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College of Pharmacy
Pharmacognosy Lab
Crude drugs are whole plants and animals and anatomical parts
thereof which have not undergone any process or treatment other than what
is essential to their proper packaging and storage. These are vegetable or
animal drugs which consist of natural substances that have undergone no
other process than collection and crying.
Drug constituents are chief constituents and their derivatives
obtained from drugs of biological origin or prepared synthetically or
semisynthetically.
Derivatives or Extractives are substances or mixture of substances
present in crude drugs which are separated by various means and are
employed in a more specific manner.
Natural products are any of the following:
Plant juices, exudates, secretions and extracts. e.g. aloe, acacia,
orange oil, etc.
Animal secretions and extracts. e.g. chymotrypsin, gelatin
Microbial extracts and products. e.g. xanthan gum, sutilains
Biologics are (a) products composed of antigenic matter or antibody
preparations capable of developing a state of immunity in the patient. e.g.
smallpox vaccine (b) diagnostic aids. e.g. tuberculin (c) related to human
blood. e.g. platelets, whole blood.
To evaluate a drug means to identify it and to determine its quality, purity
and pharmacological value. The evaluation of a drug involves a number of
methods which may be classified as follows:
1. Organoleptic evaluation makes use of the five senses.
The
appearance, feel (texture), smell (odor), taste and sound of materials
are noted. This evaluative tool is used for natural product and crude
drugs.
6. reagents.
These reactions
may even differentiate the
same
class
of
plant
constituents.
7. Biological
evaluation
determines the effectiveness
of the plant constituent. Test
animals are employed to
establish its safety and
efficacy.
MICROSCOPIC ANALYSIS
microscopic characteristics and
histological cross-sections are
important.
Microscopes
are
used
to
observe hairs, vessels, esclereids,
stoma and acellular-like crystals
and grains of starch. This is used
when macroscopic evaluation is not
enough
to
differentiate
drug
products. (e.g. Histology for fresh
samples, particle evaluation for
powdered samples, etc.)
PHYSICAL
ANALYSIS
Humidity
Ash content/acid insoluble
ash content
Density
Refractive
index/optical
rotation
Foam index
Solubility
Melting point/boiling point
Other tests
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
Phytochemical screening
Minerals
and
constituents
other
Confirmation tests
INSTRUMENTAL METHODS
Chromatographic
IR
NMR
BIOLOGICAL
Toxicological test
Pharmacological tests
- In vitro
- In vivo
ASH DETERMINATION
The ash content of a crude drug is generally taken to be the residue
remaining after incineration. The organic components of a crude drug are
combustible. Thus, the ash represents the inorganic salts naturally occurring
in the drug and adhering to it. These inorganic substances have little value
for purposes for evaluation. It may also contain the inorganic matter as
fraudulent adulterants to increase the weight of the crude drug. Different
materials would have different ash contents, thus a change in the ash
content of a crude drug may establish its identity and purity. The ash or
residue remaining after incineration of organic compound is a measure of the
amount of inorganic matter present as impurity. Addition of hot water is
employed for the removal of more polar components. Alcohol may also be
added and ignited. Usually what is left in the total ash are mainly carbonates,
phosphates, silicates and silica.
The total ash is the residue remaining after incineration. The acid
insoluble ash is the part of the total ash which is insoluble in diluted
hydrochloric acid.
MOISTURE CONTENT
Excessive water contained in drugs (e.g. aloes, gelatin, gums) are very uneconomical, and
possibly may also activate enzymes with a suitable temperature, causing the proliferation of
unwanted living organisms. Most vegetable drugs contain all essential food requirements for
molds, insects, and mites to cause deterioration rapidly once infected or infiltrated.
Loss on drying
Loss on drying is employed by the USP and BP/EP principally due to
small amounts of other volatile materials that contribute to the weight of a crude
drug or sample. These materials qualify as volatile in temperatures of 100-105C,
and the sample is dried until it reaches constant weight. Special considerations are
applied upon materials which require volatile substances such as balsams.
PHYTOCHEMICALS
Plants produce a vast number of substances of varying chemical structures.
These constituents may be present all throughout the plant tissue but may
also be stored in certain plant parts. There are two main groups of plant
constituents (phytochemicals)
Primary metabolites- these are relatively abundant in plants but
are of lower value. These include carbohydrates, proteins and
lipids.