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S.I. unit
Watt or J.s-1
m2
K.m -1
W. K -1 .m -1
non-S.I. unit
Btu/hr
ft 2
F.ft -1
Btu.hr -1 .ft -1 .F -1
Unit Conversion Factor:
1 Watt = 1 J.s -1 = 3.414 Btu.hr -1
1 Btu = 1054 Joules
For isotropic materials and steady state conditions, the
Fourier equation can be generalized as:
x is the
= gradient
y
vector
molecular interactions
z
q
= k T - sign accounts for heat
A
transfer from hot to cold
k=ke+ki
free electrons In most solids, the principal mode of thermal energy
assimilation is by increase in vibrational energy of the
atoms. Atoms in solids are constantly vibrating at very
high frequencies and with relatively small amplitudes. The
atomicvibrations of adjacent atoms are coupled through the
atomic bonding. These vibrations are coordinated in such
a way that traveling lattice waves are produced. (These
may be thought of as elastic waves or simply sound waves
(short wavelength and high frequency), which propagate
through a crystal at the velocity of sound. The vibrational
thermal energy for an ordered material consist of a series
of elastic waves (with a distribution of frequencies). Only
certain energies are allowed (quantization of the
vibrational energy). A single quantum of vibrational
energy is called a phonon. Note that phonon waves can
scatter free electrons during electronic conduction, thus
they control the temperature dependence of electronic
conduction
In metals, the free electron mechanism of heat transport is
much more efficient than the phonon mechanism, because
phonons are more easily scattered than free electrons and
electrons ahave higher velocities.
Thermal energy associated with phonons is transported in
d: molecular diameter
k b : Boltzmann constant
k , : related to Lennard-Jones potential
k3bT
1
3/2
d
2
1.9891 10
k
Anisotropicity of the Thermal Conductivity
m
2
4
In general, in crystalline materials, the simplified Fourier
equation is not rigorously valid asthe thermal conductivity
may be different in different directions in the crystal.
T
M
see viscosity
section for
discussion on k
Chapman-Erskog theory accounts better than the Kinetic
Theory for the temperature dependence of interactions.
The scalar k must be replaced by the tensor k (3x3). The
Tensor is symmetrical (Onsagers principle)
k 11
k = k 12
k 13
k 21
k 22
k 23
k1 0
k =0k2
00
k 31
k 32
k 33
0
k3
where: -k ij = rate of heat transfer per
unit cross section parallel to the axis
defined by i from a temperature
A = 2 rL
For the steady state case, q r is constant
To
ro
= 2 kL dT q r ln = 2 kL ( T o T i )
ri
r
Ti
ri
ro
dr
qr
qr=
2 kL ( T i T o ) 2 3.14 24.8 10 10
=
= 65,000 Btu/hr
r
1.9
ln
ln o
1.5
ri
The heat flux is q/A (rate of heat loss per unit area)
qr
65,000
= 16, 700 Btu/hr.ft 2
1.5
Ai
10
12
65,000
qr
=
= 13,150 Btu/hr.ft 2
1.9
Ao
10
12
=Example Calculation #2
Convection
For steady state heat conduction through a wall with
dimensions and surface temperatures shown below, express:
1) the heat flow rate for a constant thermal conductivity k.
2) the heat flow rate, when the thermal conductivity of the
wall material varies linearly with temperature k = k 0 (1+T).
1)
T0
L TL
0T0
q x dx = kA dT
q x L = kA ( T L T 0 )
x
x=0
q x dx = kAdT
qx=
x=L
2)
TL
kA
(TLT0)
L
q x = k 0 ( 1 + T ) A
dT
dx
kA
qx=01+(T0+TL)[TLT0]
L
2
Convection Heat Transfer: involves the exchange of heat
between a fluid and a surface or an interface.
Two kinds of convection exist:
Forced convection in which fluid motion past a surface
is caused by an external agency
Free convection in which density changes in the fluid
which result from energy exchange lead to a natural
(i.e.unassisted) fluid motion.
Newton (1701) first expressed the basic rate equation for
convective heat transfer (Newtons law of cooling).
rate of convective
temperature
q = hA T surf T fluid
heat transfer (Btu/hr)
driving force
convective heat
area normal to the
transfer coefficient
direction of heat flow
(Btu.hr -1 .ft -2 .F -1 )
(
) Regardless of the flow phenomenon involved, it is known that
directly adjacent to the interface, the energy transfer mechanism is
that of conduction. The surface conductive layers of fluid control
the heat transfer rate and determine the value of h, which is
justifiably often called the film coefficient. The only difficulty in
describing convective phenomena lies in the evaluation of h.
If we write : q = KT
where K is the thermal conductance.
K convection = hA
2 kL
K conduction hollow cylinder =
Btu / hr.F
ro
ln
ri
kA
L
Range of values for h allows the convective mechanism
to be understood
mechanism
condensing water vapor
boiling water
forced convection (H 2 O)
forced convection (air)
free convection
h (Btu.hr -1 .ft -2 .F -1 )
1,000 to 20,000
500 to 5,000
50 to 3,000
5 to 100
1 to 10Example Calculations #3
Given the steel pipe with conditions described in Example #1, with
10F air surrounding the pipe and 210F steam flowing on the
inside, evaluate the convective heat transfer coefficients on each of
the pipe surfaces and indicate the operating mechanisms.