Mariejim Diane O.

Payot, RMT, MSMT

THE CELL

THE CELL

What is a Cell?

Basic organizational unit of life

Fundamental unit of life
Functional unit of life
Simplest organization of matter
Smallest independent units of life

What, Exactly, Is a Cell?

Basic building blocks of all living things
Functions:
Metabolism and Energy Use
Synthesis of molecules
Communication
Reproduction and Inheritance

The Fundamental Theory of Biology

1.
2.
3.
4.

All organisms consist of one or more cells.

The cell is the smallest unit of life.
Each new cell arises from another cell.
A cell passes hereditary information to its offspring.

Overview of Cells

Measuring Cells: Bacteria on the Tip of a Pin

Bacteria are the smallest and simplest cells

Animalcules and Beasties

No one knew cells existed until microscopes were invented

The Discovery of the Cell

Modern Microscopes

10m

A Light micrograph.
A phase-contrast
microscope yields highcontrast images of
transparent specimens,
such
as cells.

B Light micrograph.
A reflected light
microscope captures
light reected from
opaque specimens.

C Fluorescence
micrograph.
The chlorophyll
molecules in these
cells emitted red
light (they
uoresced) naturally.

D A transmission
electron micrograph
reveals fantastically
detailed images of
internal structures.

E A scanning electron
micrograph shows
surface details of cells
and structures. SEMs
may be artificially
colored to highlight
certain details.

Relative Sizes
electron microscopes

viruses

molecules of life
complex carbohydrates
DNA
(width)
lipids
proteins
small molecules

0.1 nm

1 nm

10 nm

mitochondria,
chloroplasts

100 nm

light microscopes
most
eukaryotic cells
most
bacteria

1 m

10 m

human eye (no microscope)

largest organisms
small animals
humans
frog eggs

100 m

1 mm

1 cm

10 cm

1m

10 m

100 m

What, Exactly, Is a Cell?

All cells start life with a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and a region
of DNA which, in eukaryotic cells only, is enclosed by a nucleus.

Cell (Plasma) Membrane

Outermost component of a cell
Functions
Selective barrier
Encloses cytoplasm
Extracellular
Intracellular

CELL MEMBRANE

The Fluid Mosaic Model

Considered as a two-dimensional fluid of mixed composition
1972: Jonathan Singer and Garth Nicolson
Components:
Phospholipids (polar and non-polar)
Cholesterol (less permeable; stabilize membrane)
Membrane Proteins
Glycocalyx (cell coat)
Carbohydrates + proteins = glycoproteins
Carbohydrates + lipids = glycolipids

Membrane
Lipids

Membrane
Proteins
Membrane
Carbohydrates

The Fluid Mosaic Model

Lipid bilayer balloon filled with fluid
Structural foundation of cell membranes
Mainly phospholipids arranged tail-to-tail
in a bilayer

 Polar Regions
Heads
Hydrophilic
Exposed to water
Non-polar Regions
Tails
Hydrophobic
Away from water

The Fluid Mosaic Model

The Fluid Mosaic Model

Fatty Acid
Tails

The Fluid Mosaic Model

Phospholipid Molecules
Polar Heads

Membrane Proteins
Transport Proteins
Passively or actively assist ions or
molecules across a membrane
Enzymes
Speed up chemical processes
Adhesion Proteins
Help cells stick together
Recognition Proteins
Tag cells as self
Receptor Proteins
Bind to a particular substance
outside the cell

The Fluid Mosaic Model

Membrane Lipids: Cholesterol and Glycolipids

Membrane Proteins and Transmembrane Proteins

Channel Pore and Peripheral Proteins

Membrane Carbohydrate (Glycocalyx) and Glycoprotein

MOVEMENT
THROUGH THE
CELL MEMBRANE

Maintaining Homeostasis
Maintenance of relatively constant internal environment despite fluctuations in
the external environment

For metabolism to work, a cell

must keep its internal
composition stable even
when conditions outside are
greatly different.

Selectively Permeability of Cell Membranes

Membrane property that allows some substances in and keep others out
Enzymes, glycogen and potassium: high concentrations INSIDE
Sodium, calcium and chloride: high concentrations OUTSIDE

WAYS MOLECULES PASS THROUGH CELL

MEMBRANE
1.

Directly through (DIFFUSION)

Small molecules

2. Membrane channels

proteins

3. Carrier molecules

4.

Bind to molecules, transport and drop

off
Glucose

Vesicles

Can transport a variety of materials

Fuse with cell membrane

Na+

K+

K+ leak
channel
(always open)

Gated Na+
channel (closed)

Gated Na+
channel
(open)

Diffusion
Net movement of molecules or ions from a region of higher concentration
to a region of lower concentration within a solvent
At equilibrium: uniform distribution of molecules
Terminologies:
Solution
Any mixture of liquids, gases, or solids in which the substances are uniformly
distributed with no clear boundary between the substances

Solute
Dissolves in a solvent to form a solution

Solvent
Predominant liquid or gas

Diffusion
1.

2.

3.

Lipid-soluble molecules diffuse

directly through the plasma
membrane
Most non-lipid-soluble molecules
and ions do not diffuse through
the plasma membrane
Some specific non-lipid-soluble
molecules and ions pass through
membrane channels or other
transport proteins

Diffusion
1.

2.
3.

Lipid-soluble molecules diffuse

directly through the plasma
membrane
Most non-lipid-soluble molecules
and ions do not diffuse through
the plasma membrane
Some specific non-lipid-soluble
molecules and ions pass through
membrane channels or other
transport proteins

Diffusion
1.

2.
3.

Lipid-soluble molecules diffuse

directly through the plasma
membrane
Most non-lipid-soluble molecules
and ions do not diffuse through
the plasma membrane
Some specific non-lipid-soluble
molecules and ions pass through
membrane channels or other
transport proteins

Diffusion

Mediated Transport Mechanisms

Facilitated Diffusion
Diffusion with aid of a carrier molecule
Requires no ATP

Active Transport
Moves substances from low to high concentration
Requires ATP

Copyright McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Na+K+ pump
1 Three sodium ions (Na+) and adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) bind to the
sodiumpotassium (Na+K+) pump.

Na+
ATP

Na+K+ pump
changes shape
(requires energy).

Na+
K+

2 The ATP breaks down to adenosine diphosphate

(ADP) and a phosphate (P) and releases energy.
That energy is used to power the shape change in the
Na+K+ pump.

P
2
ADP
3 The Na+K+ pump changes shape, and the Na+ are
transported across the membrane and into the
extracellular fluid.

3
K+ 4

Na+

4 Two potassium ions (K+) bind to the Na+K+ pump.

5 The phosphate is released from the Na+K+ pump

binding site.

P
Na+K+ pump
resumes original
shape.

6 The Na+K+ pump changes shape, transporting K+

across the membrane and into the cytoplasm. The
Na+K+ pump can again bind to Na+ and ATP.

K+

Carrier
molecule
Na+K+
pump

Na+
2

Glucose

K+
Na+
Glucose

1 A Na+K+ pump maintains a concentration of Na+ that is higher outside

the cell than inside.

2 Na+ move back into the cell by a carrier molecule that also moves glucose.
The concentration gradient for Na+ provides the energy required to move
glucose, by cotransport, against its concentration gradient.

Osmosis and Tonicity

Concentration of water depends on the total number of molecules or
ions dissolved in it
Osmosis
Net diffusion of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane
between two fluids with different water concentrations

Osmotic Pressure
Force required to prevent movement of water across cell membrane

Osmosis and Tonicity

Osmosis and Tonicity

Tonicity
Describes relative concentrations of solutes in fluids separated
by a selectively permeable membrane
Hypotonic
Hypertonic
Isotonic

Osmosis and Tonicity

Endocytosis
Process that brings
materials into cell using
vesicles
Two Types
Phagocytosis
Cell eating (solid
particles)

Pinocytosis
Cell drinking (liquid
particles)

Exocytosis
Process that carries materials out of the cell

CELL
STRUCTURES

Organelles: specialized metabolic functions

Cytoplasm: holds the organelles

Nucleus: INFORMATION CENTER

Nucleus
Double membrane
Contains DNA
Functions
Directs chemical reactions in cells
Transcribe (DNA to RNA)

translates into proteins

Stores genetic information and transfers during cell division

Nuclear envelope: GATEWAY TO THE NUCLEUS

Nuclear pores: surface of nucleus

Nuclear Envelope

Edge of nucleus or outer boundary

Nuclear membrane
Double membrane
Controls the passage of molecules

Pores, receptors and transport proteins in the nuclear envelope

control the movement of molecules into and out of the cell

Chromosomes: GENETIC CONTAINERS

Contains hereditary information (genes)

Nucleoplasm: inner mass of nucleus

Chromatin: genetic material in non-dividing
cell
Combination of DNA and protein

During cell division, each chromosomes coil

tightly, making it visible through a light
microscope

Nucleolus: PRE-ASSEMBLY POINT FOR

RIBOSOMES
Non-membrane bound in
the nucleoplasm
Present in non-dividing
cells
2-3 or thousands
Contains proteins and RNA
Assembly of ribosomes is
completed after leaving the
nucleus through the pores
of the nuclear envelope

Ribosomes
Produce proteins; membrane-bound and free

1 Ribosomal proteins, produced in the

cytoplasm, are transported through
nuclear pores into the nucleolus.

rRNA
Nucleolus

2 rRNA, most of which is produced in the

nucleolus, is assembled with ribosomal
proteins to form small and large ribosomal
subunits.

Nucleus

3 The small and large ribosomal subunits

leave the nucleolus and the nucleus
through nuclear pores.

DNA
(chromatin)

4 The small and large subunits, now in the

cytoplasm, combine with each other and
with mRNA during protein synthesis.

Nuclear pore
3
Large
ribosomal
unit

Ribosomal
proteins from
cytoplasm

Small
ribosomal
unit

mRNA
Ribosome

Endoplasmic Reticulum: PRODUCTION &

TRANSPORT

Continuous system of sacs and tubes

Extension of nuclear envelope
Storage for enzymes and proteins
Point of attachment for ribosomes
Rough ER: protein production
Smooth ER: no ribosomes
Lipid synthesis; detoxification; Ca storage

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

Golgi Apparatus: PACKAGING, SORTING, EXPORT

1898 Camille Golgi

Closely, packed stacks of membranes
Modifies polypeptides and lipids
Sorts and packages the finished products into transport vesicles
Distributes proteins and lipids
Produces lysosomes

Cisternae: flattened sacks (fluid reservoirs)

Apparatus or complex: collection of membranes associated with ER

Golgi Apparatus

Secretory Vesicle
Small, membraneenclosed, sac-like
organelle
Contains enzymes or
secretory products
Site of intracellular
degradation
Stores, transports or
degrades its contents

Lysosome: DIGESTION AND DEGRADATION

Membrane-bound spherical organelles
Vesicle with enzymes for intracellular digestion (acid hydrolases)
Digest organic molecules

Mitochondria: POWERHOUSE
Double-membrane
Produces ATP
Contains folds (cristae)

Peroxisome
Enzyme-filled vesicle that breaks down amino acids,
fatty acids, and toxic substances

Vacuole: CELL MAINTENANCE

Membrane-surrounded
Sac in the cytoplasm
Fluid-filled
Isolates or disposes wastes, debris, or toxic materials
Storage site of food
Pumps water out of cell (contractile vacuole)

Cytoskeleton
Framework of cell
Dynamic network of protein filaments
Interacts with accessory proteins (motor proteins)

Functions
Support
Holds organelles in place (organize)
Enable cell to change shape

Cytoskeletal Elements
Microtubules
Hollow filaments of tubulin subunits
Dynamic scaffolding; structural support
Microfilaments
Reinforcing cytoskeletal elements; movement
Fibers of actin subunits
Strengthen/change shape of cell
Intermediate Elements
Lock cells and tissues together
Most stable; maintain shape

Cytoskeletal Elements

Microfilaments

Intermediate Filaments

Microtubules

Cilia
Short, hair-like structures
Project from the plasma
membrane of some cells
Propels materials across
cells surface
Moved by organized arrays of
microtubules
Example: clears pathways
from airways

Microvilli
Shorter than cilia
Increases surface area

Flagella
Whip-like structure
Propels cell through fluid
Sperm cell

8
9

1
3
6

7
4

Fig. 3-9, p. 52

CELL DIVISION

Cell Division
Formation of 2 daughter cells from a single parent
cell
Each cell (except sperm and egg) contains 46
chromosomes
Egg and sperm contain 23 chromosomes

What is a Chromosome?
Thread-like structures inside the nucleus of
animals and plants
Each is made up of:
Protein
Single molecule of DNA
chroma (color) and soma (body)
Cell structures strongly stained by
colorful dyes

What do Chromosomes do?

Unique structure:
DNA tightly wrapped around histones
For an organism to grow and function properly,
cells must constantly divide to produce new cells to
replace old, worn-out cells.

Ensures DNA is accurately copied and

distributed

Mitosis
Cell division that occurs in all cells except sex cells
Forms 2 daughter cells
Components
Chromatids: 2 strands of chromosomes
genetically identical
Centromere: where 2 chromatids are connected
Centrioles: small organelle composed of 9 triplets

What are Centromeres?

Constricted region of linear
chromosomes
Center or at the end of the
chromosome
Help chromosomes aligned properly
during cell division
Attachment site for sister
chromatids

What are Telomeres?

Repetitive stretches of DNA
Protect the ends of linear chromosomes
Lose a bit of their DNA every time a cell divides
When telomere is gone cell cannot replicate
WBCs have special enzyme
Role in cancer
Do not lose telomeres but help to fuel the
uncontrolled growth of malignant cells

How many chromosomes do humans have?

Do males have different chromosomes than

females?

Human Chromosome

Mitosis
Nuclear division that maintains the chromosome number
Basis of:
Body growth
Tissue repair and replacement

Cell cycle starts when new cell forms, & ends when the cell
reproduces

Cell Cycle
Series of events from the time a cell forms until its
cytoplasm divides
Three Phases
Interphase
Mitosis
Cytoplasmic Division

Interphase
Most of cells activities occur
DNA replication
G1
1st interval (gap) of growth before
DNA replication

S
Interval of synthesis (DNA
replication)

G2
2nd interval; cell prepares to divide
Make proteins for mitosis

Stages in Mitosis: Prophase

Chromatin condenses into chromosomes
Centrioles move to opposite ends
The chromosomes become
visible as distinct structures
as they condense further.
Microtubules assemble
and move one of the two
centrosomes to the opposite
side of the nucleus, and the
nuclear envelope breaks up.

Stages in Mitosis: Metaphase

Chromosomes align

All of the chromosomes are

aligned
midway between the
4 Metaphase
spindle poles. Microtubules attach
each chromatid to one of the
spindle poles, and its sister to the
opposite pole.

Stages in Mitosis: Anaphase

Chromatids separate to form 2 sets of chromosomes
Chromosomes move toward the centrioles
Motor proteins
moving along spindle microtubules
drag the chromatids toward the
spindle poles, and the sister
chromatids separate. Each sister
chromatid is now a separate
chromosome.

Stages in Mitosis: Telophase

Chromosomes disperse
Nuclear envelopes and nucleoli form
Cytoplasm divides to form 2 cells
The chromosomes reach the
spindle poles and
decondense. A nuclear
envelope forms around
each cluster. Mitosis is over.