MODULE

GRAPHS
AND
EQUATIONS OF MOTION

NAME:

CLASS:

Hillcrest High School, Private Bag 1012, Hillcrest, 3650

All rights reserved. This module or portions thereof may not be reproduced
by any means without the school's permission.

GRAPHS AND EQUATIONS OF MOTION

Page 2

Objectives
On completion of this module you should:
1. understand and be able to define the following terms: rectilinear motion; uniformly
accelerated motion; direct proportion; slope of a graph; area under a graph;
2. be able to manipulate and apply the equations of motion;
3. be able to draw graphs representing various types of motion;
4. be able to analyse graphs representing various types of motion.
Tasks
1. Study the theory section of this module before attempting the worksheet.
2. Answer the pre- and post-lab. questions found in the Practical section of this module.
These will be marked in class.
3. Carry out the experiments in the Practical section working in groups no larger than four
pupils. The ticker-tape experiment is examinable and it is essential that every pupil knows
how to analyse a ticker tape. Each group member must therefore drop an object of
different mass and analyse his / her own tape. Each member must then plot his / her data
and copy the graphs of the other members onto the same piece of graph paper for
comparison purposes.
4. Experiment 13.1 must be written up fully according to the guidelines given in Module
C0912.
5. Complete the Worksheet section in your Classwork and Homework Book.
6. The Tutorial must be completed and handed in separately.
Resources and Supportive Material
1. Computer: The 1995 Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia (CD)
Infopedia (CD)
MS Encarta 95 / 96 (CD)
Encyclopedia of Science (CD)
The Way Things Work (CD)
2. Videos

: Speed, Velocity and Acceleration

Simple graphs of s, a and t
At The Edge (Part 2: g-Forces)
Galileo: The Challenge of Reason (Historical)
Theory of Relativity (Advanced Topic)
Frames of Reference (Advanced Topic)

3. Texts

: Laboratory Manual for Physical Science Standards 9 and 10( (Meiring, J. et al)

Guidelines
1.
2.
3.
4.

You have two weeks to complete this module.

The full practical report for Experiment 13.1 must be submitted in a report folder.
The module itself must not be handed in.
Worksheet questions will be reviewed in class.

GRAPHS AND EQUATIONS OF MOTION

13.1

Page 3

INTRODUCTION

In this module you will study the graphs of bodies moving in straight lines. When motion is
limited to a straight line, both speed and velocity have the same magnitude, as do distance and
displacement. Motion in a straight line is referred to as rectilinear motion. Once the graphs
and equations relating to this type of motion have been understood, more complex problems
can be solved by resolving the motion into components and treating each component as a
simple rectilinear problem.
13.2

GENERAL CONCEPTS

The graph in Figure 13.1 shows the relationship

between a physical quantity x and another related
physical quantity y. The graph is a straight line
passing through the origin of the axes.

Graph of X vs Y
8
7
6
5
Y 4
3
2
1
0
0

Figure 13.1

The two quantities x and y are said to be directly proportional to one another, because if
the one is doubled, the other will also double, etc. This relationship is stated
mathematically as:
x y (or x y).

The slope (or gradient) of the graph is given by the expression:

Slope = change in y = y = m,
change in x x
where m is the constant of proportionality. Re-arranging the above expression:
y = mx, or more simply, y = mx.
Compare this expression with the standard equation for a straight line: y = mx + c. The
value of the y-intercept (i.e. c) is obviously zero in the graph above. We can thus conclude
that two quantities x and y will be directly proportional if their graph has the equation y =
mx + c where c is zero.

GRAPHS AND EQUATIONS OF MOTION

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In general, the slope of the graph of two related physical quantities always represents a
third physical quantity. This third physical quantity can be most easily identified by
carrying out a dimensional analysis of the slope - i.e. by determining the units of the
slope.

The two quantities x and y are in general never equal, even if they have the same numerical
value, since their units will almost always differ. For example, if x = 2 seconds and y = 2
metres, then x y because 2 seconds 2 metres.
The area under a graph may represent yet another physical quantity, but this is not always
the case. Again, dimensional analysis will immediately reveal whether the area under the
graph represents a fourth physical quantity. The area under a graph is the area enclosed
between the graph, the x-axis and some arbitrary y-value.
13.3

DISPLACEMENT-TIME GRAPHS

Consider a car travelling at a constant velocity along a straight road. If the total displacement
of the car was to be measured every second, a set of results similar to those tabulated below
might be obtained. The corresponding data points have been plotted on the displacement-time
graph alongside.
Figure 13.2: Graph of s vs t
20
15
s/m 10
5
0
0

2
t/s

t/s
0
1
2
3
4

s/m
0
5
10
15
20

An analysis of the graph reveals the following:

m = s = 20 m = 5 m.s-1
t
4s

GRAPHS AND EQUATIONS OF MOTION

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The unit of the slope is that of velocity. It should be obvious that the slope represents
velocity, since to calculate the slope we have divided displacement by time.

The equation of the graph is therefore s = v.t, where v is the constant of proportionality.

The area under the graph is equal to 4 s 20 m = 40 m.s. The metre second is not the
unit of any physical quantity, so the area under this graph does not represent a fourth
physical quantity.

It can therefore be concluded that:

The slope of a displacement-time graph represents velocity.
The area under a displacement-time graph does not represent any physical quantity.

13.4

VELOCITY-TIME GRAPHS

Consider a car which starts from rest and gains speed uniformly (i.e. it undergoes a constant
acceleration) along a straight road. If the car's instantaneous velocity was measured every
second, a set of results similar to those tabulated below might be obtained.

Figure 13.3: Graph of v vs t

8
7
6
5
v/(m/s) 4
3
2
1
0
0

2
t/s

t/s
0
1
2
3
4

v/m.s-1
0
2
4
6
8

An analysis of the graph reveals that:

m = v = 8 m.s-1 = 2 m.s-2
t
4s

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The unit of the slope is that of acceleration. It should be obvious that the slope represents
acceleration, since to calculate the slope we have divided velocity by time.

The equation of the graph is therefore v = a.t, where a is the constant of proportionality.

The area under the graph is equal to 4 s 8 m.s-1 = 16 m. The area under the graph
therefore represents displacement.

It can therefore be concluded that:

The slope of a velocity-time graph represents acceleration.
The area under a velocity-time graph represents displacement.

Now consider a car which has an initial velocity u and which accelerates uniformly to a final
velocity v in a time of t seconds. Assuming that the observer only starts his stop-watch at the
moment the car starts to accelerate, a set of results similar to those tabulated below may be
obtained.
Figure 13.4: Graph of v vs t
10
8
6
v/(m /s)
4
2
0
0

t/s
0
1
2
3
4

2
t/s

v/m.s-1
2
4
6
8
10

An analysis of this graphs reveals that:

m = v = v - u = (10 - 2) m.s-1 = 2 m.s-2 (as before).
t
t
4s

The equation of the graph is v = a.t + u, where a is the constant of proportionality and u
(the initial velocity) is the y-intercept.

GRAPHS AND EQUATIONS OF MOTION

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The area under the graph must again represent displacement. However, the area now
consists of two distinct shapes, each representing a displacement. The rectangular area is
the displacement the car undergoes as a result of its initial velocity u. Even if the car did
not accelerate, it would still be displaced by this amount. The triangular area is the
displacement which the car undergoes as a result of its acceleration, as in the previous
example (where the car did not have an initial velocity).
The total displacement (sT) is therefore represented by the sum of the rectangular area (s 1)
and the triangular area (s2); i.e.:
sT = s1 + s2 = (2 m.s-1)(4 s) + (10 m.s-1 - 2 m.s-1)(4 s) = 8 m + 16 m = 24 m.

13.5

ACCELERATION-TIME GRAPHS

Since we are limited to the study of uniform acceleration only, there are only three types of
acceleration-time graphs that we need to consider. Because the slopes of these graphs are all
zero (i.e. the rate of change of acceleration is zero), we need only evaluate the area under the
graphs. This area is found by multiplying time by acceleration and is thus equal to velocity.

uniform acceleration in the positive direction

zero acceleration

a/(m/s2) 0

t/s
uniform acceleration in the negative direction

-5
Figure 13.5: Graph of a vs t
The area under an acceleration-time graph represents velocity.
13.6

THE EQUATIONS OF MOTION

The four equations of motion are derived from the velocity-time graph for a body undergoing
uniform acceleration from an initial velocity (u) to a final velocity (v) in a time of t seconds
(see Figure 13.6 below).
The slope of the velocity-time graph is obtained as follows:
Slope = change in velocity
change in time

GRAPHS AND EQUATIONS OF MOTION

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i.e. a = v - u
t
Re-arranging:
v = u + at

--------------------------- [Equation 1]

v/(m/s)

s2
u
s1
0

t/s
0

t
Figure 3.6: Graph of v vs t

Equation 1 is our first equation of motion. The remaining three equations are derived from
consideration of the displacement of the body during this same time period. This displacement
is given by the area under the graph. The different methods of calculating this area result in
the remaining equations.
One method of determining the area under the graph (s) is to consider it to be the sum of a
rectangular area (s1) and a triangular area (s2).
s = s1 + s2 = ut + (v - u)t
However, from Equation 1 we have: v - u = at. Substituting for v - u in the above expression
(for reasons that will become clear later!) we get:
s = ut + at 2

--------------------------- [Equation 2]

The area under the graph may also be considered that of a trapezium. The area of a trapezium
is given by the expression:
Area of trapezium = (half the sum of the parallel sides) (distance between the parallel sides).
In this case,
s = (u + v).t
--------------------------- [Equation 3]
2
Now u + v is also the average velocity of the object. Hence, Equation 3 simplifies to:
2

GRAPHS AND EQUATIONS OF MOTION

s = vav.t

Page 9

which is an equation even a primary school pupil uses!

A final equation of motion can be derived by combining Equations 1 and 3 as follows. From
Equation 1 we have:
v = u + at or t = v - u
a
Substituting this expression for t into Equation 3:
s = (u + v).t = (u + v).(v - u)
2
2
a

2as = v2 - u2
v2 = u2 + 2as

--------------------------- [Equation 4]

The reason why these particular combinations of equations and substitutions have been chosen
is that if you now consider the four equations of motion derived above, you will notice that
each one consists of four variables but that none of the equations has the same four variables.
However, all the equations include the variable u.
EQUATION
v = u + at
s = ut + at2
s = (u +
v).t
2
v = u2 + 2as

s
X

Since there are five variables altogether (u, v, a, t and s) and there are four equations, we can
solve for any one variable by choosing the equation which includes it and the variables for
which we have been given values (see the Tutorial at the end of this module). If the initial
velocity u is zero, these equations simplify further.
13.7

USING THE EQUATIONS OF MOTION

When using the equations of motion, the following conventions must be applied:
1. If the body starts from rest, then the initial velocity (u) is zero.
2. If the final velocity is zero, then v = 0.

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3. In all other substitutions for u and v, positive values are used when these velocities are in
the same direction as your positive reference direction, and negative values are used when
they are in the opposite direction.
4. If the body is undergoing a known acceleration in the same direction as your positive
reference direction, substitute this value for a as a positive value.
5. If the body is undergoing a known acceleration in the opposite direction to that of your
positive reference direction, substitute this value for a as a negative value. A negative
acceleration which results in a body slowing down is also referred to as a deceleration or
a retardation. However, not all negative accelerations are necessarily decelerations. An
object which is going faster and faster in the negative reference direction is also
undergoing a negative acceleration, but this is not a deceleration or a retardation.
6. If a body is displaced in the positive direction then the displacement itself is also positive.
If the displacement is in the opposite direction to the one you have chosen as positive, then
the displacement has a negative value.
7. If the value you obtain as a solution for an unknown vector quantity is positive, then the
direction of the vector is the same as your positive reference direction. If the value is
negative, then the vector has a direction opposite to that of your positive reference
direction.
8. For convenience and uniformity, it is recommended that you take the initial direction of
motion of an object as the positive direction.
13.8

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY AND

ACCELERATION

Suppose a car undergoes a constant acceleration of 4 m.s -2 from rest. The following table
illustrates the relationship between displacement, velocity and acceleration with respect to
time.

Total elapsed time / s

t
Final velocity / m.s-1
v = u + at
Average velocity at end of interval / m.s-1
vav = (u + v)
Displacement per interval / m
s = (u + v)t
Total displacement / m
s = ut + at2

12

16

20

10

14

18

10

14

18

18

32

50

Note that for every second that the car accelerates at 4 m.s-2:
its velocity increases by 4 m.s-1; and
it travels 4 metres further than it did in the previous second.

GRAPHS AND EQUATIONS OF MOTION

13.9

Page 11

WORKED EXAMPLES

Example 1:

A car travelling along a straight road with an initial velocity of 2 m.s-1

accelerates for 5 seconds and reaches a final velocity of 7 m.s-1. Calculate:
(a) the acceleration of the car during the 5 second interval;
(b) the average velocity of the car during this period; and
(c) the displacement of the car during the same period.

Answers:
(a)
(b)
(c)

a = v - u = 7 m.s-1 - 2 m.s-1 = 1 m.s-2 in the direction of motion.

t
5s
vav = u + v = 2 m.s-1 + 7 m.s-1 = 4,5 m.s-1 in the direction of motion.
2
2
Method 1:
s = vav.t = (4,5 m.s-1)(5 s) = 22,5 m.s-1 in the direction of motion.
Method 2:
s = ut + at 2
= (2 m.s-1)(5 s) + (1 m.s-2)(5 s)2
= 10 m + 12,5 m
= 22,5 m in the direction of motion.
Method 3:
s = v2 - u2 = (7 m.s-1)2 - (2 m.s-1)2 = (49 - 4)m2.s-2
2a
2(1 m.s-1)
2 m.s-2
= 22,5 m in the direction of motion.

Example 2:

A car accelerates uniformly from rest and reaches a velocity of 30 m.s -1 in a

time of 10 seconds, after which it travels at this velocity for 150 m. The driver
then applies the brakes and the car decelerates uniformly at 5 m.s -2 until it
comes to rest. Calculate:
(a) the car's initial acceleration;
(b) the time taken for the car to come to rest after the brakes are applied;
(c) the total time during which the car is in motion; and
(d) the total displacement of the car.

Answers:
(a)

a1 = v1 - u1 = (30 - 0)m.s-1 = 3 m.s-2 in the direction of motion.

t1
10 s
(b)
t3 = v3 - u3 = (0 - 30)m.s-1 = 6 s
a3
-5 m.s-2
(c)
Time to cover 150 m at 30 m.s-1:
t2 = s2 = 150 m = 5 s
v2
30 m.s-1
tTotal = t1 + t2 + t3 = 10 s + 5 s + 6 s = 21 s
(d)
s1 = a1t12 = (3 m.s-2)(10 s)2 = 150 m
s3 = u3t3 + a3t32 = (30 m.s-1)(6 s) + (-5 m.s-2)(6 s)2 = 90 m
sTotal = s1 + s2 + s3 = 150 m + 150 m + 90 m
= 390 m in the direction of motion.
13.10 ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY

GRAPHS AND EQUATIONS OF MOTION

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One of the most important examples of uniformly accelerated motion is that of a free-falling
body. A falling body is attracted towards the centre of the earth because both the earth and the
body have mass.
The mass of a body is the name given to that property of the body which enables it to attract
and be attracted by other bodies possessing the same property.
In the absence of air, all objects fall with the same acceleration at the same location near the
earth's surface. The acceleration is due to the gravitational force of attraction between the
earth and the object. This force is often referred to as the force of gravity, or more simply,
gravity. The acceleration due to gravity (symbol g) varies slightly from place to place, but it
has an average value at the earth's surface of about 9,8 m.s-2 in a vacuum. In calculations you
will use the even more approximate value of 10 m.s -2. Acceleration due to gravity is a vector
quantity - its direction is always vertically downwards towards the centre of the earth.
An object falling in air experiences an increasingly greater wind resistance as its velocity
increases. This resistance or drag force causes a gradual decrease in the acceleration of the
object until a velocity is reached where the object's weight and the opposing drag force acting
on it balance one another (see Newton's Laws of Motion). When this happens, the object's
acceleration is zero and it falls at a constant maximum velocity called its terminal velocity.
Provided the object under study has a relatively large mass and its velocity does not become
too high, it can be reasonably assumed that the object will fall with a constant acceleration of
about 10 m.s-2 towards the centre of the earth. An object falling with a constant acceleration is
said to be in free fall. Note that a skydiver does not free fall according to the scientific
definition of the term.
13.11 WORKED EXAMPLES
Example 1:

A ball is projected vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 3 m.s-1.

Ignoring air friction, calculate:
(a) the maximum height reached by the ball; and
(b) the time taken for the ball to return to the ground.

Answers:
(a)
(b)

Taking up as positive.

| s | = | v2 - u2 | = (0 m.s-1)2 - (3 m.s-1)2 = -9 m = 0,45 m

2g
2(-10 m.s-2)
-20
tTotal = 2 (Time taken to reach maximum height)
= 2.(v - u) = 2.(0 m.s-1 - 3 m.s-1) = 0,6 s
g
(-10 m.s-2)

GRAPHS AND EQUATIONS OF MOTION

Example 2:

Page 13

A ball is projected horizontally from a tower with a velocity of 20 m.s-1. It

takes 5 seconds for the ball to reach the ground. Ignoring air friction,
calculate:
(a) the height of the tower; and
(b) the horizontal displacement of the ball.

Answers:
(a)

Taking down as positive.

Consider the vertical component of the ball's velocity:

| sv | = | uv.t + gt2 | = (10 m.s-2)(5 s)2 = 125 m

(b)

Now consider the horizontal component of the ball's velocity. The ball's flight time is
the same for both components (because the ball cannot reach the ground at two
different times!). Since we are ignoring air friction, there are no unbalanced forces to
cause the ball to speed up or slow down in the horizontal. Therefore:
sh = uh.t = (20 m.s-1)(5 s) = 100 m

Example 3:

A ball is thrown vertically upwards at 5 m.s-1 from a platform 30 m above the

ground. Ignoring air friction, calculate:
(a) the time take for the ball to reach the ground; and
(b) the speed with which the ball strikes the ground.

Answers:
(a)

Taking up as positive.

s = ut + gt 2 gt2 + ut - s = 0
t = -u (u2 + 2gs) = -5 (25 + 2(-10)(-30)) s = -5 25 s
g
-10
-10
t = 3 s or t = -2 s
Since time cannot be negative, t = 3 s.

(b)

v2 = u2 + 2as = (52 + 2(-10)(-30)) m2.s-2 = 625 m2.s-2

| v | = 25 m.s-1

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WORKSHEET
1.

Study the following graphs and describe the type of motion which each represents:
7

3
1

s/m

t/s

-8

4
5

2.

Study the following graphs and describe the type of motion which each represents:
5
8

5
4
1

v/(m/s) 0

t/s

2
-5
3.

6
Rewrite each of the four equations of motion, making each of the four variables in
each equation the subject of the formula. You should end up with sixteen different
equations! Note that when a variable is the subject of a formula, it only appears on the
left-hand side of the equation and it must not be squared, etc.

4.

Rewrite the four equations of motion for the case where u = 0.

5.

Draw s-t, v-t, a-t, s-t and v-t sketch graphs for a stone which is thrown vertically
upwards into the air. Take t = 0 to be the instant that the stone leaves the thrower's
hand, and take up as the positive direction. Neglect the effects of air friction and
assume that the acceleration and deceleration of the stone are uniform.

GRAPHS AND EQUATIONS OF MOTION

Page 15

6.

Repeat question 5 for a bouncing ball. Consider only one bounce, and assume that the
ball returns to the height from which it was dropped. Take down as the positive
direction.

7.

The following acceleration-time table was obtained from a car road test, in which the
car was accelerated from rest.
t/s
a / m.s-2

1
4

2
4

3
4

4
4

5
4

6
4

7
4

(a) Plot the acceleration-time graph.

(b) Draw up a velocity-time table and plot the velocity-time graph.
(c) Use your velocity-time graph to find the distance covered by the car in the first 5
seconds.
(d) Draw up a displacement-time table and plot the displacement-time graph.
8.

A car moving at 5 m.s-1 is accelerated for 10 s at 2 m.s-2. How far does the car travel in
this time and what is its final velocity?
Answers: 150 m; 25 m.s-1 in the direction of motion

9.

An object moves from rest with a uniform acceleration of 10 m.s-2. Calculate:

(a) the speed after 5 s;
(b) the speed after it has covered 80 m; and
(c) the distance travelled in 20 s.
Answers: (a) 50 m.s-1 (b) 40 m.s-1 (c) 2 000 m

10.

In order to take off, an aircraft requires a run of 600 m. If after starting from rest it
takes the aircraft 30 s to take off, what is the average acceleration and take-off speed?
Answers: 1,33 m.s-2 in the direction of motion; 40 m.s-1

11.

A bullet leaves the barrel of a rifle with a velocity of 1 000 m.s -1. If the barrel is 1 m
long, calculate the acceleration of the bullet before it leaves the rifle.
Answer: 5 105 m.s-2 down the barrel

12.

A motor cyclist riding at 20 m.s-1 suddenly sees a large tree in the road 120 m ahead.
He applies the brakes and the motor cycle decelerates at 2 m.s-2. How far away from
the tree does he come to rest? Answer: 20 m

13.

A car, travelling at 40 m.s-1, suddenly has its brakes applied and is decelerated at
10 m.s-2. How far will it travel before it comes to rest? Answer: 80 m

14.

A motor cyclist on a horizontal road travels with a constant velocity of 5 m.s-1 and then
accelerates uniformly at 2 m.s-2. Calculate:

15.

(a) his speed after 5 s;

(b) the distance travelled during the 5 s; and
(c) his speed after travelling 150 m from the point where he started to accelerate.
Answers: (a) 15 m.s-1 (b) 50 m (c) 25 m.s-1
A car accelerates from 8 m.s-1 to 20 m.s-1 over a distance of 336 m. Calculate:

GRAPHS AND EQUATIONS OF MOTION

Page 16

(a) the acceleration of the car; and

(b) the time taken for the car to cover this distance.
Answers: (a) 0,5 m.s-2 in the direction of motion (b) 24 s
16.

An object starting from rest accelerates for 4 s and reaches a velocity of 20 m.s-1. After
travelling at a constant velocity for a further 3 s it is brought to rest in 2 s. Draw a
velocity-time graph of the object's motion. Calculate its acceleration, deceleration and
the distance covered during the 9 s interval.
Answers: 5 m.s-2 in the direction of motion; 10 m.s-2 in the opposite direction; 120 m

17.

An object accelerates uniformly from rest at 3 m.s-2 for 5 s, after which the acceleration
ceases. Calculate the object's displacement after 7 seconds.
Answer: 67,5 m in the direction of motion

18.

A car accelerates away from point X at 10 m.s-2 over a distance of 45 m and reaches a
velocity of 50 m.s-1. Calculate the speed of the car as it passed the point X.
Answer: 40 m.s-1

19.

A pupil rolls a ball up a long, inclined ramp. The ball leaves the pupil's hand with a
velocity of 16 m.s-1 up the ramp, and thereafter its acceleration is -2 m.s-2 up the ramp.
(a) What, apart from air friction and surface friction, causes the ball to decelerate as it
rolls up the ramp?
(b) How long will it take for the ball to reach a point 55 m from the pupil's hand?
(c) Explain the physical significance of the two solutions obtained in (b) above.
(d) Calculate the possible velocities of the ball when it is 55 m from the bottom of the
ramp.
(e) Calculate the time taken for the ball to come to rest before rolling back, and hence
calculate how far it rolls up the ramp.
(f) State, without any further calculation, the time taken for the ball to return to its
starting point, and its velocity at this moment.
(g) Draw a fully-labelled velocity-time graph for the ball from the time that it leaves
the pupil's hand to the time that it returns.
(h) Using the appropriate feature of the above graph, deduce - with reasons - the
acceleration of the ball when it is furthest from its starting point.
Answers: (b) 5 s and 11 s (d) +6 m.s -1 and -6 m.s-1 (e) 8 s; 64 m (f) 16 s; -16 m.s -1
(h) -2 m.s-2

20.

21.

A car, travelling initially at a constant speed of 10 m.s -1, undergoes a uniform

acceleration of 4 m.s-2 and travels 72 m while doing so.
(a) Calculate the time taken to travel the 72 m.
(b) One of the two solutions obtained in (a) is physically inadmissible. Explain the
significance of the negative sign and suggest why this other "solution" - while being
mathematically correct - is impossible.
(c) Calculate the speed of the car after it has travelled the 72 m.
Answers: (a) 4s and -9 s (c) 26 m.s-1
A stone, falling from rest from the top of a bridge, strikes the water below 5 s later.
How high is the bridge above the water, and with what speed does it enter the water?
Answers: 125 m; 50 m.s-1

GRAPHS AND EQUATIONS OF MOTION

Page 17

22.

Assuming a streamlined bomb falls without air resistance, how far will it need to fall,
and for how long, in order to break the sound barrier of 330 m.s-1?
Answer: 5 445 m; 33 s

23.

When a boy throws a ball straight up into the air he finds that it takes 2,5 s for the ball
to reach its maximum height.
(a) At what speed did the ball leave his hand?
(b) What height did the ball reach?
(c) With what speed does the ball return to his hand?
(d) How long does the downward trip take?
(e) For what total length of time was the ball in the air?
Answers: (a) 25 m.s-1 (b)31,25 m (c) 25 m.s-1 (d) 2,5 s (e) 5 s

24.

A cannon stands at the edge of a cliff 125 m above sea level. A cannon ball is fired at
200 m.s-1 in a horizontal direction. Neglecting air resistance, calculate:
(a) the time taken for the cannon ball to strike the water; and
(b) the distance from the foot of the cliff to the point where the cannon ball strikes the
water.
Answers: (a) 5 s (b) 1 000 m

25.

A stone is thrown vertically upwards from ground level with an initial velocity of
25 m.s-1.
(a) Calculate the maximum height reached; and
(b) the time take to reach a height of 30 m.
(c) Explain why there are two possible answers in (b) above.
Answers: (a) 31,25 m (b) 2 s and 3 s

26.

A dive-bomber, descending vertically at 100 m.s-1, releases a bomb which accelerates at

10 m.s-2 and strikes the target below 5 s later. Calculate:
(a) the speed of the bomb at the moment it strikes its target; and
(b) the altitude from which the bomb was released.
Answers: (a) 150 m.s-1 (b) 625 m

27.

An artillery shell is projected at an angle to the horizontal with an initial velocity of

u m.s-1 in this direction. Derive expressions for:
(a) the horizontal component of the projectile's velocity;
(b) the vertical component of the projectile's velocity; and
(c) the total flight time over level ground.
Hence prove that maximum range is achieved when is 45.

GRAPHS AND EQUATIONS OF MOTION

Page 18

PRACTICALS
EXPERIMENT 13.1
PRE-LAB.:
1. The a.c. mains has a frequency of 50 Hz. What does this mean? ____________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. What is meant by the period of a ticker-timer? __________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. Write down the mathematical expression relating frequency and period: ______________
4. Give the simplest equation for calculating average velocity: ________________________
5. Define acceleration: _______________________________________________________
6. How may the acceleration of an object be determined from its velocity-time graph? _____
________________________________________________________________________
7. What does the term gravity refer to? __________________________________________
8. What is gravitational acceleration? __________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
9. What is a frictional force? __________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
10. What is the scientific meaning of the term free-fall? ______________________________
________________________________________________________________________
11. Do the objects in this experiment undergo free-fall? Explain your answer. ____________
________________________________________________________________________
12. What are the friction forces in this experiment and how may they be kept to a minimum?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
AIM: To determine the acceleration due to gravity (g) of various objects and to show that
this acceleration is independent of the mass of an object.

GRAPHS AND EQUATIONS OF MOTION

Page 19

APPARATUS:
Ticker timer and mounting bracket; carbonised ticker tape; laboratory power supply;
2 connecting leads; masking tape; sponge rubber mat; metal blocks of various masses but not
less than 100 g.
PROCEDURE:
1. Pupils are to work in groups of three or four, with each group member responsible for
obtaining and analysing a ticker tape for an object of different mass to those dropped by
the other members of the group.
2. Place a table on top of the cupboards down the side of the laboratory and mount a ticker
timer to it using the bracket supplied. Place the mat on the floor below the timer.
3. Using the connecting leads, connect the ticker timer to the power supply's a.c. terminals
and select the correct voltage (see voltage rating on ticker timer).
4. Using the minimum amount of masking tape, attach a strip of carbonised ticker tape of
about 1,5 metres in length to the object that is to be dropped.
5. Feed the free end of the ticker tape upwards through the gate of the timer.
6. Standing on the cupboard, one group member must hold the tape vertically above the
timer's gate. A second group member must then start the ticker timer and the tape must be
released so that the object falls onto the mat below.
7. Switch off the timer, check the dotting and then repeat steps 4 to 6 above for two or three
more objects of different masses.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Do not operate the ticker timer on a voltage greater than what it is designed for. Besides
damaging the timer, the higher voltage will cause the timer to "double-dot" and produce
meaningless results. Double-dotting also results if d.c. is used.
2. Before analysing the tape, ensure that the spaces between the dots increase progressively
and that the timer is not double-dotting.
3. If too long a tape is used, the object will strike the mat before the tape is completely
through the timer. This will produce useless dots at the end of the tape.
4. Before releasing the object, ensure that the tape is held vertically in both dimensions so
that friction through the ticker timer's gate is kept to a minimum.
RESULTS:
1. For each ticker tape, select the second or third dot along the tape as the starting point. Do
not use a dot at the start of the tape because this will probably have been made along with
several others before the tape was released. Choosing a dot further along the tape will
mean that the object will have a non-zero initial velocity, but this will not affect the
outcome of the experiment.
2. Mark off every fifth interval with a clear line across the width of the tape. Note that the
dot at the start of each interval is at t = 0 s for that interval, so you must count five more
dots after the dot at the start of the interval. Since it takes 0,02 s to print each dot, it will
take 0,1 s to print five more dots after the one at the start of the interval.
3. Carefully measure the distance (in centimetres) between each of the lines marked on the
tape. These are the displacements for each 0,1 s interval. Record your results in the table
below which has been provided for your rough work. You are required to reproduce the
table in the Results section of your report.

GRAPHS AND EQUATIONS OF MOTION

Page 20

4. Calculate the average velocity (in centimetres per second) for each interval by dividing
the displacement for that interval by 0,1 s.
5. Use the linear regression programme (available at the Computer Centre) to analyse your
own data set and fit the best straight line to it. Remember to record the values of a and b
in the equation y = a + bx determined by the regression programme.
6. Draw the axes for a graph of average velocity (in cm/s) on the y-axis versus total elapsed
time (in seconds) on the x-axis, using the graph paper supplied. Every member of your
group must use the same scale and draw the axes in exactly the same way in order to
reduce your work load (see below).
7. Each member must then plot the data points for his / her object and the two points at the
ends of the best straight line fitting these data points. By placing the separate pieces of
graph paper over each other, the data points for the other members' objects can be
transferred by pricking a hole through the data points on the uppermost sheet of graph
paper using a compass or divider point. To avoid confusion, each set of points should be
clearly marked with crosses, circles, triangles or squares before the next set is transferred.
8. The value of b is the slope of the graph and represents the acceleration due to gravity of
the object concerned. Convert the values for b to metres per second squared (m/s2) and
tabulate them in your report. You should find that these values are all very similar (as
indicated by the fact that your graphs should all be very nearly parallel). Determine an
average value for the acceleration due to gravity (g).
Interval
Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Displacement
(s) / cm

Time per
Interval
(t') / s
0,1
0,1
0,1
0,1
0,1
0,1
0,1

Total Elapsed
Time
(t) / s
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
0,7

Average
Velocity
(s/t') / (cm/s)

Plot on x-axis
Plot on y-axis
CONCLUSION:
You must state the value of g and comment on the fact that the graphs are parallel (see AIM
above).

GRAPHS AND EQUATIONS OF MOTION

Page 21

POST-LAB.:
1. When dropped from the same height in air, a lead sinker hits the ground long before a
feather. Explain.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. What would you expect to observe if the same lead sinker and feather were dropped on
the moon? Explain your answer.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. Give two names for the force which causes falling objects to accelerate towards the earth.
________________________________________________________________________
4. State, in order of decreasing importance, three of the main sources of error in the ticker
tape experiment.
(a) _____________________________________________________________________
(b) _____________________________________________________________________
(c) _____________________________________________________________________
5. If it was possible to analyse a ticker tape accurately from the very first dot, would the
velocity-time graph have a positive, zero or negative y-intercept? Explain your answer.
(Note that the y-intercept represents an initial velocity.)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
6. Comment on the value of the y-intercept obtained for the ticker tape you analysed
yourself.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

GRAPHS AND EQUATIONS OF MOTION

Page 22

ALTERNATIVE METHODS FOR DETERMINING "g"

Several different methods can be used to determine a value for the acceleration due to gravity.
Since "g" varies from one location to another, it is important to be able to determine its value
quickly and accurately so that it can be used in other experiments which require the value of
"g" in calculations. Provided you have sufficient time, your teacher may supply you with the
equipment you need to perform one or more of the following experiments.
EXPERIMENT 13.2: THE "GALILEO" METHOD
This is the least accurate method because it relies on human reflexes to start and stop a
stopwatch. It is therefore most accurately performed over a very great height. The method
involves dropping a massive object through a known height and measuring the time taken for
it to strike the ground.
From the equation s = ut + at 2 we get s = gt 2 for an object dropped from rest.
Hence, g = 2s/t2.
The same principle can be used to obtain a rough figure for height assuming a value for "g". If
an object is dropped (safely) from the top of a cliff or tall building, then taking g 10 m.s-2 we
get the "equation" s = 5t 2. The height (in metres) can be roughly determined by squaring the
time of fall (in seconds) and multiplying by five!
EXPERIMENT 13.3: TIMING BALL
The accuracy of the "Galileo" method outlined above can be greatly improved if an accurate
timing ball is used. Timing balls are used by ball players to establish how fast they can throw a
ball. A button on the ball zeroes a built-in timer when it is squeezed. Once the ball is released
by the thrower, the timer counts. When it strikes a wall a measured distance away, the timer
stops. The average speed of the ball is given by vave = s/t. The same principle is employed in
the vertical to measure "g". The equation is again g = 2s/t 2.
EXPERIMENT 13.4: PENDULUM METHOD (A)
See Laboratory Manual for Physical Science Standards 9 and 10, Experiment 7.2, page 9.
This is a simple experiment in principle - but it is a difficult one to perform in practice!
EXPERIMENT 13.5: PENDULUM METHOD (B)
There are only two factors which affect the frequency of a pendulum: length (l) and "g".
These variables are related by the equation:
T = 2

l
g

where T is the period of the pendulum.

It is a simply matter to measure the frequency of a pendulum, but a massive pendulum bob
(which is not influenced by draughts) at the end of a very long string is required for accuracy.

GRAPHS AND EQUATIONS OF MOTION

Page 23

The time taken to complete several complete oscillations can be measured with an ordinary
stopwatch.
EXPERIMENT 13.5: FREE-FALL APPARATUS
This method employs a digital timer which starts counting when a ball bearing is released by
an electromagnet at the top of a gantry. When the ball bearing strikes and opens a gate at the
bottom of the gantry, the timer stops counting. The distance fallen can be accurately
measured, and the timer can record thousandths of a second. However, this method is
complicated by the fact that ball bearings are not made of soft iron and therefore do not demagnetise the moment the electromagnet is switched off. The retentivity of the metal causes
the ball bearing to hang up for a few thousandths of a second. This problem can be overcome
by dropping the ball bearing over several different distances and finding the slope of a graph of
average velocity versus time (as in the "Ticker Tape" experiment). This method is the simplest
and most accurate of all the methods outlined here. Ask your teacher for the printed
instructions.
EXPERIMENT 13.6: STROBOSCOPIC METHOD
This method involves the same principles as the ticker tape experiment. It uses a Polaroid
camera and stroboscope and must be carried out in a dark room. A multiple-exposure
photograph is taken of a white object falling against a black background on which marks have
been made for scaling purposes. The photograph allows the distance covered during each time
interval (determined by the stroboscope's flash frequency) to be measured.

NAME:
TUTORIAL
Complete the following table by recording your answers in the blank spaces. It is
recommended that you establish an algorithm for each type of problem. Detach and submit
this tutorial for marking.
No.

Initial velocity

Final Velocity

(u)

(v)

Average
velocity (vav)
in m.s-1

Time Interval

Acceleration

(t)

(a)

in m.s-1

in m.s-1

24

40

10

14

36

12

+3

50

-8

30

-5

+4

in s

in m.s-2

10

-2

10

-4

-4

11

26

+2

12

22

+5

Displacement

(s)
in m

13

100

+8

14

60

20

-5

15

10

-10

-2

16

19

+3,5

17

24

18

80

19

48

120

20

10

-25

21

+4

33

22

-3

70

23

+5

48

24

10

-4

-20

25

23

84

26

17

72

27

-12

-10

28

20

66

SUMMARY

EQUATIONS OF MOTION
v = u + at
v2 = u2 + 2as
s = ut + at2
s = (u + v).t = vav.t
2

GRAPHS
GRAPH

SLOPE

s vs t

v vs t

a vs t

Not applicable
to uniformly
accelerated
motion

AREA
No meaning.

s
v

GIVES
Position relative
to reference
point; direction
of travel;
direction of
acceleration.
Direction of
travel; direction
of acceleration.
Direction of
acceleration
only.

DOES NOT
GIVE

Position.
Position;
direction of
travel.

NOTE:

You will only come across parabolic curves on displacement-time graphs. These are of
the form y = ax2 + bx + c (i.e. s = at 2 + ut). These curves are quadratic in t only if the
acceleration is non-zero. If the acceleration is zero then the equation simplifies to s = ut.
Thus, a parabolic curve on a displacement-time graph is a result of uniformly accelerated
motion. Displacement-time graphs will therefore be parabolic if acceleration is taking
place, or straight lines if the is no acceleration.
You will only come across velocity-time graphs which are straight lines.
You will only encounter acceleration-time graphs which are parallel to the time axis.