Académique Documents
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Interchapter C
Hydrogen and Oxygen
C-2. The naturally occurring isotopes of hydrogen are hydrogen, deuterium,
and tritium.
C-4. The Haber process is the industrial production of ammonia directly from
hydrogen and nitrogen.
C-6. (a) Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
(b) 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l ) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
(c) CaH2(s) + 2H2O(l ) Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2H2(g)
light
(d) 2Na(s) + H2(g)
2NaH(s)
Interchapter D
The Alkali Metals
D-2. The alkali metals are produced commercially by electrolysis of their
molten salts.
D-4. Lithium is the only element that reacts with nitrogen at room
temperature.
D-6. 2Na2O2(s) + 2H2O(l ) 4NaOH(s) + O2(g)
exhaled air
SOL
SOL
Interchapter E
Nitrogen
E-2. The volume percentage of N2(g) in the lower atmosphere is about 78%.
E-4. Lithium is the only element that reacts with N2(g) at room temperature.
E-6. The Haber process is the synthesis of ammonia directly from hydrogen
and nitrogen under controlled conditions of high temperature and high
pressure with a catalyst.
E-8. Azides are salts of hydrazoic acid, HN3(aq). They are made by reacting the
metal hydroxide with HN3(aq).
E-10. Laughing gas is N2O(g), dinitrogen oxide or nitrous oxide.
Interchapter F
Saturated Hydrocarbons
F-2. A substitution reaction is the substitution of one atom for another in a
molecule.
F-4. (a) The molecules are identical. One can be flipped over and
superimposed upon the other.
(b) The molecules are identical. The chlorine atom is attached to the second
carbon atom in each molecule.
(c) The molecules are identical. One can be rotated 180 and superimposed
upon the other.
(d) The molecules are identical. The chlorine atom is attached to the first
carbon atom in each molecule.
F-6. The Lewis formulas are
H
hexane
H
H
H C H
H
C
H
C
H
3-methylpentane
H C H
H
C
2-methylpentane
H
H C H
H
H
H
2,2-dimethylbutane
H C H
H
C
H
H
H C H
H
H C H
H
2,3-dimethylbutane
H
H
SOL
H
H
cyclopropane
cyclobutane
F-10. (a) The name violates rule 3. The chain was not numbered to give the
lowest number to the carbon atom that has an attached group. The correct
IUPAC name is 2-methylpentane.
(b) The Lewis formula of the compound is
CH3
CH
CH2
CH3
CH2
CH3
CH
CH3
CH2
CH2
The longest chain has not been used (rule 2). The correct IUPAC name is
2-methylpentane.
F-12. 1-chloropropane and 3-chloropropane are the same molecule. One
formula can be obtained from the other by just rotating it 180.
F-14. The IUPAC names of the alkanes are 1: 2,3-dimethylpentane,
2: 2,3,3-trimethylpentane, 3: 3,4-dimethylhexane, and 4: 2,3-dimethylpentane.
(a) 1 and 4 are the same compound.
(b) 2 and 3 are isomers of octane.
(c) 3 is a derivative of hexane.
(d) 2 has the most methyl groups.
SOL
Interchapter G
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
G-2. An addition reaction results when atoms are added to a molecule, such as
an unsaturated hydrocarbon. A substitution reaction results when one atom is
substituted for another in a molecule.
G-4. Markovnikovs rule says that when HX adds to an alkene in an addition
reaction, the hydrogen atom attaches to the carbon atom in a double or triple
bond bearing a larger number of hydrogen atoms.
G-6. Yes. For example, the addition of Cl2(g) to acetylene, HCCH, can
result in cis and trans isomers of 1,2-dichlorethene.
G-8. (a) 3-fluoro-1-butene (b) 2-chloro-3-methyl-cis-2-pentene (c) 2-pentene
G-10. (a) The reaction is
H
H
CH2CH3
Cl
(g) + HCl(g)
H3C
CH2CH3 (g)
CH3
H
(g) + Cl2(g)
Cl
Cl
Cl (g)
CH3C
CH2(g)
CH3C
CHBr(g)
CH3CBr
Ni(s)
CH2(g)
SOL
Interchapter H
Aromatic Hydrocarbons
H-2. The Lewis formulas of napthalene and anthracene are
naphthalene
anthracene
Br
Br
Br
Br
Br
CH2CH3
(a)
CH2CH3
(b)
F
H2C
(c)
C
H
H
C
Cl
CH3
(d)
Br
(a)
(b) no reaction
nitrobenzene
H3C
(c)
H
C
CH3
isopropylbenzene
(d)
CH3
SOL
Interchapter I
Main Group Metals
I-2. You should not throw water on a magnesium fire because hot magnesium
reacts vigorously with water.
I-4. (a) CaSO4 H2O(s)
(e) Pb(C2H5)4(l )
(d) AlO(OH)(s)
(c) CaMg3(SiO4)4(s)
103 g
I-10. (a) (1.00 kg)
1 kg
= 866 g
239.3 g PbS 1 mol PbS 1 mol Pb
1 mol PbS
1 mol Pb
207.2 g Pb
= 683 g
303.3
g PbSO
1 mol PbSO
1 mol Pb
= 775 g
267.2 g PbCO 1 mol PbCO 1 mol Pb
103 g
(b) (1.00 kg)
1 kg
103 g
(c) (1.00 kg)
1 kg
1 mol PbSO4
1 mol Pb
1 mol PbCO3
207.2 g Pb
1 mol Pb
207.2 g Pb
Interchapter J
Sulfur
J-2. Salts of sulfuric acid are called sulfates and salts of sulfurous acid are
called sulfites.
J-4. The formula for Epsom salt is MgSO4 7H2O(s).
J-6. (a) SO2(g)
(b) SO3(g)
(e) H2S(g)
(d) H2SO3(aq)
(c) H2SO4(aq)
(b) Na2S2O6(s)
(d) Li2S4O6(s)
(c) K 2S2O8(s)
Interchapter K
Noble Gases
K-2. Rayleigh was led to the discovery of argon by a discrepancy in the density
of nitrogen obtained from the removal of oxygen, water vapor, and carbon
dioxide from air and the density of nitrogen prepared from the thermal
decomposition of NH4NO2(aq).
SOL
K-4. The noble gases were placed in a new group in the periodic table because
they behaved chemically as an entire new family of elements.
K-6. See Figure K.1.
K-8. Nitrogen reacts with lithium at room temperature, whereas argon does
not.
K-10. The shapes of the given compounds are
RnF2
AX2E3 linear
RnO3 AX3E
RnF4
trigonal pyramidal
RnO4 AX4
tetrahedral
Interchapter L
Sources of Energy
L-2. Solar energy can be stored by (1) the dissolution of Glaubers salt,
Na2SO4 10H2O(s), in its own waters of hydration reaction described by
Na2SO4 10H2O(s) Na2SO4(aq) + 10H2O(l )
or by (2) the production of H2(g) such as
750C
CO2(g) + CH4(g)
2CO(g) + 2H2(g)
1000 J
1 yr
1 L 1 mL 114.2 g
3.7854 L
moles C8H18(l ) = (12 gal)
1 gal
1000 ml
0.80 g
1 mol
8 mol CO2
moles CO2 = (318 mol C8H18) = 2500 mol
1 mol C8H18
The mass of CO2(g) is
mass of CO2 = (2500 mol CO2)(44.0 gmol1 CO2) = 1.1 105 g = 110 kg
SOL
1 BTU
cost per mol CH4 = (890.5 kJmol1)
1.05 kJ
1 therm
$1.20
= $0.010
Interchapter M
Carbon and Silicon
M-2. The Lewis formula is
N
M-4. The allotropes of carbon are carbon, graphite, diamond, and the various
fullerene molecules such as buckminsterfullerene.
M-6. Diamond is a covalently bonded crystal consisting of tetrahedrally
arranged carbon atoms, and so has very strong bonding within the crystal.
Graphite, on the other hand, consists of covalently bonded layers, with
relatively weak interlayer bonding. The hardness of diamond makes it ideal for
coating tool bits. The slipperiness of graphite makes it an ideal dry lubricant.
M-8. See the Interchapter.
M-10. Photochromic glasses contain a small amount of silver chloride
dispersed throughout the glass. When sunlight strikes the glass, the tiny
dispersed crystals of AgCl(s) decompose according to
light
AgCl
dark
(clear)
Ag + Cl
(opaque)
M-12. The principal component of glass is pure sand, SiO2(s). Other important
components are soda ash, Na2CO3(s), lime, CaCO3(s), and aluminum oxide,
Al2O3(s).
M-14. (a) The structure is
O
Si
O
O
O
Si
O
SOL
Si
O
Si
O
O
O
Si
O
Interchapter N
Phosphorus
N-2. The molecular structure of P4 is tetrahedral with each phosphorus atom
occupying a vertex of the tetrahedron. (See Figure N.1.)
N-4. Phosphate rock is a mineral of phosphate consisting of various calcium
phosphate salts. Its principal use is in the production of fertilizers.
N-6. See Figure N.3.
N-8. The evolution of CO2(g) that takes place when baking powder is heated
is described by
300C
Interchapter O
Radiochemistry
O-2. The nuclear equations are as follows:
(a) 21824Pb 21834Bi + 10e
(b) 116C 115B + +10e
(c) 9407Zr 9417Nb + 10e
O-4. The value of the mass lost per second is given by
1 1026 Js1
E
m = = = 1 109 kgs1
c2
8.99 1016 m2s2
or 1 billion kilograms per second.
O-6. The mass of an electron or a positron is 9.109 10 31 kg. The loss of mass is
m = (2)(9.109 10 31 kg) = 1.822 10 30 kg
SOL10
60 s
t 1/2 = (25 min) = 1500 s
1 min
The specific activity of iodine-128 is
4.17 1023 disintegrations
specific activity = = 2.17 1018 disintegrationss1g1
(128 g)(1500 s)
The rate of decay of a 100 mCi dose is
106 Ci
rate of decay = (100 Ci) (3.7 1010 disintegrationsCi1)
1 Ci
= 3.7 106 disintegrationss1
The number of grams of iodine-128 that is equivalent to this dose is
3.7 106 disintegrationss1
mass =
= 1.7 1012 g
2.17 1018 disintegrationss1g1
SOL11
1 mol Ba-131
moles of Ba-131 = (4.3 105 g Ba-131) = 3.3 107 mol
131 g Ba-131
The number of moles of SO42 (aq) is
moles of SO42 = moles of BaSO4 = moles Ba-131 = 3.3 10 7 mol
Assuming that essentially all the sulfate is precipitated (barium is in excess),
we calculate the concentration of sulfate ion as
3.3 10 7 mol
[SO42 ] = = 3.3 10 5 M
0.010 L
O-14. This problem involves isotopic dilution and so we apply the equation,
A1
mu = m2 m1
A2
where m u is the mass of threonine present in the original sample; m1 and A1
the respective mass and activity of the carbon-14 labeled threonine added;
and m 2 and A 2 the respective mass and activity of the radio-labeled threonine
isolated from the mixture. Substituting these values into the equation gives
3000 disintegrationsmin1
mu = (60.00 mg)
3.00 mg = 147 mg
1200 disintegrationsmin1
Thus, the original 10.00-gram protein sample contained 147 milligrams of
threonine.
Interchapter P
Alcohols, Aldehydes, and Ketones
P-2. The Lewis formulas are
CH3
(a) CH3CHCHCH2OH
(b)
CH3
(c)
CH3
CH3CH2CHCH2CHCH3
OH
CH3CH2CH2CH2CHCH2OH
Cl
OH
Cl
(d) CH3CH2CHCHCH2
Cl
(b) 3-methylbutanal
(c) propanal
(d) 3,4-dimethylpentanal
SOL12
(b) 3-hexanone
P-10. (a) The formula of ethanal is CH3CHO, The alcohol to use is CH3CH2OH.
(b) The formula of 2-methylpropanal is CH3CH(CH3)CHO. The alcohol to
use is 2-methylpropanol.
(c) The formula of 2,2-dimethylpropanal is CH3C(CH3)2CHO. The alcohol to
use is 2,2-dimethylpropanol.
P-12. There is only one possible structure for propanone, but there are two for
propanol, 1-propanol and 2-propanol.
P-14. The number of moles of acetone that reacts is
1 mol acetone
moles of acetone = (5.00 mL)(0.792 gmL 1) = 0.0682 mol
58.08 g acetone
The number of moles of CHI3(s) produced is equal to the number of moles of
acetone. The mass of iodoform that would be produced if the yield were 100%
(the theoretical yield) is
393.7 g CHI3
theoretical yield = (0.0682 mol CHI3)
= 26.9 g
1 mol CHI3
The percent yield is given by
15.6 g
percent yield = 100 = 58.0%
26.9 g
Interchapter Q
The Halogens
Q-2. The final equation is the sum of the first two given equations, so
K c = (6.3 10 4 M)(5.1 M1) = 3.2 10 3
Q-4. Fluorine and chlorine are obtained by electrolysis. Bromine and iodine
are obtained by passing chlorine through brines.
Q-6. Glass in frosted light bulbs can be etched according to
SiO2(s) + 6HF(aq) H2SiF6(s) + 2H2O(l )
(glass)
(washed off)
SOL13
1 mmol I2
millimoles of I2 = (0.0476 mmol Na 2S2O3) = 0.0238 mmol
2 mmol Na2S2O3
The number of millimoles of CO(g) that reacted is given by
5 mmol CO
millimoles of CO = (0.0238 mmol I2) = 0.119 mmol
1 mmol I2
The number of milligrams of CO(g) in the air sample is given by
28.01 mg CO
mass of CO = (0.119 mmol CO) = 3.33 mg
1 mmol CO
Interchapter R
Carboxylic Acids
R-2. (a) 3-chlorobutanoic acid
(b) 2,2-dimethylpropanoic acid
(c) 4-chloro-3-methylpentanoic acid
(d) 3,3,4,4,4-pentachlorobutanoic acid
R-4. (a) This is a neutralization reaction. The balanced equation is
CH3CH2COOH(aq) + NH3(aq) NH4CH3CH2COO(aq)
(b) The reaction between an acid and an alcohol yields an ester. The balanced
equation is
H +(aq)
CH3CH2COOH(aq) + CH3CH2OH(aq)
CH3CH2COOCH2CH3(aq) + H2O(l )
R-6. The Lewis formulas and the condensed formulas are
O
or
NaCH3CHClCOO(s)
Cl
(b) Rb+
O
H
or
RbHCOO(s)
SOL14
CH3 O
or
Sr(CH3C(CH3)2COO)2(s)
CH3
(d) La3+
O
H3C
or
La(CH3COO)3(s)
COOH
(c)
COO
COOH
(aq) + 2 KOH(aq)
COO
K + 2
(aq) + 2 H 2O(l )
Interchapter S
Synthetic Polymers
S-2. Cross linking holds the polymer chains together and thus makes it more
rigid.
S-4. Both the dicarboxylic acid and diamine of nylon 66 contain six carbon
atoms.
S-6. The formation of polyvinyl chloride from chloroethylene is an addition
reaction. Taking HO as the radical initiator, the first step in the reaction can
be described by
HO + HC
CH2
HO
CH
Cl
CH2
Cl
CH2
HO
Cl
CH
CH2
Cl
H
C
CH2
C
H
C
H
CH2
OH
SOL15
Interchapter T
Biochemical Polymers
T-2. The sequence of amino acids in a protein chain is the primary structure.
The coiled, helical shape in different regions of a protein is the secondary
structure. The overall shape of a protein molecule in water results from an
interplay between the amino acid side groups along the protein chain and the
solvent, water. This interplay causes the protein to coil, fold, and bend into a
three-dimensional shape called the tertiary structure.
T-4. The equations for the reactions between tyrosine and valine are
H
H2N
COOH + H2N
CH2
COOH
H2N
CH
H3C
COOH + H2O
CH
CH3
H3C
H
COOH + H2N
CH
H3C
CH3
OH
H
C
CH2
OH
H2N
COOH
H2N
CH2
CH
CH3
H3C
COOH + H2O
CH2
CH3
OH
OH
T-6. We can form six different tripeptides from two different amino acids. If
we represent the side groups of the two amino acids by G1 and G2, then the
tripeptides are
H2N
G1
H2N
G2
H2N
G2
G1
H
G1
H
G1
H
N
G2
COOH
H2N
G1
COOH
H2N
G2
COOH
H2N
G2
H
N
G1
H
N
G1
G2
H
G2
H
G2
H
N
G1
COOH
H
N
G1
COOH
H
N
G2
We can form six different tripeptides from three different amino acids. If we
represent the side groups of the three amino acids by G1, G2, and G3, then the
tripeptides are
COOH
SOL16
H2N
G1
H2N
G2
H2N
G3
G2
H
G1
H
G1
H
N
G3
COOH
H2N
G3
COOH
H2N
G2
G2
H
N
G1
H
N
COOH
H2N
G3
G3
H
G3
H
G2
H
N
G2
COOH
H
N
G1
COOH
H
N
G1
COOH
O
O
HC
O
CH2
OH
H
O
OH
CH2
NH2
NH2
OH
N
H
HC
H
NH
N
CH
HN
O
CH2
H
C
O
OH
CH3
CH
T-10. We must have T and A opposite each other and G and C opposite each
other. The complementary base sequence is
G A
T C A A
Interchapter U
Batteries
U-2. A primary battery has only one lifetime and cannot be recharged. A
secondary battery can be recharged a number of times.
U-4. Nickel-metal hydride batteries have less of a memory effect than do
nickel-cadmium batteries and avoid the use of cadmium, a toxic heavy metal.
SOL17
U-6. By convention, the oxidation half reaction is written on the left side
of the cell diagram and the reduction half reaction on the right side. The
unbalanced oxidation half reaction equation is
Fe(s) Fe(OH)2(s)
and the unbalanced reduction half reaction is
NIOOH(s) Ni(OH)2(s)
The balanced equation for the anode half reaction (oxidation occurs at the
anode) is
(1)
The balanced equation for the cathode half reaction (reduction occurs at the
cathode) is
(2)
Zn(s) ZnO(s)
MnO2(s) Mn(OH)2(s)
(oxidation)
(reduction)