Accelerating dark universe.

General relativity and standard model for particle physics provides a write
framework of measure
2011 Nobel Prize for physics is for the discovery of the expansion of the universe is
really accelerating.
This was done by investigating supernovae, exploding stars more massive than the
sun.
Supernovae.
Supernovae are explosion of massive stars. The explosion is so much powerful
which is equivalent about 10 million suns.
In general a star which is up to a super nova is consists of Fe, Si, O, Ne, C, He and H.
Theoretical calculations shows that a star, one second before the explosion will emit
a stream of neutrino satisfying the equation,

e+ p n+
This was observed and verified by Ray Davis who won the Nobel Prize for this
achievement.
The destiny of the sun,
A star in a size of the sun will be end up as a white dwarf.
Since most of the stars are binary stars (30%) a white dwarf can attract matter from
its dyeing partner star and form a accreting matter disc. If the mass of the disc
reach the Chandrasekaras limit (1.4 X mass of the sun) then the star will undergo a
supernova explosion and the remaining nuclei of the star will be a black hole.
IA supernovae
The supernovae that were used in the investigation for the accelerating universe
are known as type IA or thermonuclear supernovas which are made from an
accretion disc from a dwarf binary system.
Wide field camera technique at Mt. Palomar was used to investigate these
supernovae which have a possibility of occurrence of 2 per galaxy per thousand
years.

Measuring unit for super novae is standard candle and 1A supernova brightness is
taken as 1 standard candle.
Supernovae investigation for the discovery of the acceleration of the universe was
done using the Mt Palomar wide field cameras.

Abstracts from the discovery of the expanding universe.

There are two basic principles governing the universe.
1. Copernican principle,
We do not live in a special place in the universe. That is there is no
specialty at any point in the universe
2. Cosmological principle,
The universe is isotropic and shows a great homogeneity.

Albert Einstein in his general theory of relativity predicted that the universe must be
a dynamic one. Since the standard model of the universe in late 19s was meant to
be static.
Einstein modified his original equation to suit the ongoing theory by adding an
additional factor known as lambda factor.
But in 1920 Edwin Hubble discovered that the universe is expanding by observing
the redshifts of local galaxies.
This discovery led to bring the original field equation into action but the significance
of the lambda factor was not fall off.
His original theory says that space tells matter how to move and matter tells space
what shape it must take
This simple concept in its complexity made general theory of relativity to predict the
amount of matter in universe. Lambda factor played a major role in this
measurement giving rise to a new concept known as dark matter. Dark matter fills
up empty space balancing the amount of matter observed and theoretically
calculated.
Numerical values for them are,

matter =27

normal matter =4
nonbaryonic dark matter =23
Only a microscopic theory can calculate the amount of dark energy but the present
quantum mechanics and standard model of particle physics fail to do so.