indus, including Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro
(Mound of the Dead), and the seaport of Lothal, featured a planned, rectangular format
with drainage and sewage systems. Organized trade and art prospered. Invasion, floods,
soil salinification, or a combination of factors have been blamed for the strange
disappearance of this highly sophisticated people and civilization.
Puzzling also is the dominance achieved by the Indo-Aryan speaking people soon
after 1,500 BCE. TheIndo-European theory of waves of Aryan-speaking invaders
obliterating the Harappan civilization, and then swamping the Dravidian-speaking
inhabitants of the bronze Age cities and farms on the Gangetic plain, is seriously
questioned. Some scholars think a slow process of incoming peoples brought about
cultural and economic changes. Others think Aryans had been in Bengal and the Indus
Valley, alongside other peoples, since about 4,000 BCE. Aryans appear to have brought
iron tools, horses, social hierarchy, and Sanskrit classics.
Between 1,000 and 500 BCE, the Deccan participated in the Ganges culture based
on settled agriculture. By 100 BCE, North India was in contact with the South, where
enterprising people maintained extensive maritime trade relations with the Mediterranean
world and with Southeast Asia. By 700 BCE, numerous small kingdoms existed in the
Himalayan foothills. In one such kingdom within what is not Nepal was born Prince
Siddharta, who became the Buddha, the Enlightened One. However, Buddhism as a
religion became widespread only under the Mauryas.
The dharma officially propagated by Asoka was not Buddhism at all, but a
system of morality consistent with the tenets of most of the sects of the empire and
calculated to lead to peace and fellowship in this World and Heaven in the next.
It was in his reign that Buddhism ceased to be a simple Indian sect and began its
career as a World religion.
During the 500 years between 250 BCE and about CE 300, South Asias
international trade with Egypt, Rome and China flourished; her mathematicians brought
to light the so-called Arabic numerals, the decimal places, and concept of zero, and
Greek sculptors from the kingdom of Bactria formalized the smooth beauty of the
Buddha images. The Scythian king Kanishka of the Kushan dynasty (circa CE 78-320)
facilitated the spread of Buddhism into Central Asia, and the Silk Road came again into
prominence. By sea and land, ideas and customs passed both ways between India,
Central Asia, China and Rome.
In exchange for silk, spices, ointments, and gems, Rome exported pottery, Greek
wines, harem girls, and gold coins at a rate of about $4 million annually.
Gupta and Chola Dynasties
The Gupta
In CE 320, there rose a new Chanda Gupta whose successors in great measure
restored the splendor of the Mauryas. He owed his rise to power largely to his marriage
with a princess Kumaradevi of the tribe of the Licchavis.
Samudra Gupta Pataliputra, the capital of the empire, once more became the
center of a great empire, reaching from Assam to the borders of the Punjab.
Chadra Gupta II or Vikramadityamarks the high watermarks of ancient Indian
culture. His reign, noted by a Chinese traveler, Fa-Hsien, is characterized by
peacefulness. The rarity of serious crime, and the mildness of the administration, stated
that it was possible to travel from one end of the country to the other without molestation,
and without a need of passports.
Indian culture reached a perfection which it was never again to attain and at this
time, was perhaps the happiest and most civilized region of the world.
The Gupta dynasty (CE 320-circa 500) of Northern India saw the revival of
classic Sanskritic learning, and the expansion of cities and universities. India became an
international center of art, learning and medicine. The Gupta dynasty was Indias first
Golden Age, and it existed at a time when Europe was in the depth of the Dark Ages
following the fall of Rome.
Indias second Golden Age was the Chola kingdom (800s-1251) in the South.
Chola kings, and those in the half millennium preceding them, established colonies
overseas and altered the political and cultural life of Southeast Asia by spreading the
Indian concepts of statecraft and royal courts to the region. Chola merchants also traded
to Arab ports and to Egypt, South Indias cities, architecture, huge irrigation projects,
dyes, tempered steel, textiles placed her on par with the most advanced civilizations of
the period.
During the Golden Ages, Hinduism deprived Buddhism of much of its singularity
by proclaiming Buddha Gautama to be an incarnation of Vishnu. Thus, by implication,
the rest of Buddhist teaching and practice were incorporated into the system of
Hinduisms all-inclusiveness. Buddhism also suffered two other disastrous setbacks: (1)
the wholesale destruction of Buddhist temples by the White Huns in CE 500s; and (2) the
desecration of the remainder by the Muslims in the 1,000s. From this time on, it was only
outside its Indian homeland that Buddhism continued to flourish.
The Muslim Invaders
By the CE 1,000s, the North had slumped into fragmented kingdoms and had
became ripe for invasion. It did not have to wait long. The Muslim armies pressed in
from Persia and Afghanistan and,, after defeating Hindu forces in 1192, established the
Delhi Sultanate in Tamil-Nadu (Tamil land). But this unity was soon dissolved because
Muslim administrative philosophy favored a tribal rather than an imperial form of
government. The outcome was that 33 Sultans of Delhi belonged to five different
dynasties, and independent states took shape in what ostensibly were simply provinces.
Tamerlanes swift (1398-1399) and brutal incursions as far as Delhi paved the
way for the fifth dynasty of Lodi Afghans. In the continuing chaos of these fragmented
principalities, India was again readied for change. It came in the person of Babur (14831530) who, losing the kingdom of Kabul, invaded India and founded the Mughal (from
the word Mongol) empire. Baburs lineage derives from his maternal ancestor Genghis
Khan, and on his fathers side, from Tamerlane. His most famous descendant was his
grandson Akbar (meaning the great). Akbar (1542-1605), a successful general and wise
administrator, established India as resplendent World power, and won the loyalty of the
dominant Hindu population by his religious tolerance. To these magnificent Mughal
courts came the Europeans during their Age of Exploration. Only too soon, the
vehemently conservative Aurangzeb (1618-1707) reversed the policy of tolerance. His
fatally costly wars on inconclusive conquest, together with his oppressive efforts to
convert non-Muslims to Islam, so wrecked the twin pillars of fiscal stability and popular
loyalty that the tottering empire soon broke up.
The Mughal Empire
Chronology: The first six emperors are the best
Babur1483-1530
Humayun1508-1556
Akbar1542-1605
Panipat
Jahangir1569-1627
Shah Jahan1592-1666
Aurangzeb1618-1707
Humayun
1540Humayun defeated by Afghan leader
-----------------------
At the height of their power, in the 1500s and 1600s, the Mughals ruled as many
as 150 million people in an empire that today would stretch across Afghanistan, Pakistan
and India.
Akbarwhom most historians regard as the greatest Mughal, was the most
powerful ruler of his time, far succeeding, for example, his contemporary Queen
Elizabeth of England in wealth and number of men under arms.
3. The imperial gardens of India and Kashmir are unrivaled, like the Shalimar
Gardens of Lahore and Kashmir.
4. The empire, under Akbar, was stitched with roads, improving communications.
5. A unique system of government was developed: during the time of Akbar, his
officials were organized, given the ranks called mansabs, with authority weighed
by numberone man might be a mansabdar of 1,000 men; a greater official
might rank 2,000; even 4,000, and was expected to maintain troops, according to
his rank, for the empires use.
The European Impact
Waiting to grab their shares of the shattered empire were the European powers,
who had gradually gained footholds in the centuries following Vasco da Gamas
discovery of the sea route from Portugal to Calicut on the Kerala coast in 1498. Their
competition with one another in the Indian Ocean and subcontinent, and elsewhere in
Asia reflected struggle for power amongst the same nations on the European scene. In
South Asia, reflected the immediate struggle the objectives of which were the selection
and consolidation of trading stations and sailing routes through which the spices, silks,
jewels, and handicrafts of the Orient could flow directly to Europe, and the silver and
goods of Europe could be carried to the East.
Territorial acquisitions became necessary only hen secondary considerations
during the phase of consolidation. Beginning in 100, England and France fought for
control of Greater India; by 1819, Britain had become the paramount power in the Indian
subcontinent. After the so-called Indian or Sepoy Mutiny of 1857-58, which actually
reflected widespread national protest against alien and political control from London
came the Viceroy and a Council that took the place of the abolished private East India
Company. English was established as the official language of education and government,
and of the legal system which was superimposed upon Indian customary and princely
judicature. The centuries-old aggressiveness of the Maratha warriors, the militant
Sikhs, the restless Pathans, and the neighboring Afghans were controlled only at the cost
of series of wars.
Unfortunately, England and Europe from the mid-1800s were capitalizing on their
machine-age technology and mass-produced goods, and held India as a hostage market.
But the accompanying leaven of new educational and liberalizing philosophies, which
describe Western-style democracy, individualism, economic freedom, and equal
opportunities for all persons, became an intellectual and social ferment. In due course,
this ferment would finally remove he rule of England (the British Raj) and would also
lead to the subsequent dissolution of the unity of the subcontinent.
Confronted with twin factors of modernization and Westernization, the Indian
soul replied: Modernization yes; Westernization No. The emerging middle class of
businessmen and upper-class intellectuals organized the all-party Indian National
Congress in 1885, and the Muslim League of India in 1906. Mohandas K. Gandhi,
Jawaharlal Nehru,, Mohammad Ali Jinnah, and others led the nation through much
travail to eventual independence.
Pakistan proclaimed its independence on Aug. 14, 1947; India on Aug. 15, 1947;
Ceylon (later Sri Lanka) on Feb. 4, 1948. The Maldive Islands retained its connection
with England until July 26, 1965. After civil war and war with India, East Pakistan
declared itself independent as the new nation of Bangladesh in 1972. India, Sri Lanka,
and Bangladesh chose to retain membership in the British Commonwealth of Nations.
The Three Major Phases of Indian Nationalism: 18851947
A. 1885 to 1905emphasis on Reform and Political participation of Indians on British
colonial rulebasically moderate in nature.
B. 1905 to 1918characterized by radicalism
C. 1916 to `1947Mahatma Gandhi came into the limelight and the wave of young
radicals pressed not only for reforms but independence.
A. From 1858 to 1885, the Bramo Samaj and the Arya Samaj held sway and
then, the period from 1885 to `1905 was characterized by membership of the intellectuals
and the middle class pressing for the reorganization of the Indian Civil Service so that the
natives who are qualified can be employed into the system. Among the leaders was
G.K.Gokhale, a moderate one. In all, various reforms were introduced (by the colonial
government.).
B. 1905 to1918saw a sharp turn for radicalism, even if the British colonial
government introduced reformsthe Montague Reform and the Indian Council Act of
1912 where the local and national levels of government administration were introduced
and the diarchy was made effective. But even if the educated, middle class were given
greater participation in the Legislative Branch of government, and they were in the
majority, they can be overridden by a veto of the British Governor of the province.
B.G.Tilak, a radical, entered the scene and instituted measures aimed to irritate the
Muslim minority by establishing festivals coinciding with Muslim holiday, the cow
protectionist policy and, as a whole, the purist Hindu nature of the movement. During
this time, the Congress Party of India was dominated by Hindu but serious conflict with
the Muslims hasnt manifested yet.
It was also at this time that World War I took place with the humbling of the
Turkish Ottoman Empire after their defeat by the Allied and the imposition of the Sevres
Treaty where the Turkish Sultan, as Caliph, was stripped of power in 1924. This
resulted in the Khilafat Movement where the Muslims were threatened of their religious
identity, being in the minority and subsumed after the end of the Mughal Empire.