The Human Story

1.

Humans have characteristics than can be used to classify them with other organisms.

Outline the general classification hierarchy from phylum to species.

Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
Define the term species and outline criteria used to identify a species

The definition of species is based on genetic and reproductive traits.

Species
A group of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations reproductively isolated from other
groups.
Organisms that breed together and produce fertile offspring
Organisms that share a common gene pool.
Problem with definition of species
Problems arise with the definition of asexually reproducing organisms and for fossil species.
Some organisms do not fit into the system of classification that has been devised
Two different species can sometimes interbreed and from hybrids.
Most hybrids are infertile, e.g. crossing a horse and a donkey produces an infertile mule.
However there are other species that have hybridized to form fertile offspring, such as wheat and rye
producing Triticale.
Some groups regarded as members of the same species may have been separated by barriers such as
mountains or rivers so do not interbreed.
Outline features that classify humans as:
Mammal
Primate
Hominid
Hominin
Mammal (class)
Producing milk to feed young
Covering of fur or hair on the body
Four-chambered heart
Single lower jawbone
Primate (order)
Hands have five long digits that are used for grasping and curling around objects
Opposable thumbs and big toes
Pentadactyl limbs
Stereoscopic (binocular) vision and forward facing eyes
Large brain relative to body size
Extended period of parental care

Hominids (family)
Large body size
Upright posture
No tail
Hominins (tribe)
Large brain relative to body size
Upright bipedal step
Shorter arms than legs
Discuss the use of the terms hominin and hominid in terms of the arbitrary nature of
classification systems
Hominid the group consisting of all modern and extinct Great Apes (that is, modern humans,
chimpanzees, gorillas orang-utans plus all their immediate ancestors).
Hominin the group consisting of modern humans, extinct human species and ll our immediate ancestors
( including members of the genera Homo, Australopithecus, Paranthropus and Ardipithecus).

Recent research using molecular evidence has shown that the African apes are much closer to humans
than was previously apparent from the anatomical evidence (anatomy).
This research has resulted in a change in the classification system; African apes, including
chimpanzees, bonobos and gorillas, are placed in the hominid family with humans but a further
division, homonin (tribe), is now used to separate humans and their recent ancestors from the African
apes.
Hominid and homonin are inventions of scientists who seek to bring order into a group of similar
organisms
These new terms will cause debate among scientists with different points of view and are not
necessarily permanent classification.
They seek to show the genetic similarities between the African Apes and the genus Homo.

Describe primate characteristics, including:

Hand/foot structure and function, including opposable thumb or toe
Skull shape and function
Brain size relative to body size
Arrangement of the vertebral column to the degree of upright stance
Vision, including degree of stereoscopic vision, colour vision
Reproductive features, including single live young and relatively long gestation
Parenting and group bonding
Hand/ foot structure and function
Primates have Pentadactyl limbs with opposable thumb and big toe
They have nails rather than claws protecting the sensitive tops of the digits
They have two different grips; the precision grip, used to manipulate fine objects, and the power grip,
used to grasp branched or tools strongly.
Skull shape and function
Enlarged skull to accommodate the large brain.
Many primates have a flattened face which improves binocular vision, but leads to a reduced sense of
smell
Brain size relative to body size

The brain size to body size is high in primates, due to a larger complex brain with a large cerebral
cortex

Arrangement of the vertebral column to the degree of upright stance

Primates show a trend towards an upright stance. This is reflected in the S-shaped spine and the
position of the Foramen Magnum
The Foramen Magnum is centralized under the skull: the foramen Magnum is the point where the
spinal cord leaves the brain
Vision
Primate eyes are forward-facing which gives a field of view overlap allowing good depth perception
Some primates also have colour vision
They have a high degree of stereoscopic vision and can see from shoulder to shoulder in front of them
Reproductive features
Primates give birth to live young, usually a single offspring per season
Gestation periods are long lasting on average 265 days
The mother feeds the offspring from her two nipples usually for the same length of time as gestation.
Parenting and group bonding
Primate juvenile stage is very long and there is an extended learning period before juveniles become
adults
This allows for complex social development and group bonding
Group structure providing protection from predators and a better chance of finding food
Describe primate characteristics in:
Prosimians
New and old world monkeys
Apes
Humans
Prosimians
Lower primates, including lemurs, bushbabies
Have thumbs that are less opposable than in other groups of primates with grasping hands and feet
At least one of their digits has a nail, may also have a long grooming claw
Long snout gives them a better sense of smell than other primates
Mainly small, arboreal nocturnal animals, however on the island of Madagascar there are both ground
dwelling and diurnal species
Many prosimians are endangered
New World Monkeys
Includes baboons, Langurs
Found in Central and South America
Tail, not prehensile
Quadrupedal (uses all four limbs to move about)
Some are ground dwelling
Nostrils are close together and open downwards
Old World monkeys

Found throughout Asia and Africa

Prehensile tail that can be used as a fifth limb
Quadrupedal (uses all four limbs to move around)
Strictly arboreal (tree dwelling)
Widely separated nostrils

Apes
Lesser apes include gibbons, siamangs
Greater apes include orangutans, gorillas and chimpanzees
No tail
Reduced muzzle size, flattened nose
U-shaped dental arch
Larger relative brain size
Their forelimbs are longer than their hind limbs
Bony eye ridge
Some mainly ground dwelling and quadrupedal
Humans
Bipedal gait and an upright stance
Feet are flat and the big toe is not opposable
Locking knee joint and a broad pelvis
Large brain and a parabolic dental arch
Binocular vision, colour vision
Definite chin
Prominent nose and small nostrils

Identify data sources, gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources to illustrate the
classification process by identifying features of humans that classifies them as:

Animal
Chordate
Mammal
Primate
Hominid
Homo
Homo sapiens
Group
Animal

Classification level
Kingdom Animalia

Chordate

Phylum Chordata

Mammal

Class Mammalia

Features of humans
Humans had to move to find food (heterotrophic)
Eucaryotic with no cell walls
Notochord (flexible rod)
Pharyngeal slits (may only be present in an
embryonic stage)
Presence of hair or fur
Produce fur
Four-chambered heart
Mammary glands

Primate

Order Primates

Hominid

Family Hominidae

Homo

Genus Homo

Sapiens

Species sapiens

Specialized teeth
Opposable thumb
Nails instead of thumbs
Binocular vision
No tail
Forward-facing eyes
Arms shorter than hind limbs
Nostrils close together an facing downwards
Foramen Magnum centered under the skull
S-shaped spine
Bipedal
Posses the ability to make and use tools
Presence of a chin
Large rounded cranium (brain case)
Great capacity to learn and the ability to speak and
use language, symbols and ceremonies

Process information to summarise and analyse the similarities and differences between prosimians,
monkeys, apes and humans
Prosimians, monkeys, apes and humans must have common features among them that would place them
under the class primates
Similar primate behavioral characteristics
Basic arboreal adaptation, especially in tropical forests, although some species have become terrestrial
Excellent manual dexterity
Well developed sense of sight
Good hand-eye coordination
Long infant dependency periods
Complex social organization
Similar primate anatomical features
Hands:
o Prehensile with opposable thumbs
o Nails
o Adapted for precision grip, and power grip
Eyes:
o Binocular vision
o Colour vision
o Skull has eyebrow ridge for protection of eyes
o Development of visual organs is achieved at the expense of the smell organs
Face: large eyes and brain and reduced snout area
Large brain: especially in cerebral cortex
Gives birth to single offspring
Each of the groups must have differences than would separate them and keep each of them from falling
under one species
Prosimians
Lower intelligence
Whiskers and extended snout, better sense of smell
Tails

Bony fingers
Nose is always wet
Some prosimians are nocturnal

Monkeys
Some have prehensile tails
Exaggerated limbs for climbing
Some have throat pouches to amplify sound
Apes
Covered in thick fur
Forelimbs longer than hind limbs
Humans
1. Foreman Magnum centralized in the skull
2. Bi-pedal (walks on hind legs)
3. Extremely flat face
4. Most intelligent of the primates
5. Greatly limited use of toes
Primate
Groups
Prosimians
N.
World
Monkey
O.
World
Monkey
Ape
Human

Example

Eyes

Lemur
Spider
Monkey
Baboon

Side-facing
Forwardfacing
Forwardfacing
Forwardfacing
Forwardfacing

Chimpanzee

Body
covering
Fur
Fur

Biped
or
quadruped
Quadruped
Quadruped

Claws
nails
Claw
Nails

Fur

Quadruped

Nails

Present
Presentprehensile
Present

Fur

Quadruped
usually
Biped

Nails

Absent

Nails

Absent

Hair

or

Tail

Analyse information and use available evidence to identify technology advances and resulting new
information that have changed scientists opinions about the classification of primates.
Classification has previously been based on structural and morphological features of organisms. With more
advanced technology there has been a shift in emphasis to evidence from biochemical and genetic research.
Some of this research supports the structural evidence but in some cases dispute has arisen because the new
evidence suggests different classification.
Recent developments in protein analysis have shown that Asian apes (gibbons, orangutans) are not as
closely related to the other great apes from Africa (chimpanzees, bonobos, gorillas) as previously thought.
Further research has separated gibbons into their own family, the Hylobatidae.
African apes are now considered to be more closely related to humans than they care to the Asian apes.
Research using DNA-DNA hybridisation has shown than chimpanzees are closer to humans than they are
to gorillas; previously it was thought that gorillas and chimpanzees were more closely related.
Other recent technological advances such as karyotype analysis, comparison of haemoglobins, DNA
sequencing and mitochondrial DNA research has also lead to changes in classification.

2.

Fossil and other biological evidence assists in the clarification of the relationship between
humans and other primates.

Outline the conditions under which fossil may form

Fossils
The preserved remains or impressions of once-living organisms
Form if an organism dies and is quickly covered with a material that prevents decay, such as sand, clay,
volcanic ash, ice or tar pits.
Include bones, teeth, footprints which show the behaviour of animals
Richest sources of fossils are sedimentary rocks
Best conditions for fossilization occur in caves and lakes, near seas and in areas where volcanic ash
falls
Soft-bodied organisms are not fossilized as frequently so are not as well represented in the fossil
record.
Relate the age of the Earth to the way in which geological time is described

The Earth is thought to be 4.7 million years old.

This estimate is based on studies on rates of rock formation and evidence from fossils found in the
various layers. Earth cannot be younger than its oldest rocks and these indicate that it must be older
than 4.5 billion years
Geological time is measured in eras. The present time is regarded as zero and ears are measured in
millions of years before the present (BP)
There are five geological eras: Archaean, Proterzoic, Palaeozoic, Mesozoic, and Cainozoic (or
Cenozoic).

Distinguish between and describe some relative and absolute techniques used for dating fossils.
Relative dating
Relative dating sequences a fossil relative to other fossils but does not necessary establish as exact age
for it
Techniques include:
o Stratigraphy based on the study of rock layers
o Palaeomagnetism based on the measurements of shifts n the magnetic field of Earth. By
comparing patterns from different locations it is possible to relatively date fossils in the
solidified rock layers
o Fluorine analysis

Use on bones, teeth and antlers. Over time the proportions of nitrogen decrease and the
proportion of fluorine increases. The differences of these two elements can determine the age
of a specific substance.

Absolute dating
Absolute dating is the measure of the age of a fossil in years; these dates are not without error
Techniques include:
o Dendrochronology study of the seasonal tree rings. Rings can be counted to give an accurate
age of a tree and the pattern of the rings gives information about the climate during the
growing period of the tree. This technique is mainly used for archaelogy because the scale is
too short to be of use in fossil dating.
o Radiocarbon dating most common method of absolute dating, relies in the ration of
radioactive isotopes of carbon found in fossils and rocks. Each radioactive isotope decays at a
set rate in years, know as the half-life. New techniques using particle accelerators allow
dating of a very small amount of material; this is important because fossils are rare and
radiocarbon dating destroys the sample.
o Thermolumunescence measure the amount of light emitted by an object. Certain minerals
(quartz) emit light when they are heated. The amount of light can be measured to determine
the age of the material. Thermolumunescence is useful for dating pottery and campsites. It can
be used to double-check the results of radiocarbon dating because its effectiveness extends
over the same range.
Describe relative dating techniques using fossil sequence in strata

Lower rock layers, or strata, are older than layers found on top, unless there has been major geological
upheaval.
Fossils found in the strata are underneath and older than fossils above them. This is called the principle
of stratigraphic superposition.
Commonly-found fossils, such as trilobites, are called index fossils because they ca be used to date
fossils in other strata
Biostratigraphy uses known fossils to date fossils found in the same layer.

Discuss the difficulty of interpreting the past from the fossil record alone, including:
o Conflicting dates based on different technologies
o The paucity of the fossil record
o Different interpretations of the same evidence
Conflicting dates based on different technologies
It is possible to use different technologies to date the same fossil and arrive at different conclusions
about its age
Each dating technology has its own margin for error and possible contamination.
Big discrepancies may be accounted for by contamination of older material with younger deposits or
by inaccuracies in the techniques
Paucity of the fossil record
Fossils are very rare and usually incomplete and this creates large gaps in the fossil record. The
chances of an organism being fossilized and then being found without any further damaged are very
small
Fossil finds are biased towards certain species and areas.
A fossil can be destroyed if it undergoes metamorphic change, it is exposed and weathered and eroded.
All of these reasons account for the paucity of the fossil record
Different interpretations of the same evidence

When scientists consider the fossil evidence of evolution of hominins, the number of species suggested
varies between eight and eighteen.
This shows that the same evidence can be interpreted in different ways.
Scientists will interpret the evidence in light of their own area of interest and their own theories and
these may differ substantially from others.
Pre-conceived ideas may lead to different interpretations.

Compare living primates to hypothesise about relationships between groups of primates using evidence
from:
o Karyotype analysis
o DNA-DNA hybridisation
o Comparison of haemoglobin
o DNA sequencing
o Mitochondrial DNA as a molecular clock
Karyotype analysis
Karyotype analysis examines the shape, size and number of chromosomes of an organism.
To examine the chromosomes, photographs are taken of cells at the metaphase stage of mitosis. The
length of the chromosomes, the location of the centromeres and and banding patterns can be carefully
examined
It is also possible to strain chromosomes or use fluorescent markers to examine the banding patterns
for similarities. There are many similarities between the banding patterns of living primates; humans
and chimpanzees have 13 chromosomes with the same banding patterns
Scientists have concluded from karyotype analysis that humans are more closely related to
chimpanzees than to gorillas or orangtans
DNA-DNA hyridisation
DNA-DNA hybridisation is a new technique used to find relationships between organisms. If two
organisms are closely related and share a recent common ancestor then their DNA will be similar
During DNA-DNA hybridisation the double-stranded DNA from an organism is heated until it splits
into two strands; heating breaks the bonds between the nitrogenous bases
The single-stranded DNA is mixed with single-stranded DNA from another species and the two strands
combine to form hybrid double-stranded DNA.
They are heated to see how much heat is required to break the bonds between the strands; if a lot of
heat is required to break the bonds, this shows that the DNA is similar and than the organisms are
genetically very close.
Organisms not closely related will have only a low heat to break the strands apart again.
Results of DNA-DNA hybridisation research supports the classification of humans and chimpanzees as
hominins, with gorillas and orangutans more distantly related
Comparison of haemoglobin
Haemoglobin is blood proteins which transport oxygen around the body.
Comparison of the haemoglobins of different species can indicate whether or not they share a recent
common ancestor
There are 3 ways to compare haemoglobin:
o Amino acid sequencing proteins are made up of chains of amino acids. The comparison of
these amino acids prove similarities and differences. Chimpanzee haemoglobin is identical to
than of humans. Gorilla haemoglobin differs by two amino acids from that of chimpanzees
and humans
o Electrphoresis compares electrical charges on protein molecules from closely related
species. An electric current is passed through a strip containing the protein molecules in a gel

Immune response testing determines whether proteins from two different species react with
the same antibody. If the two proteins both react then they are very similar. This indicates the
two species are closely related.

DNA sequencing
DNA sequencing compares the order of the four bases adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine in
the DNA of different species
The order reflects the evolutionary relationships of the species; closely related species will have long
chains of identical DNA code
DNA of humans and chimpanzees differs by only about 1%

Mitochondrial DNA as a molecular clock

DNA from the cells mitochondria is most commonly used recently to construct evolutionary trees
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) determines when two related organisms began to evolve from a
common ancestor
Scientists believe that mitochondrial DNA mutates at predictable rates, so it is like a molecular clock
than can be used to date evolutionary events.
By comparing the differences in the base sequences of DNA, and using the predicted mutation rates, it
is possible to determine the length of time two primates have been diverging.
Process and analyse information from secondary sources to model karyotype analyse
Process information from secondary sources to model DNA-DNA hybridisation in order to
demonstrate its use of determining relationships between organisms
DNA-DNA hybridisation results between humans and other primates
Hybridised DNA
% similarity
Human
100
Chimpanzee
97.6
Gibbon
94.7
Rhesus monkey
91.2
Capuchin
84.9
Identify data sources, gather, process and present information from secondary sources about the
maternal inheritance of mitochondrial DNA and its importance in tracing human evolution

During reproduction most of the mitochondria for new organisms comes from the cytoplasm of the
ovum (maternal inheritance).
At fertilization, a sperm only contributes its nucleus to the eggs (ovum) while the egg has mitochondria
in the body of the cell.
Mitochondria has its own DNA (mtDNA)
This is passed on generation to generation from mothers to daughters. If a woman has no daughters
then that hereditary line ends
mtDNA has been examined from people all over the world. The greatest differences in mtDNA
occurred in Africans.
This suggests that the oldest group of people were from this region because more differences in
mtDNA is related to a longer time for mutation to occur (molecular clock)
Analysis of mtDNA suggests than modern humans can be traced back to one hypothetical female know
as mitochondrial Eve, who, lived 100-200 000 years ago in Africa

3.

Debate continues on the relationships between hominid species

Examine at least two alternative views of human evolutionary relationships using the same fossil
evidence.
Australopithecus afarensis
Lived in eastern Africa from 4 to 3 million years BP
Pronounced and prominent eye brow ridge above the eyes
Low, flat forehead
Projecting face
No chin
Dental arch was intermediate between humans and apes
Long arms relative to legs
Strong upper body
Curved fingers and toes
Moderate sexual dimorphism
400 500cc
Lucy found in Ethiopia, by Johanson in 1974.
Used natural objects for digging up roots and for cutting and protection
Probably lived in family groups
Hunters of small game and occasional meat eaters
Mary Leakey found fossilized footprints at Laetoli which shows clearly that species was bipedal
Homo sapiens
Evolved 130 000 years ago
Early Homo sapiens knows as Cro-Magnon
Small or no eyebrow ridge
Shorter higher skull (higher, straight forehead)
More rounded skull
Chin (slightly protruding jaw)
Very reduced molars
Less robust skeleton
1200 1700cc brain capacity ( avg. of 1350cc)
Fossil specimen of Cro-Magnon discovered in Wales in 1822; Africa and Western Asia
Made tools of bone, antlers, rocks to make blade tools, axes, spearheads, arrowheads
Engraved and painted images on cave walls; developed art and writing
Domestication of animals, agriculture
Complicated burial
Use of fire
May have had speech
Compare the above species, including comparison of:
o Body structure
o Cranial capacity
o Fossil ages and regional locations
o Inferred culture
Body structure

Australopithecus afarensis
Pronounced and prominent
ridge above the eyes

Homo sapiens
Small or no eyebrow ridge
Shorted, higher skull (higher, straight

Cranial capacity
Fossil
ages
and
regional locations

Inferred culture

No chin
Dental
arch
intermediate
between humans and apes
Low, flat forehead
Projecting face
Strong upper body
Long arms relative to legs
1 1.5 m tall,
30 37 kg
Curved fingers and toes
Moderate sexual dimorphism
400 -500cc
3.7 2.8 m.y.a.
Tracks made by a bipedal
animal found in hardened
volcanic ash in Laetoli
Radiometric methods date the
track to 3.7 m.y.a.
Lucy found in Ethiopia
Used natural objects for
digging up roots, cutting,
protection
Hunters of small game,
occasional meat eaters
Probably lived in small family
groups
Used tools like those of
modern chimpanzees

forehead)
Chin (slightly protruding jaw)
More rounded skull
Very reduced molars
Less robust skeleton

1200 1700cc (avg. 1350cc)

130 000 to the present
Fossil specimen of Cro-magnon
discovered in Wales in 1822,
Other fossils found in Africa and
Western Asia
Used bone, antler, stones to make
blade tools, polished axes, spearheads,
and arrowheads
Engraved and painted images on cave
walls, developed art
Complicated burial
Use of fire
May have had speech

Outline and examine the evidence for the pattern of human migration and evolution based on:
o The Out of Africa model
o The theory of regional continuity (multi regional hypothesis)

Both theories accept that there was an initial migration out of Africa when Homo erectus moved as far
as China and Indonesia

Out of Africa model

Known as the replacement hypothesis or Eve hypotheses
Studies of nuclear DNA and mtDNA both support this hypothesis for human origin
Suggests than a second wave of migration out of Africa occurred; this time of a modern Homo sapiens.
This species evolved from Homo erectus in Africa and then spread out replacing the local population
of Homo erectus
Allan c. Watson and colleagues carried out genetic studies on modern human population.
They concluded that the evolutionary record of mtDNA could be traced back to a single female who
lived in Africa some 200,000 years ago. They called her Eve
This theory maintains that all modern descendants contain mtDNA that can be traced directly back to
Eve

The theory of regional continuity

Based largely on fossil evidence and the anatomical characteristics of the modern human population
Suggests that there was no second migration of humans out of Africa; instead Homo erectus in each
region developed into modern Homo sapiens maintaining regional characteristics. This occurred more
than once and in different locations throughout the world.
The populations were able to interbreed forming one population of Homo sapiens with regional
differences.
Milford Wolpoff of the University of Michigan, USA proposed this theory
Case of convergent evolution
Early arrival of ancestral Australians 40 60 000 years ago is believed to support the Theory of
regional continuity
125 000 year old Homo sapiens footprints found in Africa, shows that humans could have evolved in
Africa and migrated across the world over a period of 60 000 years
Gather, process, present and analyse information to provide an overview of the similarities and
differences of any two species used in tracing human evolutionary relationships
Comparison of A. afarensis and H. Sapiens
Time it lived in
Cranial capacity
Chin present
Stone tools

Australopithecus afarensis
3 4 million years BP
400 500cc
No
Used natural objects for digging
roots, cutting and protection

Diet
Body stature

Omnivore
S shaped spine

Homo sapiens
130 000 years BP to the present
1200 1700cc
Yes
Used bones, antler, stones to
make blade tools, polished axes,
spearheads and hunting
Omnivore
Upright stance

Process secondary information and use available evidence to assess the contribution of one of the
following to our increased understanding of human evolution
Robert Dart
Was born in Queensland in 1893
He became a Professor of Anatomy in the University of Manchester
In 1924 he heard of a fossil skull found in a nearby limestone quarry at Taung and asked for any fossils
to be sent to him
He carefully worked on the fossils he was sent and found one was not an ape but halfway between apes
and human. The fossil was named Taung baby
He called his fossil Australopithecus africanus, the southern ape of Africa
His finds were not accepted because the Piltdown hoax was the accepted model of human evolution at
the time
Darts fossil had a skull like an ape and teeth like a human, wile the Piltdown Man had a human skull
and ape-like teeth
The main supporter of Dart was Robert Broom who found similar fossils in the 1930s and 1940s.
The fossil that Dart described is now accepted as Australopithecus africanus
Gather and process information from secondary sources to analyse and evaluate the evidence for two
different models of human evolution
4.

How humans have adapted to their environment

Outline the mechanisms that led to human diversity

Human diversity can be seen throughout the geographic distribution of humans on Earth
Polymorphism
Polymorphic means there are distinct forms with genetically determined characteristics, making the
different racial groups of the world, including Mongoloid, Caucasoid and Negroid
Examples of human polymorphism: skin colour, sickle-cell anaemia, body stature
Clinal gradation
Clinal gradation a gradual change in gene frequency in a population.
A cline occurs when two previously separated populations come in contact with each other and
interbreed, producing individuals with characteristics from both groups
Usually happens in an intermediate environment that is suitable for both groups
Breaks down the concept of race
With the increase in global travel and the reduction in the isolation of populations, more and more
groups are coming into contact with each other and producing offspring with intermediate
characteristics
Explain the differences between polymorphism and clinal gradation using at least one appropriate
example from human phenotypes
Polymorphism
The presence of two or more distinct forms of a genetically determined character.
Humans are polymorphic for skin colour, body stature, blood groups and the epicanthic eye-fold.
Polymorphic differences occur as selective adaptations to different environments.
Clinal gradation
Occurs as a result of interbreeding and intermediate environments.
Seen in eye colour, skin colour, body stature.
A cline is a gradual change in gene frequency in a population. This produces a gradual change in the
phenotypic characteristics of a species over a geographic range.
Example of polymorphism and clinal gradation in humans
The gradual increase in the frequency of blonde blue-eyed people as you move form the Mediterranean
to the countries of Scandinavia.
Eye colour and skin colour are both polymorphic.
The clinal gradation that occurs is because of the existence of intermediate environments where
different genetic factors have an advantage.
Gather and process information from secondary sources to describe two examples of polymorphism in
humans and analyse the evolutionary significance of the phenotypes displayed
Skin colour
Skin colour in humans is determined by pigments, eg. Melanin. Melanin is present in all humans
except albinos.
Exposure to sunlight increases the amount of melanin in the skin and this causes the skin to appear
darker.
Humans from tropical countries produce a greater amount of melanin and therefore have darker skin
than humans from northern countries where there is less exposure to sunlight.
Skin colour
Dark skin

Advantages
Protects underlying layers of skin
from damage cause by u.v. light-

Disadvantages
Prevents u.v. light from producing
vitamin D when exposed to little

less skin cancer and resultant

death
Light skin

Allows penetration of u.v. light

for production of vitamin D even
when exposed to little solar
radiation-prevents
the
development of rickets

solar radiation lack of vitamin

D may lead to the development of
rickets
Little protection against u.v. lighthigh levels of solar radiation may
lead to skin cancer

The gene frequency for darker skin would increase through natural selection.
The opposite is true for high latitudes that have a low level of solar radiation; in this case there would
be an adaptive advantage for light-skinned people.
Dark-skinned people would not be able to produce vitamin D using sunlight an natural selection would
lead to an increase in the frequency of the gene for less melanin in the skin.

Body stature
Body stature in humans shows polymorphism.
Tall thin body stature is common in hot tropical areas to allow a greater surface area to volume ration
for heat loss.
A stocky short body is found in groups such as the Inuit (Eskimo). The stocky body with a smaller
surface area to volume ration allows better heat retention.
5.

Cultural development has been a significant feature of human evolution

Describe the cultural changes that occurred as humans developed into efficient hunters in organized
cooperative groups
The main stages of cultural evolution are:
Tool making
A hunter-gatherer lifestyle with home bases
The use of fire
The burial of dead
The development of art
The Agricultural Revolution (15000-10000 years ago)
The development of writing
The Industrial Revolution (300 years ago)
The Technological Revolution
The cultural advantage of language would have spread to already existing groups. Humans developed
into efficient hunters in organized cooperative groups. Humans became capable of communication and
developed language and other forms of communication as means of cultural transmission. Cultural
development can occur rapidly, whereas biological evolution takes millions of years.
Evidence of Cultural development:
The development of a more rigid, complex social structure; the development of status ranking and
dominance behaviour
The development of greater dietary flexibility from seed-eaters to hunters and this led to the
development of cooperative behaviour for hunting and distribution of kill
Increased length of infancy, childhood and adolescence due to the need to learn more and more
complex culture
The development of more complex maternal behaviour
The development of language and the ability to communicate
The ability to travel longer distances
The development of permanent settlements which permits greater specialization of activities

The development of increasingly complex tools: from stone tools to pottery to metals, to the complex
machinery and electronics of today

Discuss possible impacts of this cultural development

The main impacts of this cultural development are:
An increase in the human population been possible because of advances in agricultural and medical
technologies.
Reduction of biodiversity many species have become extinct as the numbers of humans has
increased.
Habitat destruction been massive changes in the environment as humans have developed tools and
towns and cities.
An increase in the length of the juvenile period children have more to learn and spend longer with
their parents than previous generations
Greater care of young, elderly and sick because agriculture has allowed a settled environment.
Division and specialization of labour humans no longer spend the whole time in food gathering so
individuals may become specialists such as artisans and soldiers
More advanced housing has become more substantial
Pollution has increased with the human population.
Process and analyse information from secondary sources to compare humans with other primates in
terms of:
Care of young
Length of juvenile stage
Development of, and size of, social groups
The development and use of tools
Communication systems

Humans and other primates share many characteristics including the following cultural characteristics:

Care of young
Primate babies are unable to look after themselves at birth and they need a long time to develop to
maturity. A close bond forms between mother and offspring.
Most primate births are single births although prosimians have multiple births
Primates invest a lot of time and energy in ensuring that the offspring reaches maturity.
Length of juvenile stage
The juvenile stage (before puberty) is long; up to 12 years.
During this time the juveniles learn the complex social order of the group
Some other mammals reach maturity in months rather than years
Development of, size of, social groups
Primates are social animals that interact with other members of their species and live in social groups
This helps to protect the individuals against predators and also increase the chance of finding food
Types of social groupings found in primates include:
o Noyau (eg. Lemurs, orangutans) single female and her offspring. The males have a territory
that includes the territories of several females
o Monogamous groups (eg. Gibbons) one male and one female, who mate for life, and their
offspring
o Polygynous groups (eg. Gorillas one dominant male with many females wand their
offspring

Multimale/multifemale groups (eg. Baboons, chimpanzees) large groups together with many
males and females

Development of, and use of tools

At a point tool making was used as a definition of a human but it is now known that chimpanzees can
use tools as well.
The use of complex manufactured tools is a feature of humans. This is possible because of the
dexterity of human fingers, the enlarged brain, the ability to communicate through spoken and written
language, and an upright stance which leaves the hands free from the task of mobility.
Communication
Primates are active communicators; they use vocalizations, facial expressions, scents, and body
postures to communicate
They have complicated signals for dominant and submissive behaviour
Humans have developed complex speech and writing and gorillas and chimpanzees can be taught
complex signing systems eg. Koko the gorilla
Cultural
characteristics
Care of young

Gibbon

Orangutan

Gorilla

Chimpanzee

Human

212 day gestation

Close bond

233 day gestation

Close bond

268 day gestation

V. close bond

213 day gestation

V. close bond

Length
of
juvenile stage
Social groups

5-8 years

Female-10yr
Males-11yrs
Noyau-mother and
her offspring
Males live alone

Female-10yr
Male-11yrs
One male with
many
females and
offspring

7-12 years

280
day
gestation
V. close bond
12 years

Tool use

NO

Rarely

Communication

Vocal signals

Rarely
Use leaves to keep
rain off their
heads
Vocal signals
Territorial calling
by male

6.

Monogamous
small groups
2 adults and their
offspring

Can use symbols

Have been taught
to
use
sign
language

2-34 individuals
Many males usually
brothers,
and
females
Fusion groups consists of
20-100 individuals
Yes
Make tools to extract
food
Can use symbols
Show
affection
aggression

and

Family,
clan,
tribe, state
No set number
in
any
group
Yes
Develop
and
use of complex
tools
Speech
and
writing

Current and feature trends in biological evolution and cultural development

Analyse the possible effects on human evolution of the following factor:

o Increased population mobility
o Modern medicine
o Genetic engineering

Evolution can be defined as change over time.

For millions of years selective pressures have favoured individuals best suited to the environment
conditions at the time. Humans have increased their use of tools and technology, and environmental
conditions are no longer the only selecting factors; advances in technology have changed selective
factors from things such as speed and strength to the best use of technology.

Increased population mobility

Humans evolved to this point because of their ability to cooperate in groups.

Hominins moved out of Africa and spread around the world at the same time as they increased meat in
their diet. They developed tools and communication that enabled them to cooperatively hunt large
animals
This meant that early humans could move from place to place following herds of animals of eating the
animals that lived in the new areas.
This increased mobility led to migration of humans across the world and the development of regional
differences through isolation of populations.
Increased population mobility in the twentieth century has seen dramatic mixing of racial types.
Cultures that were once isolated have migrated to all the countries of the world. This sometimes causes
racial tensions and cultural disharmony within communities and between countries.
Today it is possible to travel virtually anywhere in the world. There are no physical barriers to prevent
populations interbreeding. This may lead to a reduction in racial differences, as there is increased
interbreeding and no physical isolation between the different populations of humans.
However, religious and social constraints may still reproductively isolate certain populations.

Modern medicine
Human ancestors survived because they were the fittest genetically.
People with illnesses that would have been fatal 200 years ago are able to survive and reproduce.
Modern medicine medical technology has had an enormous effect on the population of humans.
Advances in medicine include:
o Vaccinations
o Antiseptics
o Antibiotics
o Contraceptives
o In vitro fertilization
These advances have resulted in both a reduction in the death rate and an increase in the life span;
more people are living longer than ever before.
Unfortunately, it has also led to the evolution of antibiotic resistant bacteria such as vancomyciresistant golden staph, that there are no defenses against.
Women who are infertile are now able to have offspring, by using in vitro fertilization.
The evolutionary terms, the fittest are no longer the only individuals to pass on their genes.
As well as techniques of modern medicine that lead to an increase in the number of humans surviving,
there are technologies that reduce the birth rate. Contraceptives are used throughout the world, in both
developing and developed countries, to limit the number of children born and thus limit population
growth.
Genetic engineering
Genetically engineering directly changes the genetic make-up of individuals.
Genetic defects could be eliminated in newborn children using genetic engineering.
It is used h agriculture, production of fuels, biological warfare and medicine.
Genetic engineering in agriculture reduces the cost and increases production of crops and livestock
through the use of:
o Selective breeding of beneficial genes
o Cloning to create exact copies of favoured individuals
o Transgenic species; eg. Bt engineered cotton (contains a natural pesticide)
Research into gene therapy has provided means of altering the genotype of people with inherited
diseases. Refinement of this may enable embryos to be cured from inherited illnesses such as cancer,
diabetes.
Stem cells are cells that have not differentiated. They can grow into any type of cell in the body.
Typically an embryo us a rich source of these.
The harvesting and use of embryonic cells in organ replacement is a cause of moral debate in society
today. This research may lead to the ability to regrow nerve cells.

This could potentially cure spinal cord injury and diseases such as Parkinsons disease and Alzheimers
disease.

Gather, process, present and analyse information from secondary sources to account for changes in
human population numbers in the last 10 000 yeas and to discuss the potential impact of names
examples of modern technologies on future human populations.
Historical growth of the human population
Year
Human
population Events
(estimated)
10000 BC
5 million
Beginning of agriculture; food supply stable; settled life;
mortality decreased; population growth began
1-1000 AD
250 million
Population slowly grew by a few percent each century;
agriculture improves; famine, war, and disease caused
population to decline
1348-1650
300 million
Large decline in population because of plague (25% of
population died)
1750
1 billion
Advances in agriculture; sanitation and medicine resulted in
lower mortality; births greater than deaths; exponential growth
began
1930
2 billion
Advances reached developing countries; population growth was
huge; fewer people died from diseases; contraceptive use began
in developed countries
2000
6 billion
All areas had access to modern medicine; number of children
per couple decreased as contraceptives became available
worldwide
2020
8 billion
Prediction: population growth will start to slow because of
contraceptives; population number will stabilize by the end of
the century
Human population numbers
Over the last 10000 years the human population has increased from approx. 5 million to more that 6
billion.
The greatest increase has occurred over the past 200 years, associated with technological revolutions.
Most of the change in populations is because of better food, medicine, sanitation, education and
technology.
Dramatic growth of the human population has been associated with:
The agricultural revolution humans moved from being hunter-gathers to living in permanent shelters
associated with crops and domesticated animals. They were able to produce a surplus of food, which
prevented periods of starvation and could be bartered for other items
The industrial revolution communities moved from rural living to large towns with fewer people
involved in food production
The technological revolution mechanical farming equipment allowed large farms staffed by only a
few people to produce large crops. Medical technologies improved
Technologies developed now will have a potential impact on future human populations. Three named
technologies they may have impacts are:
Cloning modern techniques of cloning involve tissue culture, embryo transfer and nuclear transfer. In
tissue culture, cells from one plant are grown in a laboratory to develop a callus and then divided into
many new plantlets. Embryo transfer involves an embryo grown to the 32-cell stage when the cells are
split into several embryos. The embryos can then be placed into separated surrogated mothers and up
to eight identical embryos are born to different mothers. Nuclear transfer involves the transfer of a
nucleus from one organism into an enucleated egg of another;

Cloning techniques can be used for organ transplants, stem cell research and potentially for cloning
extinct animals.
Cloning reduces genetic diversity.
Recombinant DNA involves the insertion of genes into cells, joining DNA from different organisms.
Restriction enzymes are used to break the DNA molecules at a known point and ligases are used to
rejoin the broken ends. Gene shears are used to remove unwanted parts of the DNA and the polymerase
chain reaction (PCR) produces millions of copies of the DNA required.
Recombinant DNA is used to produce better crop for less money and with less environmental damage,
such as herbicide resistant crops and crops that produce their own pesticides.
Contraceptives such as the inter-uterine device (IUD) and the contraceptive pill have been around
since the 1950s. However they were only available in developed countries and the poorer nations of
the world still have enormous birth rates.
The United Nations estimates that the world population growth will slow gradually because of the
universal use of contraceptives and will stabilize at about 12 billion.

Process information from secondary sources to outline the purpose of the Human Genome Project and
briefly discuss its implications.
The Human Genome Project (HGP)
The Human Genome Project (HGP) is an enormous international project which aims to map the
genetic code of humans.
The project was started in 1990 and was expected to take 15 years.
In 2000 the first draft results, known as the Book of Humankind, were released well ahead of schedule.
The HGP has many implications:
o The potential ability to cure genetic disease. It will be possible to look at the genetic code of a
person and predict it they are likely to suffer from diseases such as breast cancer or heart
attack. This could cause lifestyle changes in individuals to prevent the onset of disease.
o Knowing the genetic code for human proteins could lead to the production of medicines by
animal cloning and matching of tissues for organ donation.
o The potential for ownership of results.