The EffectsSAIS

of Review
Athletics
on N
Unity 2011)
vol. XXXI
no.ational
1 (WinterSpring
39

Of Note

Sports and Collective Identity: The

Effects of Athletics on National Unity
Kari L. Jaksa

ports are a formidable force for good at the national level, positively
contributing to the formation of national identity. They also engender
national unity and are an important mechanism of foreign policy, as they
offer a unique arena through which diplomatic relations may be pursued.
International sporting competitions like the Olympics and the World Cup
bring together dignitaries, athletes, heads of state, and other national representatives, creating a forum that assists in the development of understanding and cooperation. Thus, despite evidence of their globalization, sports
continue to retain an important national core that can act as a channel of
soft power. Through the sports medium, underserved nations across the
world create for themselves an identity and a voice, enabling them to be
heard on the international stage.
For many countries, sports are a major component of national identity. Often, these countries are defined as much by their sporting pursuits
as they are by their politics, economy, and geography. National sports act
as a common thread, woven through society to connect citizens to one another. Such sports vary from nation to nation; in Canada, hockey is king.
New Zealanders relish rugby, while Indias most widely followed sport is
cricket. In China, table tennis is a significant part of the national fabric.
American football fervor is ubiquitous in the United States, and, while soccer is prevalent worldwide, every nation exhibits its own distinct iteration
of the game.
World leaders recognize the importance of sports, both as an element
of their nations cultures and as a tool for diplomacy. Heads of state often
utilize international sporting events as an opportunity to represent their
country. The 2010 World Cup final alone, held in South Africa, was attended
by at least fifteen heads of state, including delegations from all over Africa. 1
German Chancellor Angela Merkel and South African President Jacob Zuma
also attended. The Opening Ceremony of the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver drew similar numbers of dignitaries, including U.S. Vice President Joe
Biden, Prime Minister Jan Fischer of the Czech Republic, Prince Albert II of
Kari L. Jaksa is an M.A. candidate in International Economics and African Studies at
the Johns Hopkins University School of Advanced International Studies.
2011 by The Johns Hopkins University Press

39

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SAIS Review WinterSpring 2011

Monaco, and Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper.2 For these leaders,
major sporting events serve as an opportunity to reach out to their peers in
a slightly informal and relaxed setting.
Sports diplomacy is used regularly to overcome significant differences
between nations. One of the most prominent examples of this was the famed
ping pong diplomacy campaign of the 1970s, which saw the exchange of
table tennis players between China and the United States. U.S. President
Richard Nixon used this event to induce further openness in U.S.-China
relations. Sports diplomacy continues to be prominent today, as was evidenced during the 2008 qualifying rounds for the 2010 World Cup. One of
the matches pitted Armenia against Turkey and, in order to mitigate tensions between the two nations which harkened back to the 1915 Armenian
genocide perpetrated by Turkey, Armenian President Serzh Sargsyan and
Turkish President Abdullah Gl sat together and shook hands as an expression of goodwill and friendship.3
At the country level, sports present a foundation upon which national
unity can be built. They are especially important in deeply divided or war
torn nations, where they can offer a much needed respite from conflict and
a common ground from which to begin reconciliation. Pakistani Prime Minister Syed Yousuf Raza Gilani recognized this fact on November 11, 2010,
when he referred to sports as vital to the promotion of national unity.4
There are a multitude of instances in the last two decades alone in which
nations have rallied around sports as a unifying factor. For example:
Following the collapse of apartheid and the subsequent election of Nelson

Mandela as South Africas first black president in 1994, racial tensions

continued to permeate the nation, threatening to plunge it into civil war.
While the black majority generally played and watched soccer, the white
Afrikaner minority supported the Springboks, South Africas rugby team.
To black, Indian, and colored South Africans who suffered under apartheid, the Springboks were a symbol of hatred and oppression.

South Africa was scheduled to host the 1995 Rugby World Cup, but the

country was apprehensive. In order to ease tensions, President Mandela

reached out to white Springboks captain Franois Pienaar, expressing
his support for the team. This encouraged the black population to also
cheer for the Springboks, who reached the World Cup Finals against the
heavily favored New Zealand All Blacks. With the support of an entire
nation behind them, South Africa prevailed. In a final moment of unity
and pride, Mandela, clad in a Springboks hat and jersey, presented Pienaar
with the championship trophy in front of a worldwide television audience,
symbolizing racial harmony and the rainbow nation concept embraced
and promoted widely by Mandela.

Sub-Saharan Africa is home to many talented international soccer play-

ers, many of whom are genuine stars in the worlds best leagues. Michael
Essien (Ghana), Frdric Kanout (Mali), Samuel Etoo (Cameroon), and
Emmanuel Adebayor (Togo), some of the most well-known and accomplished players in the world, all hail from the region. Arguably none of
these players, however, has done as much for their home nation as Didier
Drogba has done for Cote dIvoire.

The Effects of Athletics on National Unity

41

In 2005, as civil war raged in Cote dIvoire, Drogba led the Ivoirian na-

tional soccer team through World Cup qualifying matches in Germany.

In November, Cote dIvoire emerged atop its qualifying group, earning a
spot in the 2006 World Cup. Following the match, as Ivoirian soccer fans
danced and celebrated throughout the nation, Drogba, via a live television
feed, beseeched his countrymen to lay down their arms and work toward
peace.5 The warring factions heeded his plea, initiating a peace process that
culminated in the 2007 Ouagadougou Accords and a tenuous coalition
between the opposing groups.

Under the dictatorial rule of Saddam Hussein, Iraqi sports teams were

expected to conquer all foes. If the teams failed to fulfill this objective, they
were often subject to shame and torture at the hands of Saddams son,
Uday. Widely reputed to be one of the most brutal and vicious members
of the Iraqi administration, Uday was the head of the Iraqi Olympic Committee. He carried out his role by disciplining athletes whom he deemed
to be unsuccessful. Common punishments included being flogged, having
ones head and eyebrows shaved, and being dragged through gravel pits.6
For the soccer team, Uday reserved a special treatment; following losses,
he and his henchmen would cane the soles of the teams feet, breaking
bones and leaving indelible physical and mental scars.

After Saddam and Uday were removed from power, the Iraqi soccer team

formed again. They entered the 2007 Asian Cup with low expectations.
However, having emerged from under the shadow of Uday and Saddam
Hussein, the team played well and reached the finals, where it defeated
Saudi Arabia to earn the Asian Cup title. Iraqis rejoiced in the streets of
Baghdad, celebrating a huge and unexpected victory for Iraq.

While sports today are undoubtedly following current trends toward

globalization, they continue to also remain exceptionally important at the
national level. The contributions of sports to identity formation, national
union building, and diplomatic efforts cannot be overlooked. By offering
unique opportunities at success and giving small, poor, and undeveloped
nations a chance to equal themselves to larger powers, sports are an integral
part of every nations character.
Notes
15 African Heads of State to grace World Cup finale, BuaNews, Afronline: The Voice Of
Africa, July 8, 2010.
2
Doug Ward, Vice President Biden slated to attend Opening Ceremony, Vancouver Sun,
February 3, 2010.
3
Tony Halpin Yerevan, Turkey and Armenia start to mend old enmities via World Cup
football match, The Sunday Times, September 7, 2008.
4
Sports central to promotion of national unity and soft image: Prime Minister, World
Tribune Pakistan, November 11, 2010.
5
Alex Hayes, Didier Drogba brings peace to the Ivory Coast, The Telegraph, August 8,
2007.
6
Don Yaegar, Son of Saddam, Sports Illustrated, March 24, 2003.
1

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