J. agric. Engng Res.

(2001) 78 (3), 299}308

doi:10.1006/ jaer.2000.0640, available online at http://www.idealibrary.com on
SE*Structures and Environment

Static and Dynamic Silo Loads using Finite Element Models

F. Ayuga; M. Guaita; P. Aguado
E.T.S.I. Agro& nomos, Polytechnic University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitario s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain;
e-mail of corresponding author: Ayuga@cvr.etsia.upm.es
E.P.S. University of Santiago de Compostela, Campus Universitario, 27002 Lugo, Spain; e-mail: guaita@lugo.usc.es
E.S.T.I. Agraria, University of Leo& n, Au, Portugal, 41.24071 Leon, Spain; e-mail: diapar@unileon.es
(Received 18 October 1999; accepted in revised form 29 August 2000; published online 24 October 2000)

Di!erent "nite element models for axisymmetric silo analysis, that simultaneously considers the behaviour of
the grain and the structure, are proposed in this paper. The use of commercial programmes and integration of
modern theories on pressures exerted by grain are the main premises of the research. The paper presents models
for both the static and dynamic conditions. In both cases, the in#uence of di!erent parameters is discussed.
A new method for emptying pressure determination is also proposed.
 2001 Silsoe Research Institute

1. Introduction
Storing of bulk materials in silos is essential in a large
number of industries, and major investments are made in
their construction both in the public and private sectors.
During the last 100 years, many accidents, explosions,
cracking and excessive deformations have been common
in silo structures due to the lack of knowledge about their
structural behaviour. Such failures are costly in terms of
repair or replacement cost, loss of production and injury
or loss of life. Even after more than a century of research,
many uncertainties still exist in various areas of silo
structural behaviour. Throughout the world, there are
a large number of research teams investigating silo structures, but the more advances that are made, the more
complex the problem appears.
Di!erent standards and rules can be used for silo
design, all of which are based on theoretical and empirical methods. Almost every standard uses Janssen's (1895)
theory which proposed equations based on a horizontal
section of stored material that is in contact with the silo
walls. In this theory, the e!ects of the stored material
acting on the structure only depend on the silo hydraulic
radius, the grain bulk density, the grain friction angles in
contact with the silo wall and the value of k (ratio
between horizontal and vertical pressures). In spite of its
limitations, and a century after its appearance, this remains the theory upon which the standards of all countries
0021-8634/01/030299#10 $35.00/0

and institutions are based, including recent international

standards such as Eurocode 1, Part 4 (ENV, 1995).
During the silo discharge, the vertical and horizontal
pressures can exceed the static results considerably. This
has been known and investigated throughout the 20th
century, but even today its cause, the factors that intervene and the predictable pressure values, all remain very
uncertain. In order to overcome this di$culty, researchers have proposed to modify the static pressures,
calculated by Janssen's theory, through the use of overpressure multiplication factors obtained in various research and veri"ed in practice.
From the 1970s onwards, a large number of research
teams have worked on the application of "nite element
analysis to silo problems (Manbeck & Nelson, 1975;
Mahmoud, 1975; Jofriet et al., 1977; Maeda & Ishiyaki,
1979). At that time, models and programmes were hampered due to the limited capacity of computers and the
high cost of equipment. Furthermore, commercial programmes for these purposes had not been developed. In
contrast today, it is possible to use computers whose
capacity and speed is continually increasing and a large
number of programs exist which not only calculate by
means of "nite elements but also manipulate, analyse and
present the results. A gap exists in the international
bibliography concerning the use of the potent commercial programmes that are currently available for both
silo research and for the development of "nite element

299

 2001 Silsoe Research Institute

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F. AY U G A E A .

models, which simultaneously work with the behaviour

of the stored material and that of the silo structure.
This article presents a "nite element model for the
design of axisymmetric silos using the capacities of the
ANSYS 5.3 (ANSYS, 1998) programme that simultaneously considers the behaviour of the grain and the
structure at the same time.
The main structural problem for silos occurs when the
greatest pressures are produced (during their discharge).
The "rst disaster caused by overpressures during discharge occurred in the 1930s when, with the intention of
reducing the factor of safety, structural calculation
methods were being re"ned and construction materials
were being improved. Before that period it had not been
easy to alter structural design, and large loads were used
for the calculation. Since then, extensive research has
been undertaken into the causes of overpressures during
discharge, although it cannot be said that the problem
has been solved yet.
All current standards and suggestions for silo calculations use coe$cients of overpressures during discharge
and because of this they are unable to correctly evaluate
the complexity of the phenomenon.
The present research assumes the validity of, and is
principally based upon, the contributions of Jenike made
during the 1960s (Jenike & Johanson, 1968). They clearly
de"ned the di!erent types of pressures against the walls
as a consequence of the change in the stress state in the
grain (passing from an active to a passive state and
unbalancing the load in the process). This theory has
been combined with Zhang's most recent contributions
(Zhang et al., 1994) relating to the decisive in#uence of
the dilatancy angle of the grain during the discharge
process and the consequent overpressure.
As a result, this article proposes a new method of
analysing silo discharge which combines both e!ects and
implements them in a "nite element model. The results
are compared with the previous research data and with
those indicated by the various standards.
Using this model, conclusions can be drawn about the
di!erent in#uences of the mechanical parameters of grain
on the silo design.

2. Principles of the 5nite element models

The objective of this work was to produce results that
could easily be incorporated into the industry and be
used by silo-design engineers. A few commercial programmes that ful"l these conditions already exist, based
on the theory of "nite elements. For this research, the
university version of ANSYS 5.3 was used, a version that
only di!ers from the commercial one in that the wavefront is limited to 800 degrees of freedom (DOF).

Sixteen "les were generated in order to represent the

various problems in silo analysis (static and dynamic
analysis, silos with #at bases, with hoppers, walls made
of steel or concrete, etc.). With the help of these
models it has been possible to confront the di!erent
problems which appear during the research, such as
grain be-haviour, silo wall behaviour, contact problems, the "t of the mesh, and emptying and "lling the
silo.
Equal number of silos with #at bases and silos with
hoppers were studied. However, for discharge, silos with
hoppers were chosen because of the focus of the research
on the various #ow types that occur during this process,
and in order to make use of the experimental data
gathered by other authors, the majority of which corresponds to this type of silo.
Two "nite elements were used, in accordance with
ANSYS codes. A four-node element, having the possibility of axisymmetry, for ensiled material and an element of
two nodes superimposed, having the possibility of taking
into account friction and the loss of contact, for
grain}wall and grain}grain contact.

3. Structural behaviour of the silo in a static condition

In order to test the models and to study the in#uence
of the principal parameters upon them, the silo was "rst
studied in a static condition, that is, with the grain at rest.
An example of the models which were created, a diagram
of a #at-bottom silo and steel walls, can be seen in Fig. 1.
The mesh is only indicative, as it was one of the parameters analysed during the research. Similar models were
created using the various combinations of concrete and
rigid walls ("xed nodes) and the di!erent base shapes, #at
and hopper.
In order to simplify the calculations, the models
developed using "nite elements are axisymmetrical.
Therefore, the simulated silo is cylindrical with a central
discharge. Silo sizes, whether in terms of height or of
diameter, could be varied as required, but for the purposes of this research two sizes were selected (Fig. 2).
The material behaviour chosen is based on the
Drucker-Prager criterion of plasticity, one used when
considering the e!ect of expansion on #ooring materials
(Drucker & Prager, 1952). The yield surface is a circular
cone with the material parameters chosen such that it
corresponds to the outer aspices of the hexagonal
Mohr}Coulomb yield surface.
The chosen material was wheat - speci"cally, Camacho
wheat - since it is the most common material found in
research conducted by other authors. The required characteristics of the wheat were obtained by means of laboratory tests. The values used are shown in Table 1. The

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ST AT IC AN D DY NA MI C SI LO L O A D S

Fig. 1. Cylindrical silo with yat base and metal sides

range of values corresponds to those used to analyse the

in#uence of these parameters on the results.
The entire development of these models can be consulted in Guaita (1995). The di!erent parameters that intervene were systematically analysed and the results were
compared with those obtained by means of traditional
calculation theories and international standards. The
parameters analysed were: Young's modulus, Poisson's
ratio, internal friction angle, dilatancy angle, angle of
friction with the wall and bulk density. The in#uence
of the element size, wall thickness and the di!erent possibilities of silo}hopper joint meshing, were also analysed.
It should be taken into account that traditional theories and international standards only consider the internal friction angle, the angle of friction with the wall and
the bulk density. Occasionally, the relationship between
the horizontal and vertical pressures on the wall is used
as a parameter although it is not one in reality.
The experimental procedures to measure the material
properties were: a direct shear test for the internal friction
angle and the dilatancy, a direct shear test with a modi"ed box for the angle of friction with the wall, a triaxial

Fig. 2. Selected silo dimensions: (a) yat-bottom silo; and (b) silo
with hopper at a slope angle (a) of 453

test for Poisson's ratio and Young's modulus from the

edometric modulus using an edometer.
The results from the analyses are quite varied but, for
the purposes of comparison and validation, the horizontal pressures on the walls, the vertical pressures on the
walls and the relation to pressure on the silo wall k were
chosen. Furthermore, for the analysis of the di!erent
parameters, results were obtained from the horizontal
and vertical pressures of the stored material, the zones of
elastic and plastic behaviour within the stored material,
and the distortions and tensions within the silo wall.

4. Results of the static models

4.1. Pressures against the walls
The validity of the static models, for a #at-bottom silo,
becomes evident from Fig. 3(a). It can be observed that,
using parameters obtained by experimental tests shown
in Table 1, the curve of the horizontal pressures on the
wall compares very well with those obtained by means of

Table 1
Characteristics of the wheat with the range values used to analyse their in6uence on the results and the values obtained by means of
laboratory tests
Material parameter
Elasticity module of stored grain E, kPa
Speci"c weight of grain o, kN m\
Poisson ratio of grain l
Internal friction angle
,3
Wall}grain friction angle k,3
Dilatancy angle u,3

Range of values analysed

5000
7}9
0)2}0)4
22}30
14)03
0}19

Values obtained by
experimental tests
5000
9
0)3
22
14)03
2)5

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F. AY U G A E A .

Fig. 3. (a) Horizontal pressures and (b) the ratio of horizontal to vertical pressures (k) under static conditions for the silo dimensions
shown in Fig. 2(a) and the material parameters shown in Table 1:
, xnite element method;
, Caquot and Kerisel (1956);
, Janssen (1895);
, Reimbert and Reimbert (1980);
, Eurocode (1995);
, DIN 1055-6 (1987)

traditional theories and international standards. The

same occurs with the vertical pressures and with the ratio
of horizontal to vertical pressures k, although this ratio
remains constant in all methodologies except in that of
Reimbert and Reimbert (1980) and in the "nite elements
model [Fig. 3(b)].

4.2. he material parameters in-uence

The e!ect of the parameters in the "nite element results
are obtained in the following sections.
4.2.1. >oung1s modulus
As had been expected, this parameter hardly a!ected
the values of the wall pressures, although it did a!ect the
total grain consolidation. Its value should be carefully
considered in cases where the study of the silo is undertaken when it is being progressively "lled in layers because in such cases the pressures can be a!ected. This
value is determined by means of an edometric test in
order to obtain the edometrical modulus E and
K
a triaxial test to measure Poisson's ratio l. With these
values Young's modulus E is obtained by means of
E"E
K

1!l!2l
1!l

(1)

4.2.2. Poisson1s ratio

This is a key parameter in determining the grain pressures in a static position. Variation in this coe$cient
between 0)2 and 0)4 produced up to a 90% change in the
pressures. This parameter is inextricably coupled to the
horizontal and vertical pressures ratio k in the interior of
the grain. Nevertheless, it must not be forgotten that the
ratios obtained near the wall di!er from those which are
obtained in the grain interior, meaning, in e!ect, a value
of the ratio at rest k :

k
l" 
1#k


(2)

Using "nite element models to simulate silos, obtaining experimental values of Poisson's ratio by means of
triaxial tests becomes a necessity. The average values and
ranges of variation for the various types of stored materials ought to appear in the methods of calculation.
In addition, Poisson's ratio has a notable e!ect on the
way in which the material behaves. With high values of
Poisson's ratio, it is di$cult for the material to achieve
a state of stress such that it reaches the yield surface and,
as a result, the behaviour in the interior of the stored
material will be elastic. Therefore, the use of elastic}plastic behaviour is no longer a necessity if the Poisson ratio
is high. The values at which such e!ect may be obtained

ST AT IC AN D DY NA MI C SI LO L O A D S

are di$cult to predict since it depends on the silo size and

the material speci"c weight as well as on the behaviour
models and their corresponding parameters. In the situation in which this research was carried out (speci"c size
of silo, wheat as material and Drucker}Prager as model)
with a value for l of 0)2, a complete plasti"cation of the
material is produced. In such a situation, horizontal
pressures can increase by up to 50% in comparison with
the elastic situation and, as a result, low values of
Poisson's ratio must always use an elastic}plastic behaviour model.
4.2.3. he internal friction angle
This is one of the required parameters for the
Drucker}Prager behaviour model and one of those frequently employed in traditional theories and standards.
With low values in this parameter, it is logical that
plasti"cation of the stored material is produced more
easily, something which implies a distinct increase in
horizontal pressures. Nevertheless, the values that lead
to plasti"cation - around 223*are lower than usual in
granular materials - around 253. This e!ect was observed
using a value for Poisson's ratio of 0)3. Using lower
Poisson's ratio values, the material becomes plastic with
higher internal friction angle values.
4.2.4. he dilatancy angle
The dilatancy angle is a new parameter that began to
be considered when behaviour models for grain of an
elastic}plastic type were considered in pressure calculations of stored material. Dilatancy is de"ned as the
volumetric increment when a particulate material is subjected to shearing. Dilation is related to the shear displacement through the dilatancy angle u, which is the
angle between the tangent of the shear plane and
the horizontal shear surface (Fig. 4). Various authors
have related this phenomenon to that of overpressure
during discharge. Its value can vary between 03 and that
of the internal friction angle, although in the bibliography (Hardin et al., 1990; Zhang, 1994) values obtained
using agricultural products never exceeded 203. It can be
deduced from the present research that there is practically no in#uence of this value on vertical wall pressures in
the static position. The greatest static pressures were
produced by an angle of 03, and with low values of
Poisson's ratio (0)3) and the angle of friction (223), the
pressure did not increase by more than 6%. Nonetheless,
its in#uence began to appear in hopper silos where increases of up to 16% were produced in the horizontal
pressures on the silo}hopper joint. In this case, the increase was produced wherever any dilatancy angle di!erent from 03 was considered and varied little between the
di!erent values that were tested.

303

Fig. 4. Saw-tooth model for describing dilatancy angle in

particulate materials

4.2.5. he wall friction coe.cient

The wall friction coe$cient k is one of the parameters
employed in traditional theories and in international
standards. This analysis has con"rmed previous "ndings
that the greater the friction coe$cient, greater the horizontal pressure. There is a 30% increase when moving
from a coe$cient with a value of 0)25 to that of 0)5.
Increasing the values of wall friction coe$cient, increases
the level of plasti"cation and, as a result, accentuates the
di!erence in pressure by varying other parameters such
as the Poisson ratio or the internal friction angle.
4.2.6. Bulk density
No di!erences were found to exist between the results
of this research and those produced using traditional
theories. The static pressures were proportional to the
bulk density. However, the bulk density of the grain
could be varied during a simulated loading by using the
"nite element method.
4.2.7. Mesh size and distribution
It has been possible to demonstrate that with large
mesh sizes (of about 1 m) good results are obtained,
producing little di!erence compared to the "ner mesh
sizes. However, the need for a "ner mesh in the joint
between the silo and the hopper has been observed.
Di!erences in pressure of up to 100%, using an element
of 1 m and another of 0)08 m, were discovered. In such
cases, the use of a progressive mesh is recommended in
the silo}hopper joint. Furthermore, it is essential to establish that the friction at this point follows the direction
of the hopper, and not that of the silo wall, otherwise
exaggerated distortion phenomena are produced (Fig. 5).
4.2.8. =all thickness
The results of the present research show that for the
purpose of pressure calculations, walls of reinforced concrete behave exactly the same as would a perfectly rigid
wall. Therefore, it is valid (in the application of the "nite
element method) to consider this assumption for the
calculation of such pressures. It is not the same with
metal walls. A smaller wall thickness causes the stored

304

F. AY U G A E A .

Fig. 5. Pressures with diwerent mesh sizes:

, Eurocode;
, xnite element method with regular mesh and size of 0)5 m;
, progressive meshing

material to exert less pressure, due to radial de#ection.

Di!erences in pressure of up to 25%, using a #at-bottom
silo model with an internal friction angle of 303 and
a wall thickness of 1 mm, were discovered. However, if
the material behaviour is elastic}plastic and total plasti"cation of the material is produced in the zone adjacent to
the wall pressures are not a!ected by wall material or
wall thickness.

5. Structural behaviour of the silo during discharge

It is known that the main structural problem of silos is
the increase in horizontal pressures when discharge
starts. In earlier silo designs overpressures were not considered, even though as early as 1950s, it was fairly well
recognized that overpressures occur during emptying
(Caquot & Kerisel, 1956). This pressure increase has been
measured both in model and full-scale silos. Nevertheless,
disagreement still exists between the magnitude of these
overpressures and their causes.
Traditionally, the increase in pressures has been
attributed to a change in the state of equilibrium of the

granular material. It was thought that the full silo in

a static position would respond according to Rankine's
active state of equilibrium and that once the grain began
to move, it would pass to a passive state of equilibrium
(Jenike & Johanson, 1968). Some authors later modi"ed
this simpli"cation and they took into account the
grain}wall friction and also the types of #ow during
discharge (Rotter et al., 1997; Aguado et al., 1997).
More recently, this overpressure has been attributed
to the dilatancy phenomenon which is seen as the cause
of the grain not displacing parallel to the rupture line
that provokes an increase in volume and, as a consequence, an increase in the lateral pressures (Zhang et al.,
1994).
On the other hand, Jenike and Johanson attributed the
overpressures to the types of #ow during discharge
(Jenike & Johanson, 1968). Attaching strain gauges demon
strated that in the case of mass #ow the pressure peak
occurred at the silo}hopper joint the same as occurred in
the case of a static silo. However, in the case of funnel
#ow, the pressure peak was produced exactly where the
funnel for grain #ow started. No variation was observed
below this point owing to the fact that the grain against
the wall remained at rest in this area. This line of reasoning has not led to a method of predicting overpressures
during discharge.
The results of this research show that all these phenomena are intimately related to overpressure during
discharge.
The prime objective of this research was to analyse the
phenomenon of silo discharge using the "nite element
method as a tool. Models were developed based on those
previously created for static stored material incorporating a series of modi"cations derived from the following
three basic hypotheses.
(1) Maximum pressures
Maximum pressures are produced during the initial moments of discharge (Drescher, 1978; Sugita, 1972). Discharge is simulated in the present analysis by a small
displacement of the grain in the silo outlet. At the same
time, a vertical cylindrical surface of contact elements
with "xed grain}grain friction was included in the model
in order to simulate the movement of granular material
within the silo (Fig. 6).
(2) he existence of di+erent -ow types (mass or funnel)
This implies that the rupture lines within the granular
material can take di!erent directions. Thus, in models
developed for mass #ow, the material descends creating
friction against the silo wall. In models for funnel #ow,
a new line of rupture is formed creating an angle, called b,
with the horizontal axis (Fig. 6), and which, due to the
axisymmetric character of the model, produces a funnel
of stored material.

ST AT IC AN D DY NA MI C SI LO L O A D S

305

is produced. The uncertainty about the slide line position

in the latter case is due to the scarcity of research and the
still limited development of discrete element methods
(Rong, 1994; Rotter et al., 1997; Jofriet et al., 1997). By
this method the behaviour of the material is simulated
grain by grain and, as a result, it is not necessary to force
its movement.
Owing to this uncertainty about the slide line position,
it was agreed to retain this ambiguity, developing
a model which would solve the problem of di!erent
angles of inclination along the rupture line in the grain b,
record the data and, "nally, obtain a curve of the maximum pressures reached at each sectional height of the
silo wall.

6. Results obtained using discharge models

6.1. Pressures against the walls

Fig. 6. Schematic discharge model; b, rupture angle

(3) he dilatancy e+ect

This is simulated by means of the change in the friction
direction (depending on the dilatancy angle) in the contact element. It is assumed that the material is separated
following the line of rupture thus provoking an increase
in the lateral pressures.
Depending on the geometric characteristics of the silo
and the type of stored material, either mass or funnel #ow

For mass #ow, the pressure peak coincided with

silo}hopper joint [Fig. 7(a)]. Pressure distribution obtained using funnel #ow models conformed with the
experimental observations by Jenike and Johanson
(1968) that the pressure peak coincided with the junction
of the rupture line in the grain and the vertical wall of the
silo [Fig. 7(b)].
A pressure envelope curve was developed which represents the maximum values of the di!erent curves obtained in the di!erent #ow conditions (Fig. 8). Di!erences
in pressure of up to 100%, using an element of 1 m
(regular mesh) and another of 0)08 m (progressive mesh)
in the silo}hopper joint, were also discovered (Fig. 8).

Fig. 7. (a) Mass yow (regular mesh) pressures and (b) funnel yow pressures for a rupture angle (b) of 553, an internal friction angle of
223, a dilatancy angle of 193 and a bulk density of 9 kN m!3:
, static model;
, discharging model

306

F. AY U G A E A .

Fig. 8. Final discharge model for an internal friction angle of 223,

a dilatancy angle of 193 and a bulk density of 9 kN m!3:
,
static model;
, discharge for b"453;
, discharge
for b"503;
, discharge for b"553;
, discharge
for b"603;
, discharge for b"653;
,
discharge for b"703;
, discharge for b"753;
, enveloping curve for regular mesh;
, enveloping curve for
progressive mesh

The values obtained using a progressive mesh agree with

those obtained by means of Eurocode 1, Part 4, except in
the hopper wall where they were lower (Fig. 9).
The ratio of horizontal to vertical pressures k was 12%
greater than in the static example, and was similar (except in the hopper wall) to that of the reduced value
proposed by Eurocode 1, Part 4.
All of this justi"es the focus of the research and the
validity of the models used.

6.2. he material parameters in-uence

It is interesting to examine the e!ect on wall pressures
of Poisson's ratio and of the dilatancy angle with regard
to the discharge models.
The Poisson ratio a!ects the lateral pressures, although notably less than in the static example. An increase from 0)2 to 0)4 increase overpressures by 30% on
the hopper wall, 20% in the silo}hopper joint and 10%
on the vertical wall [Fig. 10(a)].
Unlike the static example, in the discharge model, an
increase in the dilatancy angle from 5 to 193 produces an
increase of 30% in the lateral pressures. As a consequence, there is an increase in the coe$cient k [Fig.
10(b)].

Fig. 9. Eurocode and proposed model pressures comparison for

an internal friction angle of 223, a dilatancy angle of 193 and
, proposed model using progressa bulk density of 9 kN m!3:
ive meshing;
, Eurocode for mass yow;
, Eurocode for
funnel yow

7. Conclusions
Finite element models capable of simulating the behaviour of silo-stored granular material were developed,
both for the static example and for that of centralized
discharge.
The in#uence of the type of wall and the geometrical
structure of the silo, as well as the di!erent parameters of
silo-stored granular material, were analysed with regard
to their e!ect on pressures, not only in the case of material at rest but also while being discharged.
By means of these model values for pressure against
the silo walls were obtained in mass #ow and funnel #ow.
Values obtained in mass #ow were similar to those proposed by other authors and calculations using the Eurocode. Nevertheless, by using these models it is possible to
get a more detailed analysis and better adaptation to
particular situations. The models also allow an explanation of the pressure distribution in funnel #ow, phenomena observed in the experimental trials of other
authors.
In these models, parameters such as that of dilatancy
angle or the Poisson ratio, which exert a great in#uence
on lateral pressures, are taken into account. Dilatancy
angle acts during the discharge while the Poisson ratio

ST AT IC AN D DY NA MI C SI LO L O A D S

307

Fig. 10. (a) Poisson+s ratio inyuence on pressures for regular mesh, an internal friction angle of 223, a dilatancy angle of 193 and a bulk
density of 9 kN m!3:
, Poisson+s ratio"0)2;
, Poisson+s ratio"0)3;
, Poisson+s ratio"0)4: (b) Dilatancy angle
inyuence on pressures for regular mesh, an internal friction angle of 223, a Poisson+s ratio of 0)3 and a bulk density of 9 kN m!3:
, dilatancy"53;
, dilatancy"103;
, dilatancy"153;
, dilatancy"193

does so both during the discharge and in the static state.

In spite of their great in#uence, these two parameters are
not taken into account in current guidelines. This is due
to the fact that they were simply not considered in traditional methods of calculation and that, furthermore, very
few experimentally obtained values exist for agricultural
materials.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the CICYT (Spanish Research and Technology Commission) for funding this
project (AGF97-1141).
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"elds in silos. Filling of a Silo. EPSRC DEMFEM International Collaboration CA-SILO Collaborative Action:
WG5. Problem 1. Universidad PoliteH cnica de Madrid Group
Contribution
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Caquot A; Kerisel J (1956). Traite Mecanique des Sols.

[Treatise on soil mechanics.] Gauthier-Villars EditeurImprimeur-Librairie. Paris
DIN 1055 Part 6 (1987). Design loads for buildings. Loads in
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Drescher A (1978). Kinematics of the mass #ow of granular
material through a plane hopper Geo. 28(1), 27}42
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