Grounding and bonding in commercial buildings

An understanding of the basic operations between a grounded and an

ungrounded electrical system is necessary for matching the appropriate
grounding topology to the electrical system performance .

There are various benefits for grounding and bonding ac transmission and
distribution power systems. The basis for selection of a given grounding
system type depends on its ability to provide personnel safety and equipment
protection. Primarily, the electric power industry is concerned with reducing
shock and flash hazards to personnel working with electrical systems, limiting
damages to the electrical system components due to transient over voltages,
and minimizing interruption to the commercial or industrial processes that the
electrical system supports.
Based on these criteria, the prevailing grounding design philosophy is to
provide a grounded system over an ungrounded one for satisfying these
objectives. Nevertheless, an understanding of the basic operation of each
type of system is necessary for matching the appropriate grounding topology
to the electrical system performance. Commercial buildings, with most of their
equipment operating at 600 V and less, seem to have standardized on a solid
grounding and bonding approach. Proper application of this approach is done
through the lens of the National Electrical Code.

Reasons for grounded and ungrounded systems

According to the NEC, there are two main purposes for grounding the
electrical ac system: one is to stabilize the system voltage to earth during
normal operating conditions by providing an earths reference frame for the
system; the other is to maintain within acceptable limits, excess voltages on
the system due to lightning, line surges, and incidental contact with higher
voltages. These two reasons allow the design engineer to meet the two
primary goals of equipment protection and personnel safety for the electrical
system. A third goal for grounding is to allow the processes supported by the
electrical system to continue in the presence of a faulted condition. This is
usually achieved by either an ungrounded system or by application of a
specialized form of grounding (high-resistance grounding).

Power systems in the 1950s tended to be ungrounded, 3-phase, 3-wire, with

delta transformer and delta generator configuration. The main benefit of this
grounding configuration is that it allows a single bolted phase-to-ground fault
to operate indefinitely without damage at the faulted location, and without
tripping of a protective over current device. This provides continuity of service
while the faulted conductor is located, albeit with shock hazard risk to
personnel. However, the majority of ground faults are not the bolted type, but
the low-level arcing (re-striking) type. These re-striking ground faults, because
of their relatively low fault currents, can go undetected by ground-fault
monitoring equipment. The danger here is that the re-striking ground faults
produce escalating transient over voltages on the conducting system
insulation. If left unchecked, the voltage stress on the system insulation can
lead to a double line-to-ground fault, which would result in the unwanted
tripping of the protective over current devices. An even worse scenario would

be the destructive arc-flash hazard consequences. For this reason,

ungrounded systems are less likely to be constructed now, and are more likely
to be upgraded with some type of an impedance grounded system.
There are various points on the electrical system available for grounding, such
as the midpoint of a single-phase transformer, corner of the delta windings, or
the center of the wye windings. The points that are considered the neutral
point of the system are most commonly used for grounding. The neutral point
affects, and is in turn affected by, the other three phases identically on a
balanced 3-phase system. By its nature, this point presents the best
opportunity to realize the two main purposes for grounding the electric power
system. The grounding methods described below involve connection to the
neutral point of a wye system (generator or transformer). In general, where
neutral points for grounding are not available on the generator or transformer
windings as in a delta connection, grounding transformers such as zigzag or
wye-delta transformers are used. These grounding transformers effectively
create a neutral connection that can then be grounded.
Types of grounding
High-resistance grounding (HRG),
With its application in the voltage range of 480 V to 13.8 kV, provides a
means for limiting the problems with transient over voltages associated with
ungrounded systems while still providing the benefits of service continuity. The
ideal voltage range is 5 kV and less. In general, increasing the ground-fault
current flow improves overvoltage control but elevates the point of fault
damage. Conversely, decreasing the ground-fault current elevates
overvoltage but decreases point-of-fault damage. Correct application of HRG
in the medium-voltage (MV) range of 2.4 to 13.8 kV would require a maximum
limit on the single line-to-ground, point-of-fault ground-fault current to a value
below 7 amp. In addition, the inherent line-to-ground capacitive charging
current must be less than or equal to the current through the grounding
resistor. Mathematically, the ground-fault current is the vectorial sum of the
grounding resistor current and the capacitive charging current. The capacitive
charging current is a function of the electrical system that must be initially
estimated. With these quantities and conditions satisfied, the range of HRG
ground-fault currents can be calculated.

Low-resistance grounding (LRG)

Schemes are designed to limit ground-fault currents in the range of 100 to
400 amps on systems with voltage ranges of 480 V to 15 kV. With this
increase ground-fault current magnitude, the LRG aim is to eliminate
overvoltage transients at the expense of increasing the point-of-fault, groundfault damages. In order to minimize these damages, however, a system of
protective devices is formed as part of the LRG scheme. Ideally, the fault is
isolated while the rest of the electrical system continues to function. At the
higher magnitude of ground-fault currents, the capacitive charging current to
ground has very little impact on sizing the grounding resistor. This resistance
is then simply the line-to-neutral voltage across the grounding resistor divided
by the ground-fault current.
Reactance grounding (RG)
It is another alternative used on MV systems in the range of 2.4 to 15kV. With
this grounding scheme, an inductor is used to limit the flow of ground-fault
currents. It has been shown that reactance grounded systems produce
transient over voltages at much higher ground-fault currents than resistive
grounded systems. In order to limit the transient over voltages to acceptable
limits, the resulting ground-fault current could be as much as 60% of the 3phase bolted fault. Since this is much higher than the 400-amp limit for LRG at
the same voltage range, reactance is not as commonly used in the electrical
industry, except for tuned reactance grounding.
Ground-fault neutralizer (GFN)
It is another form of reactance grounding known as tuned reactance
grounding. As the name implies, the inductive reactance is tuned to the
ungrounded phase natural capacitive charging current to ground. This tuning
effect by the inductive reactance essentially cancels (neutralizes) the current
contribution from the capacitive charging current. This leaves a small portion
of the ground-fault current that is essentially resistive in nature. This resistive
neutral-to-ground current is in phase with the neutral to ground voltage. The
benefit of this phase unison is that an arcing fault to ground is less likely to be
sustained by the voltage when the ac current and voltage reach their zero
value simultaneously. The GFN application is similar to the HRG application,
in that the ground fault is allowed to persist so that the electrical service is
continued. Detection of the fault is provided by a coordinated set of groundfault relays. GFN drawback is similar to RG in that reactance grounding in
general tends to increase transient over voltages. Plus, the grounding circuitry

has to be re-tuned after any switching arrangement is made to the electrical

system.
Solid grounding (SG)
This was usually the solution more than 60 years ago when engineers were
looking for an alternative to address the problem of transient over voltages
due to arcing ground faults on ungrounded systems. Even though its
application was not as successful in the 2.4 to 13.8 kV range due to high
point-of-fault energy, SG is consistently applied at voltages below 600 V even
today. A solidly grounded neutral system will produce the maximum fault
current for a given faulted condition. Therefore, it provides the best opportunity
for early detection of arc-flash hazards on the electrical systems. The over
current device coordination which is an essential part of the SG system
ensures that only the faulted circuit is isolated while the rest of the system
continues to function.
Boundary (grounding zone) of the electrical system
The ground-fault effects of the various grounding schemes outlined above are
confined within specific areas of the electrical systems known as grounding
zones or grounding systems. The boundaries of these grounding systems are
created by demarcations such as the primary delta windings of transformers,
or the dc point of ac/dc inverters and converters. These systems that are
magnetically coupled together, or electrically isolated, except through some
form of equipment bonding are considered separate systems.
In Figure 1, the 480 V, 3-phase system includes the primary delta windings of
Systems 2 and 4, the ungrounded wye connected motor, the solidly grounded
wye-wye transformer, the ungrounded delta winding source generator, and
grounded wye secondary of the source transformer. System 2 has an
ungrounded delta transformer secondary, and an ungrounded single-phase
transformer primary. System 3 has an ungrounded single-phase transformer
secondary, and System 4 has a grounded wye transformer secondary.
When separate systems develop their own bonding and grounding
connections, they are called separately derived systems (SDSs). Power
sources such as transformers and generators are usually configured as SDSs.
However, when they are electrically connected to another system, they
become part of that system and are classified as non-SDSs. Transformer T1
and generator G in Ground System 1, Figure 1 are considered non-SDS.

Commercial building transformer solid grounding

Commercial building transformers are usually connected as SDSs. The main
characteristic of the SDS is the bonding of the grounded neutral conductor to
the bonded equipment enclosure or to the bonded ground bus. For
transformers, there are two configurations for making this neutral-to-ground
solid connection. The first configuration has this connection at the transformer
itself (see connection A at transformer in Figure 2).

The second configuration has this neutral-to-ground connection at the first

disconnecting means downstream of the transformer (see connection C at
208 V panel in Figure 2). This second grounding and bonding configuration is
identical to what is required for commercial building service entrance
equipment that is served by a utility transformer. In this case, the neutral-toground connection is called the main bonding jumper. A third bonding
connection B is also indicated. The three A, B, C connections cannot be used
simultaneously as this would establish a parallel path for the grounded
conductor. However, any two of the three A, B, C connections will be a code
compliant installation based on 250.30(A)(1) NEC. In general, the building
single transformer grounding and bonding installation can be expanded to
multiple transformer arrangements where there are several transformers per
floor of a multistory building. This is done by extending the common grounding
electrode conductor either vertically through floors, or horizontally within each
floor.

Commercial building generator solid grounding

Commercial building generators grounding and bonding connections can be
done as either an SDS or a non-SDS. The choice of which configuration to
use is determined by the choice of the transfer equipment that will transfer
power connections from the utility to building generator(s) upon loss of utility
power. If the transfer equipment (switch) allows switching of its neutral
connections (i.e., 4-pole), then the generator connected to the transfer switch
has to be connected as an SDS. This arrangement will ensure conformity to
the safety performance requirements of 250.6(B), NEC (see Figure 3). If the
transfer switch does not allow switching of its neutral connections (i.e., 3pole), then the generator has to be connected as a non-SDS, to again comply
with 250.6(B), NEC (see Figure 4). Even though there is no neutral-to-ground
connection at generator G2, the generator is not considered ungrounded. This
is because the neutral connection of the generator, while not connected to
ground at the generator itself, is connected to the ground at the service
entrance equipment MDP via the transfer switch. Also, the frame of the
generator is grounded with an auxiliary grounding electrode in compliance
with 250.54, NEC. This grounding electrode provides the same benefit at the
generator that grounding an electrical system will provide.

Multiple generators serving a commercial building tend to be connected as

SDSs. This is so because of the requirements for ground-fault devices at
facilities large enough to require multiple generators. For instance, proper
functioning of these ground-fault devices necessitate that the generators be
connected as SDSs. Generators connected in parallel pose special problems
in the form of grounding methods and equipment protection. Suffice to say
here that matching the electrical parameters of these paralleled generators

minimizes circulating third harmonic currents that can affect ground-fault over
current devices.
Paralleled generators grounding can be implemented with a common neutral
bus connected to a single ground bus, or with individual neutral buses
connected to their respective ground buses. In order to use the parallel lineup
with the common neutral bus, the switchboard with generator over current
devices has to be adjacent to the generators themselves. This is because the
neutral-to-ground connection on the SDS has to be at the generators or at the
first disconnecting means downstream of the generators (250.30(A)(1) NEC).
By this code requirement, if the generator switchboard were to be located
remotely from the generators themselves, then the neutral-to-ground bond
would have to be at the integral over current device of each generator. It must
be stressed here that this application of solid grounding for generators
described above is not common practice for generators with voltages above
600 V. This is because the single line-to-ground faults under solid grounding
at these higher voltages tend to be greater than the 3-phase bolted faults that
generator manufacturers design their generators to handle.

Regardless of whether generators or transformers are grounded as SDSs or

non-SDSs, if they serve a specific commercial facility, then all grounding
electrodes are required (250.50 NEC) to be bonded together to form a
grounding electrode system. This increases the integrity of the building
grounding system while not violating the requirements for different grounding
zones because the current carrying conductors are not interconnected
between grounding zones.

Conclusion
There are several schemes for grounding and bonding transformers and
generators. They include ungrounded, impedance grounded, and solidly
grounded. The impedance grounded systems are sub-divided into high
resistance, low resistance, reactance, and tuned reactance. Ungrounded
systems, which at one time were one of the most widely used grounding
systems, are currently the least used grounding method. The ungrounded
system is designed to allow the first ground fault to exist indefinitely to
facilitate service continuity while the fault is located. Unfortunately, the system
under this condition, tended to develop transient over voltages which led to
equipment and conductor insulation failures.
In an effort to strike a balance between service continuity and the reduction of
transient over voltages, other impedance grounding schemes and solid
grounding were developed. At voltages above 600 V, solid grounding is not as
widely used because of the higher point-of-fault energy levels. However, at
600 V and less, solid grounding is the de facto standard for commercial
buildings transformers and generators. At this lower voltage, solid grounding,
with its inclusive coordinated over current devices, is designed to quickly
isolate ground-faults. In this way, only the faulted portion of the system is out
of service, while the remainder of the system continues to operate.
Explanation of terms
A grounded electrical system is one in which at least one conductor from
the system, or point on the conductive system, is connected to either earth or
some other conducting body that serves in place of the earth. This connection
can be with or without an intermediary impedance device. With an extremely
low-impedance device, the system is said to be solidly or effectively grounded.
With an impedance device, the system can be either resistively or reactively
grounded.
A bonded electrical system is one in which the non-current-carrying
conductive materials of the electrical system are connected together in such a
way that they present a low-impedance path for ground-fault currents. This
bonded connection permits phase-to-ground-fault currents on the grounded
system to flow back to the electrical source for subsequent safety actions by
the system. Because of the interconnectivity of a grounded and bonded
system, a bonded system also aids the objective of a grounded system.

An ungrounded electrical system has no direct connection between the

system conductors and earth or ground, except through the very high naturally
occurring reactance due to the line-to-ground capacitive coupling. Regardless
of the names implication, the NEC still requires the conductive equipment
enclosures of an ungrounded system to be grounded for the same reason a
grounded system is required to be grounded. This code also requires that an
ungrounded system be bonded similarly to a grounded system to provide a
low-impedance path for phase-to-phase fault currents to circulate back to the
source.
Ground-fault currents are unwanted flow of electrical currents on the
electrical system due to unintentional connection between an ungrounded
conductor of an electric circuit and earth. Ground faults on average make up
95% of all faults on the electrical systems, with the most common type of
ground faults being the arcing type. All forms of grounding and bonding
attempt to minimize or eliminate ground faults. Therefore, the various
grounding methods mentioned will be in the context of treating ground-fault
currents.