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a. centered at Constantinople
b. under control of the emperor
c. used Greek language of early Christian apostles
3. 1054 division became permanent
a. Western Church became Roman Catholic Church
b. Eastern Church became Byzantine Church
4. regions evolved rites
a. church calendar
b. liturgy: body of texts, ritual actions
c. repertory of plainchant or chant: unison song
B. Byzantine chant
1. scriptural readings chanted using formulas
2. hymns and psalms sung to fully developed melodies
3. melodies classified into eight modes (echoi)
a. served as model for Western Church modes
4. hymn melodies more prominent
a. notated from tenth century on
b. still sung in Greek Orthodox services today
C. Western dialects
1. regional rites emerged: own liturgy and chant
2. Ambrosian chant: after St. Ambrose, bishop of Milan (37497)
a. Milan important center for Western Church
b. close cultural ties to Byzantium
c. liturgy and chant survives to present day
3. Eighth century: standardized church services
a. local chant dialects disappeared over time
D. Creation of Gregorian chant
1. Schola Cantorum (School of Singers)
a. established late seventh century
b. sang when Pope officiated
2. 752 to 754 Pope Stephen II sojourned in Frankish kingdom with Schola Cantorum
3. Pippin the Short (r. 75168) king of Franks
a. imported Roman liturgy and chant
b. consolidated diverse kingdom; political and religious
4. Charlemagne (Charles the Great, r. 768814)
a. expanded territory through conquests
b. continued policy of common liturgy
c. 800 crowned emperor by Pope Leo III; initiated Holy Roman Empire
d. melodies brought from Rome to Frankish lands
B. Practical theory
1. ninth-century treatises: Musica enchiriadis (Music Handbook) and Scolica enchiriadis (Comments on the Handbook)
a. directed students entering clerical orders
b. emphasized practical matters
c. eight modes described; exercises for locating semitones in chant
2. Guido of Arezzos Micrologus (ca. 102528)
a. practical guide to singers
b. covers notes, intervals, scales, modes, melodic composition, improvised polyphony
C. Church modes
1. system completed by tenth century
2. chants classified by modes; eight modes identified by number
a. final, range, and reciting tone all characterize a mode
3. final: main and last note in melody
4. modes paired, share final
a. authentic: odd-numbered modes; step below and octave above final
b. plagal: even numbered modes; 4th or 5th below to 5th or 6th above the final
5. chromatic alteration: B-flat
6. species of fifth or fourth applied (Cleomedes)
a. divided modes into two spans
b. modes not octave species, extend to ninth or tenth
7. reciting tone: most frequent or prominent note in chant
a. authentic modes: 5th above final
b. plagal modes: 3rd below
8. modes first codified as means to classify chants
a. tonaries: books grouped chants together by mode
b. not all chant melodies conform to modal theory
i. many existed before theory developed
ii. chants after tenth century have different style
9. ninth-century application of Greek names to church modes
a. misread Boethius
b. called lowest mode the highest in Cleomedes arrangement
c. moved through names in rising rather than descending order
10. poor fit between modes and Greek system
a. modes based on final, reciting tone, ranges exceeding an octave
b. Greek system based on tetrachords, octave species, and tonoi
c. important for medieval scholars to ground work in Greek tradition
D. Solmization
1. facilitated sight-singing
2. introduced by Guido of Arezzo
c. hymns
d. canticles: poetic passages from Bible
4. Matins, Lauds, and Vespers most important liturgically and musically
F. Liturgical books
1. Mass
a. Missal contains texts for the Mass
b. Gradual contains chants
2. Office
a. Breviary contains texts
b. Antiphoner contains music
3. Liber Usualis (Book of Common Use)
a. most frequently used texts and chants for Mass and Office
b. prepared by monks of Benedictine Abbey of Solesmes
c. adopted as official book
II. Characteristics of Chant
A. Diverse styles
1. styles reflect functions and histories
B. Manners of performance
1. responsorial: soloist alternates with choir or congregation
2. antiphonal: two choirs alternate
3. direct: without alternation
C. Styles of setting texts
1. syllabic: almost every syllable has a single note
2. neumatic: one to six notes per syllable
3. melismatic: long melodic passages on a single syllable
D. Recitation formulas
1. simple melodic outlines
2. can be used with many texts
E. Melody and declamation
1. melodies vehicle for declaiming words
a. melodies reflect shape of text
b. no attempt to express emotions or depict images
2. phrases and periods correspond with text
a. most phrases resemble arch, parallels spoken Latin
b. accented syllables set to higher notes
c. emphasis through melismas or syllabic settings
3. example: Viderunt omnes
a. Dominus (Lord): longest melisma and highest note in chant
b. jubilate (sing joyfully): almost syllabically
b. Matins
i. nine Bible readings, each followed by a Great Responsory
ii. neumatic to melismatic
c. other Office services
i. brief Bible reading, Short Responsory
ii. neumatic
5. Graduals
a. more melismatic than responsories
b. style example: Viderunt omnes (NAWM 3d)
i. 52-note melisma on Dominus
ii. 3 other 10-20 note melismas
iii. cantor begins respond, choir completes it
iv. soloists sing verse, choir joins on last phrase
6. Alleluias
a. respond on word Alleluia, psalm verse and repetition of the respond
b. jubilus: long melisma on final syllable of Alleluia
c. St. Augustine: long melismas, expression of joy beyond words
d. example Alleluia Dies sanctificatus (NAWM 3e), from Mass for Christmas Day
i.. soloist and choir
ii. articulated phrases, primarily steps and 3rds, arching contour
iii. prominent pitches reinforce mode 2, plagal mode on D
7. Offertories
a. melismatic as Graduals
b. Middle Ages, performed during offering of bread and wine
c. choral respond, two or three ornate verses sung by a soloist
d. each followed by second half of respond
e. verses dropped later; respond only
8. Tracts
a. longest chants in the liturgy
b. originally direct solo psalmody, no responses
c. verses combine recitation with florid melismas
d. oral composition based on formulas
e. today performed like Graduals
f. several psalm verses set in florid style
9. chants derived from responsorial or direct psalmody
a. long, virtuosic melismas show off voice
b. passages resemble improvised embellishment of simple melodic outline
c. all but Offertory attached to Bible readings
d. musical parallel to illuminations of medieval Bible manuscripts
V. Medieval Instruments
A. Illuminated manuscripts depict medieval instruments
1. most instruments came from Asia
a. through Byzantine Empire
b. Arabs in North Africa and Spain
2. early history is obscure, nomenclature inconsistent
B. thirteenth-century miniature, string instruments
1. vielle, fiddle: principal bowed instrument
a. predecessor of Renaissance viol and modern violin
b. vary in shape and size
c. five strings, tuned in 4ths and 5ths
d. melody supported by drones on open strings
2. hurdy-gurdy: three-stringed vielle
a. rotating wheel inside, turned by crank
b. levers change pitches on melody string
c. other strings sound drones
3. harp: style originated in British Isles
4. psaltery:
a. plucked strings attached to frame over wooden sounding board
b. remote ancestor of harpsichord and piano
C. Cantigas de Santa Mara miniature, wind and percussion instruments
1. transverse flute: wood or ivory without keys
2. shawm: double reed, similar to the oboe
3. trumpet: straight, lacked valves, played harmonic series
4. pipe and tabor: high whistle
a. fingered with left hand
b. right hand beat small drum with a stick
D. Other instruments
1. bagpipe: player inflated bag (animal skin or bladder)
a. air through the chanter, drone pipes, all sounded by reeds
2. bells: played in church, used as signals
3. organs:
a. 1100, monastic church, early forms of organ
b. 1300 organs common in cathedrals
c. portative organ: portable
i. right hand played keys, left worked bellows
d. positive organ: played on table
i. assistant pumped the bellows
VI. Dance Music