Summary Introduction To Offshore Engineering Oe4606 Complete Lecture 1 16

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Summary Introduction to Offshore Engineering (OE4606):

complete (lecture 1-16)
Introduction to Offshore Engineering (Technische Universiteit Delft)
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Introduction to Offshore Engineering

Lecture 1: Introduction to Offshore Engineering - Kraminski
Quiz
-
In general, the oil temperature and pressure in an reservoir is

o 200 and 100 bar
The deeper the hole, the closer to the centre of the earth higher temp and
higher pressure
- What is flowing from an oil reservoir
o Oil, gas, water and sand
- What are the modules on a deck for
o Prepare oil for transportation
Reducing pressure
Lowering temp
Separating gas from oil
Drying
Removing sand
Biological Origin
- Originally small marine animals that died and were buried under sediment on the (then) sea bed
- Transformed to hydrocarbons (oil and gas) by temperature and pressure in the earth
- Hydrocarbons float on water; they seep slowly upward
o Until trapped by an impervious boundary
o Most have seeped all the way to the surface
Reservoirs
- Oil and gas are stored in place of pore water in more or less porous and permeable (sand)stones
- The tops of reservoirs are obviously capped by impervious stone layers (otherwise the oil and
gas would continue to migrate upward)
How do we find it?
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The reservoir is present but it must be found first in order to develop it

History: wildcat drilling (in the hope of finding something good)
Present: seismic surveys localize earth formations amenable to providing hydrocarbon storage
and prove presence of hydrocarbons with exploration drilling
Exploration drilling
- Drill vertically into the top of the reservoir (usually)
- Greatest chance of hitting something useful
- Measure distance down; this calibrates the seismic map
o Drill hole to verify seismic profile, not to find oil
Pressure constant: oil well is very big
Pressure drops: bubble of water
- Measurements from hole to get reservoir quality
- Drill through the bottom of the reservoir to learn as much as possible about reservoir size
Production test (of discovered well)
- Short duration a few hours
- Measure flow rates and pressures
- Determines
o Quality of the hydrocarbons
o Estimate the ease of hydrocarbon recovery
o Rough estimate of volumes
Data for reservoir engineers
Reservoir Engineering
- Make a well plan which will optimally drain the reservoir
- Various well types:
o Vertical or deviated or even horizontal
- Various well purposes
o Oil or gas production
o Gas injection
o Water injection
What comes out of a well
- Oil
- Gas
o Dissolved in the oil in the reservoir. This comes out of solution as pressure decreases
while the oil gets higher in the production well)
- Water
o Sometimes even more than 95%
- Small amounts of solids
Not all gas is good
- Hydrocarbons, such as methane CH4 (good)
- Carbon dioxide, CO2
- CO2 mixes with water and produces carbonic acid H2CO3 which corrodes pipelines
- Hydrogen sulphide, H2S poisonous
Heavier oil components
- Asphaltines
o Produce asphalt and can make a rather stable emulsion when mixed with water. Hard to
separate and to pump. Can solidify if temperature gets below its pour point
temperature
- Parafines
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A wax that can be deposited on the inside of pipelines

Will seethe out of the oil and will grow on the inside of the pipe and block it so
you have to replace the pipe
o Pump fluids down to mix the oil to ensure that the parafine wont come out of the oil
and seethe into the pipe
- Too much sand in oil corrosion and the pipe wears out
Processing is done on production units
Top side processing
- Objectives
o Separate the desired product from all the rest
o Prepare the desired product for efficient export to a shore based market
o Get rid of wastes in an environmentally friendly way
Embillicals: draden met info voor de apparaten op de zeebodem
Offshore Platforms
- Fixed Platform (FP)
- Compliant Tower (CT)
- Tension Leg Platform (TLP)
- Mini-Tension Leg Platform (Mini-TLP)
- SPAR Platform (SP)
- Floating Production Systems (FPS)
- Shuttle Tanker
- Subsea System (SS)
- Floating Production Storage & Offloading (FPSO)
Fixed Platform (FP)
- A jacket
o A tall vertical section made of tubular steel members supported by piles driven into the
seabed
- With a deck placed on top, providing space for crew quarters, a drilling rig, and production
facilities
- The fixed platform is economically feasible for installation in water depths up to 500 meters
Compliant Tower (CT)
- Narrow flexible tower
- Piled foundation
- Conventional deck for drilling and production operations
- Unlike the fixed platform, the compliant tower withstands large lateral deflections
- Usually used in water depths between 300 and 700 meters
Tension Leg Platform (TLP)
- Floating structure held in place by vertical, tensioned tendons connected to the sea floor by pilesecured templates
- Tensioned tendons provide for the use of a TLP in a broad water depth range with limited
vertical motion
- The larger TLPs have been successfully deployed in water depths approaching 1300 meters
Mini-Tension Leg Platform (Mini-TLP)
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Floating mini-tension leg platform of relatively low cost

Developed for production of smaller deep-water reserves which would be uneconomic to
produce using more conventional deep-water production systems
It can also be used as a utility, satellite, or early production platform for larger deep-water
discoveries
The worlds first Mini-TLP was installed in the Gulf of Mexico I 1998
SPAR Platform (SP)

- Large diameter dingle vertical cylinder supporting a deck
- It has a typical fixed platform topside (surface deck with drilling and production equipment)
three types risers (production, drilling and export), and a hull which is moored using a stiff
mooring system of six to twenty lines anchored into the sea floor
- SPARs are presently used in water depths up to 1500 meters, although existing technology can
extend its use to water depths as great as 2500 meters
Floating Production Systems (FPS)
- A semi-submersible unit which is equipped with drilling and production equipment
- It is anchored in place with wire rope and chain, or can be dynamically positioned using rotating
thrusters
- Production from subsea wells is transported to the surface deck through production risers
designed to accommodate platform motion
- The FPS can be used in a range of water depths from 200 to 2500 meters
Floating Production Storage & Offloading (FPSO)
- Floating vessel used by the offshore oil and gas industry for the processing of hydrocarbons and
for storage of oil
- An FPSO vessel is designed to receive hydrocarbons produced from nearby platforms or subsea
template, process them and store oil unit it can be offloaded onto a tanker or, less frequently
transported through a pipeline
Subsea Systems (SS)
- Subsea production units least developed but, promising
Extra
- Jack-ups
- Offshore Wind Power Generators
Load on Offshore Structures
- Wind
- Waves
- Ice
- Currents
- Earthquakes
Decommissioning
-
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Lecture 2: Loads on Offshore Structures Kaminski

-
Fatigue
o Repair
o Failure
Response = output, load = action
Tendons= to hang things on
LNG= liquefied natural gas
CNG= compressed natural gas
Waves create responses
o Motions
o Responses
A physical quantity, such as motion, can be either load or response depending on considered
system
Static: s*x=P(t)
Kinematic: d*(dx/dt)+ s*x=P(t)
Dynamic: m*(dx/dt)+ d*(dx/dt)+ s*x=P(t)
o m= mass, d=damping, s=stiffness
Given loads can be classified as either static or dynamic depending on the system they act on. A
given system responds statically or dynamically depending on the loads acting on it
Loads
- Dead loads
o Gravity loads
Weight of structure
Weight of permanent equipment
Permanent ballast
Weight of tendons
o Hydrostatic loads
Hydrostatic pressures
Buoyancy force
Tendons pre-tension forces
- Live loads
o Gravity loads
Weight of non-permanent equipment
Oil, LNG, CNG, Fuel, Consumables
Crew
Furniture
o Operating loads
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Mooring and riser forces

Crane forces
Helicopter landing
Drilling and pipe laying forces
Machinery induced loads
Environmental loads
o Wind
Static (sustained) wind pressure
Dynamic (gust) wind
Vortex shredding
o Wave loads
Pressures due to wave diffraction
Flow induced pressures
Impact pressures (slamming, green water)
o Current loads
Static (sustained) current pressure
Vortex shredding
Submerged waves
o Ice loads
Icing
Drifting ice
Icebergs
o Chemical and bio loads
Corrosion
Marine growth
o Temperature loads
Sunshine radiation, flare radiation
Air and seawater temperature
Flare radiation
Motion & deformation loads
o Motion induced loads
Pressures due to wave radiation
Gravity (change of direction w.r.t. structure
Inertia loads
Tank pressures
Sloshing (coupled)
o Deformation loads
Displacements and rotations of module supports (coupled)
Differential settlements and uneven seabed
Accidental loads
o Fire
o Earthquake
o Collisions
o Dropped objects
o LNG spill
o Explosions
o Overloading
Construction, transit & installation loads
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Construction loads (@yard)

Support (docking) forces
Lifting
Transit loads
Towing forces
Support forces
Installation loads (@site)
Launching
Lifting
Wind loading
- Important
o Wind, waves & current define jointly the direction of loads on weathervaning offshore
structures
- Load combinations
o Sustained wind and extreme waves
o Gust wind only
Wave loading
- Hydrodynamically compact e.g. ship like structures
o Loads are produced by diffracted waves
- Hydrodynamically transparent e.g. jacket structures
o Flow loads Morisons equation
Quiz:
o
Valid for /D>5

D= member diameter
=wave length
Inertia force proportional to the particle acceleration
Drag force proportional to the square of the particle velocity
F = force per meter
u= velocity flow
The wave pressures used for stress analysis of ships hull are
Quasi-static
Acceleration is too slow to be dynamic
Morisonsequation: approximation
Is this monopile hydrodynamical
Depends on diameter/wave length ratio
Marine growth: close to the equator
o Weight
o Drag force
Punished twice
What is the temperature of LNG under 1 bar?
-160 C
Below 0, cold, think liquid nitrogen
Where do you keep it in the ship
o Calculation shrink coefficient 10^-5: steel
o Steel will break isolate ship
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Liquefy NG to minimize volume (about 600x) for easier

transport
There is a steel rode fixed between two rigid walls at 0C. The brittle tensile strength is
200MPa. At what temperature will the rode break due to its shrinkage
-100 C
Sloshing
- Moves the liquid heats the walls of the tank high pressures can destroy the membrane
- Facts about sloshing
o LNG carriers in operation since 1964
o About 350 ships built
o No accident
o We design, build, classify and operate
o Shell is building 3 billion US$ FLNG
- How to mitigate sloshing
o Prevent sloshing conditions
o Increase load carrying capacity
o Mitigate sloshing effects
o Reduce uncertainties
Quiz
- The maximum average impact pressure is with decreasing impact area? ^
o Increasing
- With increasing maximum average impact pressure the average rise time is
o Decreasing
Examples of hull loads
- Static (hours)
o Weight
o Hydrostatic pressures
o Thermal loading
- Quasi-static (seconds)
o Wave induced pressures
o Motion induced pressures
o Inertia forces due to motions
- Dynamic (milliseconds)
o Slamming
o Propeller induced pressures and vortices
o Explosions
FPSO as a beam
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Quiz:
-
Which waves () bend an FLNG (L) mostly?

o Waves with length =L
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Lecture 3: Fatigue of offshore structures Kaminski

Fatigue
- Fatigue is the progressive and localized structural damage of a material subjected to cyclic
loading
- Cracks
- FPSO bottom wing tank connection
- Why is fatigue dangerous
o Each failure due to fatigue actually fracture
o Disasters initiated by 1 failure but not caused by only 1 failure (domino effect)
- Effects
o Increases risk of fracture
o Changes load paths
o May cause leakage
o May initiate domino effect
- How to avoid
Structural design general
All possible failure mechanisms

- Yielding
- Buckling
- Fracture
- Delamination
- Fatigue
- Corrosion
Fatigue lifetime
Welding
Fatigue general
- Damage =(stress range)
- Damage = number of stress cycles
- 20 years = 100 millions of wave (stress) cycles
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Damage is cumulative
Moderate stresses cycles are important
In general, fatigue capacity of structural details does not depend on steel grade and yield stress
Fatigue damage
- Miners rule
- After 24 years fatigue damage of FLNG=0.5 double stresses
o How many years can she operate now?
3 years
Design tips for structured details
- Avoid stress concentrations no stiffness jumps
- Place welds away of stress concentration areas
- Use adequate class of details
- Consider weld dressing
- Protect against corrosion
Conclusion
- You know how to calculate fatigue lifetime of a structural detail when fatigue loading is known
What is
- Fatigue loading
- Fatigue capacity
- Fatigue damage
- Fatigue lifetime : design lifetime / D
o D= damage
Rule of miner
D=ni/Ni
- Fatigue design criterion
Summary
- Select detail
- Select appropriate SN-curve
- Define fatigue loading
- Calculate fatigue capacity
- Apply the rule of Miner
- Calculate fatigue lifetime
Exercise 1: calculate fatigue lifetime
- Follow the summary ^
Fatigue loading
o Fatigue induced by quasi-static wave action depends mainly on moderate sea states
non-linear response is less relevant
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o Method: spectral analysis

Steps of fatigue analysis
o Metocean analysis
Waves
o Hydrodynamic analysis
Motions & pressures
o Stress analysis
Stresses
o Fatigue analysis
o Lifetime
Lifetime assurance methods

- Preliminary design
o First principles, empirical methods, experience
o Keep the overall stress level low
- Design/engineering
o Rules and direct calculations methods
o Avoid stress risers, use adequate details
- Construction
o Fabrication procedures and quality assurance
o Remove unacceptable defects
- Operation
o Inspection, repair & maintenance procedures
o Use advisory monitoring systems
Lifetime assurance advice
- Preliminary design
o Keep stresses low
- Design/engineering
o Use proper details
- Construction
o Allow only acceptable defects
- Operation
o Monitor
Sensors
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Cabinet
o Wind sensor
o DGPS
o LBSGs
o Strain gauges
o FDSs
o Motion sensor
o Level gauge
o Wave buoy
Benefits of Octopus-Monitas
- Shows, explains and advises on
fatigue integrity of FPSOs.
It explains reasons for potential
deviation of the actual fatigue
consumption from design predictions
and translates the monitoring data
into operational guidance and advice
in an easily understandable format.
- Prevents loss of production
- Prevents unexpected damage
- More time for corrective measures
- Rational lifetime extension
- Feedback to design
Lecture 4: Arctic Engineering Part 1

What is arctic engineering?
- Although the term Arctic engineering is often used to refer to Offshore Engineering in the Arctic,
it is officially defined as:
o Everything that has to do with engineering in the Arctic
- The general scope of arctic engineering may therefore consist of
o Development of natural resources in cold regions
o Design and operations of constructed works in rural communities
o Heat transfer and thermal engineering
o Evaluation of climate change impacts
o Snow control, arctic ecosystems, and much more
Polar low = low pressure area
Origin of the word Arctic
- The word arctic is derived from arktis (old Greek) or arktikos, the Greek expression used to
refer to the northern sky, being the domain of the constellations of the bear
- In Greek, arktos means bear and arktikos literally means near the bear
Definitions of the Arctic
- The arctic can be defined as the area north of the Arctic Circle (66 33N). This is the
approximate limit of the midnight sun and the polar night or the region on the northern
hemisphere, where at least one day/year the sun does not set.
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Or the region north of the northern-most tree

line. This definition is close to the use of the
10C (or 50F) isotherm.
The (high) Arctic

- Areas of interest for hydrocarbon development
in the high Arctic are
o Barents Sea
o Kara Sea
o Laptev Sea
o Chukchi Sea
o Beaufort Sea
o Baffin Bay
The subarctic
- The subarctic consists of those regions in the
northern hemisphere that occasionally show
arctic characteristics
- Ice buildups damage pipelines
- 1 field in the Barents sea has enough gas to fullfill
the demand of the entire world
- Examples of subarctic areas are:
o Labrador Sea
o The Great Lakes
o Sea of Okhotsk - Sakhalin
Historical perspective
- Oil and natural gas production began in the arctic in the 1920s. By the 1960s large reserves had
been discovered on Alaskas North Slope, in the Mackenzie Delta, Canada, and in several regions
of Siberia.
- The completion of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS) in 1977 made production viable in
the Prudhoe Bay area in the US.
- Today , oil and gas acticity is widely distributed around the states that border the arctic
Oil and gas resources of the Arctic
- Among the greatest uncertainties in future energy supply and a subject of considerable
environmetal concern is the amount of oil and gas yet to be found in the Arctic
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By using a probabilistic geology based methodology, the United States Geological Survey has
assessed the are north of the Arctic Circle and concluded that about 30% of the worlds
undiscovered gas and 13% of the worlds undiscovered oil may be found there, mostly offshore
under less than 500 m of water. Undiscovered natural gas is three times more abundant than oil
in the Arctic and is largely concentrated in Russia.
Undiscovered oil
- More than 70% thought to occur in 5 provinces
Undiscovered gas
More than 70% in 3 provinces
Arctic offshore environment

- Harsh wind/wave environment
- Polar lows data uncertainty
- Snow and ice storms
- Icing
- Ice fog, ice haze
- Sea ice and icebergs
- Polar darkness
- Far from infrastructure
- Pristine environment
Classification scheme for arctic structures
- This classification scheme appears to be a
logical means of understanding and
comparing the many different types of
concepts described in the literature/ Most of
the structures described pertain to oil and
gas exploration or production facilities, but
these structure types have also been used for
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bridge piers, lighthouses, wind turbine foundations, etc.

The three main classifincations are artificial islands, bottom mounted structures and floating
structures.
Examples of artificial islands

- Earliest non-retained islands had very shallow slopes, with sandbags for erosion protection
- Larger sandbags allowed steeper slope angles and smaller amounts to fill
- Successive rock berms can allow for deeper water depths (although rock can be difficult to find
and transport)
- The trend to deeper water eventually led to steel or concrete caissons with sand infill
Examples of bottom founded structures

- Various types of bottom-mounted structures are shown here ^
- Most popular are piled base (multi-legged) and gravity base structures
- Generally platforms are designed to minimize ice loads through reducing diameter at waterline,
and introducing sloped surfaces which fail ice in bending (lower loads than vertical faces which
cause failure in crushing)
- Try to minimize the amount of the structure that is exposed to the ice (mostly around the water
line)
Examples of floating structures
- Moored barges, drill ships and semisubmersibles, have been used in the arctic to date
- Moored caissons remain on the drawing boards
- Dynamically positioned vessels have been used where ice forces are moderate, or where there
may be a need to move off quickly
- Ice platforms have been used where there is a stable ice cover for much of the year
- Ice itself can be used as a floating structure: heavy, stationary ice
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Not all oil and gas

- Cammaert acted as principal ice consultant to builders of 13 km bridge connecting Prince
Edward Island to New Brunswick in early 1980s
- A university team developed state-of-the art ice leading models, using probabilistic techniques
- Final design loads (46 bridge piers) took 3 years of field programs, lab tests, models
- 100-year ice load 15 MN, bridge instrumented to record loads each winter
Common ice features
- First year (FY) ice
o Melts in 1 season and floats
o Level ice
o Ice floes
o Rafted ice
o Ice ridges
o Rubble pile
o Rubble fields
- Multi year (MY) ice
o Ice floes
o Ice ridges
o Rubble fields
- Glacial ice
o Ice islands
o Icebergs
Comes from glaciers formed on land
Fresh water compressed snow
Layers of snow fall each year glacier grows
Because of compressed snow, tiny bubbles get caught in the layers high pressures in the bubbles. So
if you put it in your drink, it fuzzes
- No minerals
- Absolutely pure no pollution
Sea ice pure ice
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Salt has little pockets pockets melt away over time there is no salt pure ice
The colder the ice, the stronger it is
o At the top there is less salt and colder stronger
Ice regimes, Canadian Arctic
- Ice types depend very much on region, distance from shore, and water depth
- This ice regime is typical for the Canadian (and US) Beaufort Sea
Level ice
- Sea ice of fairly uniform ice thickness, usually land fast
- Depending on location, level ice can grow up to 2.5 m or more
First-year ridge section
-
Icebergs
- Floating remnants of
glacial ice broken away
from glaciers and ice shelves
- Iceberg classification
o Growlers (sail < 1.5m)
o Bergy bits (sail 1.5 to 5 m, mass < 5400 t)
o Small bergs (sail 5 to 15 m, mass 5400 to 180,000 t)
o Medium bergs (sail 15 to 45 m, mass 180,000 to 2,000,000 t)
o Large bergs (mass > 2,000,000 t)
Sea ice extent
-
Vanishing polar ice

- This summer, the sea ice that caps the Arctic ocean melted to the lowest level since at least
1979, when satellites first began keeping track of ice over the North Pole
- That is 45% less than the average for August throughout the 1980s and 90s and as of now the
ice is still shrinking
- Some scientists believe the total volume of Arctic ice is only a quarter of what it was 30 years
ago
Lecture 5: Arctic Engineering Part 2

Some definitions
- Salinity of ice : the amount of salt (measured in
parts per thousand, or ppt, present in ice
o The salt in sea ice exists as brine pockets
(very concentrations of salt)
o First year ice can range in salinity from 2
to 5 ppt
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o
o
The salinity of seawater, in comparison, is about 35 ppt

Ice temperature is nearly linear over the depth of the ice feature
Factors influencing interaction scenarios
Strength profile
- An ice sheet is coldest at the surface and its temperature increases up to the freezing point at its
bottom. Due to the temperature profile in the ice, the ice is strong at the top and weaker at the
bottom.
- The salinity and porosity profiles over the depth of an ice sheet change depending on age. In
young ice, the salinity profile is almost constant, while the salinity for older ice increases with
depth. Nevertheless, the porosity profile is reasonably constant and therefore hardly has an
influence on the strength profile.
How do some physical properties effect strength
- Decrease of temperature yields an increase of density, causing the ice to be stronger.
- Salinity, together with temperature, determines the brine volume and this largely influences the
porosity
- An increase of salinity yields a larger brine volume and thus a higher porosity
- An increase of porosity directly causes the ice to be weaker
Ice interaction with structures
- Crushing and bending main failure models usually considered
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Failure mechanisms
- ^
Compressive action
Ice forces vertical sided structures

- Interaction between level ice and a vertical-sided structure looks straightforward but is not.
- Much research has been done, and there have been some serious theoretical developments,
some full-scale measurements, and some model tests.
- Controversy and vigorous debate surround all of them, and it is too soon for a consensus to
emerge
- In the meantime, the practical needs of design have compelled designers to adopt various
empirical and semi-empirical methodologies, and for the moment they have been incorporated
in codes
Why is it so complicated?
- A complication is that the ice can deform in qualitatively different ways
- Generally the ice breaks. It may break into quite small fragments, as it does in continuous
crushing against the sides of a structure, or the fragments may be larger, if the ice rides up a
slope and breaks in bending, or if cracks radiate outward
- If it is moving very slowly, though, it deforms in creep, like a slow-moving Alpine glacier
Creep loads on vertical structures
- If the ice is moving very slowly, it deforms in creep, like ice slowly flowing in a valley glacier.
- This case is unusual and almost invariably short-lived: it happens when ice which has previously
been moving more rapidly, comes almost to a stop because the driving force has diminished.
- Creep loads can also occur in land fast ice which often moves by small amounts due to thermal
strains and sometimes due to sustained winds.
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The ice deformation is governed by the power-law creep equation where the force between the
ice and the structure is proportional to the 1/n power of the relative velocity, where n is the
exponent in the power law and is approximately 3.
Buckling loads
- If the ice is thin, it buckles under the edge loads applied by contact with a structure.
- If the loading is rapid enough for the deformation to be essentially elastic, the relevant solid
mechanics model is a thin elastic plate on a linear Winkler foundation.
- Elastic buckling is likely to be the governing mode only when the ice is rather thin, usually in the
order of 0.4 m.
- Creep buckling is generally associated with rather slow loading processes, and is unlikely ever
to constitute the design condition for
offshore structures
Evidence from measurements
- This figure is a version of the famous
Sanderson pressure-area diagram.
- It plots observed ice force per unit area
against contact area, in this instance both on
logarithmic scales.
Pressure area data sets
- The first tests on ice-structure interaction are
represented by the group of points to the left of the diagram, marked lab.
- They were on laboratory- scale systems, in which sheets of ice were pushed against rigid
rectangular and circular indenters.
- A typical indenter width was 50 mm. Those tests determined a contact force per unit area, and
that force per unit area could be compared with a compressive strength measured in a
conventional compression test on a cube or a cylinder.
- The next tests (field) were on a larger scale, in the Arctic and much more difficult and
expensive to carry out.
- Square blocks of ice were cut from floating sea ice, and loaded by platens driven by hydraulic
jacks. In a typical test the ice was 1 m thick, the floating block was 5 m square, and the platen
was 150 mm wide.
- The force per unit area was somewhat lower than in the series 1 tests. That could be attributed
to variation of ice properties through the ice thickness, variation of temperature, and eccentric
loading: all those influences were indeed present.
- The next important step forward was made possible by an ice/structure interaction that Nature
generously carries out, on a much larger scale than human beings could possibly arrange.
- Hans Island lies in the Kennedy Channel between Greenland and Canada. It is about 1700 m long
and 1300 m across.
- In July the sea ice breaks up further north, and large multi-year ice floes, sometimes 5000 m
across, drift down the channel.
- The force between the floe and the island decelerates the floe. A helicopter can land on the floe
before it hits the island and install an accelerometer, and the accelerometer measures the
deceleration.
- Simple observations and calculations then give estimates of contact area and loads.
Final pressure- area curve
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Crushing loads
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Lecture 6: Introduction to Marine Pipelines (Allseas)

History of pipelines
- 1st commercial well by "Colonel" Edwin Drake in Titusville (PA) in 1859.
- First discoveries transported to hubs using whisky barrels and horses.
- Onward transport by barges/ trains/ wagons.
- First wooden pipeline (~9 miles) built in 1862.
- First trunk line Tidewater in 1879.
- First welded pipeline in 1920s.
- First coastal developments in GOM by US companies in 1930s & 1940s.
- Transition zone between dry land and the marshy, shallow-water flats.
- Valuable know-how in a semi-protected, partially marine environment.
- Kermac Rig 16 - First offshore rig 1947, GOM, Louisiana
- Lay-barge system development in early 1950s
- First North Sea pipelines laid in 1970s
o Extreme low speed (2 barges, 2 years for 170 km)
o Large incident rate (e.g. buckles)
- Semi submersibles from late 1970s
- Positioning: mooring anchors, tug boats
o Shallow water (<300-400m)
o Requires 2-3 anchor handling tugs (8-12 anchors)
o Difficult near pipelines / platforms & disturbs seabed
o Heavy lines, poor reference
o First Dynamically Positioned (DP) vessel in 1986: Lorelay
Unlimited water depths
Much smaller footprint
Much higher lay-rates
Anchors vs. Dynamically Positioned (DP) vessel
- Positioning by anchors
o Traditional
Positioning by DP
o >1986, Lorelay
History of pipelines
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Considerations for offshore pipe lay

- Main oil & gas transportation method drivers:
o Costs of transportation: distance of 1 ton crude for 1 USD:
Tankers 390 km
Train 70 km
Pipelines 320 km
Air 8 km
Truck 30 km
o Political strategy, stability
o Available infrastructure
o Technical challenges:
Water depth
Environment/ metocean conditions
Distance of transport
Associated products
o Safety of transport: pipelines are the safest means of transport from offshore fields to
onshore facilities.
On 24 March 1989, the Exxon Valdez ran aground in the Gulf of Alaska resulting
in ~750,000 barrels of oil spilled.
- Russia-Ukraine (gas) disputes
o 2004: 80% of Russian gas export through Ukraine.
o 2005: Gas dispute leading to a 4-day cut-off in 2006.
o 2008: Gas debts dispute leads to reduction of gas supply.
o 2009: Supply disruptions in European markets.
o 2014: Crimea & Ukraine crises; June: gas debts
- South Stream Project - Black Sea route avoiding Ukraine territory
Pipelines
- Pipeline types
o Infield flow lines
o Feeder lines
o Transmission lines
o Product lines
o Distribution lines
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Infield flow line

- Small size (<12-inch)
- Short distances (few km)
-
Multiple products
Feeder line = Flow line

- Medium size (6 to 20-inch)
- Longer distances (order of 100 km)
- From gathering/ processing facility to transmission line
Transmission (trunk) line = export line = production line
- Linking main fields
- Large size (up to 48-inch, in Russia up to 56-inch)
- Large distances (1200 km from Norway to UK)
Product lines : Carry refined products to distribution centres
Distribution lines: Local distribution (to your house)
Piggy back line
- Small line attached to main pipeline
Pipeline materials
- Steel (X52 to X70)
o Size from 2 to 48 inch (or more)
o Wall thickness up to 42 mm
o Non-aggressive products
- Flexible pipelines
o Limited size (16 to 20 inch)
o Can be used for aggressive products
o More expensive then steel
o Easy to install
- Duplex pipelines
o Special steel type
o Resistant against aggressive products
o Expensive to fabricate and to weld
- 13% Cr pipelines
o Less expensive to fabricate
o Can withstand aggressive fluids
o Welding expensive
- Cladded or lined with stainless steel
o Nickel-Chromium based super alloy
o Less expensive than duplex
o Fabrication and welding expensive
- Plastic liner
o Can withstand aggressive fluids
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o
o
Welded section needs internal coating offshore (expensive)

Usually used by reel contractors (onshore fabrication of string)
Pipe lay principles
Main installation methods

o S-lay: 2 to 60 inch
Welded offshore, horizontal welding stations and
tensioners
Currently up to 3000 m of water depth
Much faster than J-lay
o J-lay: 2 to 60 inch
Welded offshore, vertical welding stations and tensioners
o Reeled lay: 2 to 18-inch
Pipeline on a reel; produced onshore

Vertical tensioners
Start-up methods
- Landfall or shore pull
- Start-up anchor
- Start-up pile
- Pull-in to platform
- Start-up structures
- Direct hang-off on platform
Hand-over of first-end steel catenary riser
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Midline tie-in
Subsea tie-in
Tie-in process on the seabed in an underwater welding habitat.

Welding operations are remotely controlled from a support vessel.
ROV (Remotely Operated Vehicles)s and divers assist and monitor the subsea construction work.
Suction pile installation
Mighty pipe lay vessels

- Allseas Solitaire
o Largest pipe lay vessel 1996-2014
o S-lay type
o Diameters up to 60-inch
o Double Joint Factory
o 300 m length (400 m incl. stinger)
o 420 personnel on board
-
Saipem CastorOne
o S-lay type
o J-lay tower
o Diameters up to 60-inch
o Triple Joint Factory
o 330 m length (450 m incl. stinger)
o 720 personnel on board
Allseas Pieter Schelte
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o
o
o
o
o
o
Worlds largest (pipe lay) vessel

S-lay type
Diameters up to 60-inch
Double joint factory
380 m length (477 m incl. stinger)
571 personnel on board
Lecture 7: Introduction to Subsea Engineering

History
-
1943 1st subsea completion (Lake Erie, USA, 9.1 m water depth)
1961 1st subsea well completed in Gulf of Mexico by Shell (15.2 m WD)
1967 1st diver-less subsea completion.
2004 Shell Coulomb: 2,225 m WD, deepest subsea tieback (gas)
2005 BP Thunderhorse: 1859 m WD, deepest subsea tieback (oil)
2006 Statoil Hydro Ormen Lange: 160 km, longest subsea tie-back
Offshore & deep water supply growth
Global subsea expenditures outlook

- Step-change in subsea investments expected:
o 1978 2005: from 140 to 2,404 operational subsea wells worldwide
o 3,222 subsea wells were forecast to be installed in the period 2009-2014
o USD 106bn over next 5 years compared to USD 70bn over previous period
o Largely driven by the increasing reliance on deep water developments
o Installation, repair and maintenance to account for 42% of expenditures
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Considerations for subsea developments
Safety
Solutions which improve recovery from the reservoirs
Tie-backs of small reservoirs/marginal fields into existing facilities
Technology which permits long tie-backs to land
Equipment to unlock ultra-deep water reserves
Subsea wells:
o Can be placed outside the effective drilling reach of existing platforms.
o Higher flexibility with respect to well locations and future expansion.
o Can usually be installed faster than the construction time for a platform.
o Surface facilities may be less expensive or completely avoided.
Financial implications
o Flow assurance problems can be costly (hydrates, wax, sand, etc.).
o Subsea wells cost more to drill, complete and work over.
o Operating costs are higher per well.
o Less reserves are recovered before reaching economic limit.
o Compared to dry wellheads, the access to a subsea well is expensive.
Time demanding
Complex planning
Visibility
Illumination
Maneuverability
Subsea structures
- Subsea wellhead
o Structure placed on the seabed to provide the structural and pressure-containing
interface for drilling and production equipment.
o Typically welded onto the first string of casing to form an integral structure of the well.
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Templates
o A subsea template is a large steel structure which is used as a base for various subsea
structures such as wells and subsea trees and manifolds.
Blowout preventer
o While drilling a well, surface pressure control is provided by a blowout preventer (BOP),
located directly at the wellhead and consisting of several independently operating shutoff valves, each of a different design. If the pressure is not contained by the column of
drilling mud, casings, wellhead and BOP, a well blowout can occur.
Xmas tree
o The set of (control) valves, pressure gauges, spools,
fittings and chokes assembled at the top of a well
to control the flow of oil and gas
after the well has been drilled and completed.
o Surface (dry) Xmas tree
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Surface (wet) Xmas tree
Manifolds
o Manifolds are used to commingle the flow from adjacent
subsea wells (clustered around the parent manifold) into
flow line headers.
Composed of pipes, valves and control equipment
Usually mounted on a template
Often have a protective structure covering them
Wells sometimes drilled through a common
template structure.
Subsea processing systems
o Extraction and transport of hydrocarbons
o Removal of water and re-injection into drained wells
o Single and multi-phase boosting of well fluids
o Solid (mostly mud) and gas and liquid hydrocarbon separation
o Gas treatment, compression and onward transportation
Pipeline End Terminations and Manifolds
o Connection point between pipeline and subsea structures or flow lines
PLET Pipeline End Termination
Single hub/flange/connector & single valve
PLEM Pipeline End Manifold
Two or more hubs/flanges & two or more valves
Jumpers
o Jumpers are used to connect subsea wells to manifolds and to connect manifolds and
riser bases to flow lines.
Umbilicals
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Composite cable used for transferring

Electric and hydraulic power
Chemicals
Fiber optic communication signals
Subsea assets protection

- Protection from dropped objects, anchors, trawlers & scouring.
Additional in case of pipelines:

o Prevent lateral and upheaval buckling
o Provide pipeline stability
Template with wells, manifold and overtrawlable protective structure
Subsea tree and manifold enclosed within protective cocoon structure (~9 m tall)
Pre-cast structures
Concrete mattresses
Rock dumping
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Pipeline burial methods

o Dredging
Jetting
o
o
Mechanical cutting
Ploughing
Subsea installation & repairs

- Installation support: ROVs
o Remotely Operated Vehicles
Surface & subsea positioning and surveys (visual and acoustic)
Installation support (valve operations, guidance, cut rigging, etc.)
o Unlimited operational water depths.

o No risk to personnel.
o Robotic limitations.
Repairs
o Dredge holes at cutting locations
o Cut pipeline into sections using diamond wire saw
o Lift pipe sections to deck
o Remove coating (locally)
o Connect pig insertion tool
o Insert pig
o Insert pipeline recovery tool
o Retrieve pipeline into firing line of pipe lay vessel
o Reinstall pipeline (incl. new pipe joints)
o Laydown
o Removal of laydown heads
o Deployment of spool piece
o Diver-assisted installation of pipeline lift frame
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o
o
o
o
Matching pipeline with spool piece

Divers establishing bolted flange connection
Protection frame
As-repaired situation
Lecture 8: Dynamics of Offshore Structures - Metrikine

Free hanging risers; water intake riser
- Intake risers for FLNG plants
Riser: pipe that rises/conveys something
Cavitation: when a flow flows really fast, it creates bubbles chance that it will blow
Water intake riser:

- Research questions
o Can a uniform water flow through the intake riser destabilize it?
A very important idea.. but a wrong conclusion, as pA=-MU the centrifugal
force is zero and no instability is possible
o If the instability can occur, what would be the critical velocity of the flow through the
pipe?
Water out pipe
The pipe starts shaking uncontrollably
Water in pipe
The pipe starts circling in a well-behaved manner
o If the instability can occur in the range of the desirable velocities of pumping, what
would be the vibration pattern?
At velocities higher than a critical pipe was observed to perform intermittent
unstable vibrations
o Smaller pipe, velocity 6.9 m/s
- Early experiments
The pipe was observed to remain stable
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Early theories
It was taken into account that the inflow is not just a reverse jet but an axially
symmetric inward injection that is accompanied by the depressurization at the inlet
o A very important idea.. but a wrong conclusion, as pA=-MU the centrifugal force is zero
and no instability is possible
Reason to doubt
Model
Experiment at TUD
At velocities higher than a critical pipe was observed to perform intermittent unstable
vibrations
o Smaller pipe, velocity 6.9 m/s
Explanation of instability
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Actual design
o Riser bundle
o A shell: a bundle of risers connected to each other
Free hanging risers

- Vertical transport system for deep sea mining
Model
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Focus on the effect of the booster stations on the VTS stability

Each booster station introduces a pressure jump that leads to the change of the
effective tension
Instability
Effect of the booster stations
Explanation of instability
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Energy exchange
More applications?
o Flow can be used to stabilize the riser during installation
Deep sea mining

- Without booster stations, the distance is too far to get all the minerals up, the suction cant get
it up, pressure isnt high enough
o So use booster stations
Ice
- Bearings with special material that reduces the friction between two layers
- Ice shakes deck with very small movements
- Pushing ice with a constant force jerky movements : flaking of ice
- Self-induced vibrations = ice induced vibrations
- The ice equation is similar to the riser and windmill equation
o Damping of different motions is very different , pitch is very high because of this
Ice- induced vibrations
- Motivation
Ice loads
o Main regimes according to ISO
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Desirable model
o A theory of ice-induced vibration based on the idea of frequency and amplitude
dependent added mass and added damping
Nonexistent as yet
Phenomenological modeling
o Empirico-Phenomenological model of ice-induced vibration
What mechanism is the model of Karna and Turunen based upon?

It is the descending character of the force-velocity dependence
Predictions of model of Karna and Turunen
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The predictions are reasonable but these are too sensitive to the uncertain
parameters such as the viscous damping in the undamaged ice sheet
By TUD
Frequency of vibration, mean value and variance of the waterline displacement

of the structure
Floating structures in ice

- Catenary floaters
Kulluk drilling vessel
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Dynamics due to ice bending failure
Modeling
First phase: bending up to the failure
Second phase: pushing the broken off piece away and reloading the buoy
Parameters tuned to the test
Results of the modeling
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Dynamics of wind power generators

- Measurements
Modelling
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Underwater noise from offshore pile driving
Dynamics of the rock dumping

- Rock-dumping-caused motion
of a fall-pipe
Dynamics of pipelines
- Vortex-induced vibration
Von Karmans vortex street
Fundamentals
Measurements
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Physics
Modelling
Equation of motion of the structure
Oscillator
Tuning parameters
Model vs experiments
TUD model
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Power generation
Exam questions
- Offshore structures will be approximated by SDOF systems
- Natural frequency, effect of damping, resonance, energy, the dynamic amplification factor
- Understanding of the effect of damping, stiffness and mass on various dynamic effects
- Simple degree of freedom system
- What happens with the natural frequency if you reduce the wall thickness
o W=
Increase weight, frequency increase/decreases
Why does it decrease with 3
o Weight up
more compression
may lead to buckling
Natural frequency =0
What are the damping mechanisms: which lead to reduction of frequencies?
Lecture 9: Introduction Safety Andre van der Stap

Risk
-
= probability of failure x consequence

o As we push technology barriers (deeper, colder, harsher, older) we become more
exposed to failures we dont even think about (even undetected within current risk
profile and/or encountering phenomena which cant be easily extrapolated:
unknown/unknowns)
o As we need large scale, capital intensive solutions and society demands ever higher
standards for SD/HSE, we in parallel increase the consequence of failure cost
Platform types
- Caission Structure
Singe well
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o
o
o
o
Gulf of Mexico
>1500 caisson structures mostly in GoM
Not normally manned
Water depth <30 m
Monotower
Wellhead jacket
-
o >4000 wellhead jackets

o Not normally manned
o Water depth range 10-100 m
o Single pile through each leg, welded at jacket top
o Wells drilled either by jack up or tender assisted drilling
Bridge linked
o
o
o
o
Bridge linked complex consisting of multiple jacket structures

Relatively shallow water <100m
Approximately 500 in more benign environments (far east, near shore Nigeria)
Separate platforms for functions (well heads, living quarters, compression platform,
risers, flare)
Large integrated drilling, production, accommodation platforms
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o
o
Relatively deep water: 100-400 m

Permanently manned
In GoM they are evacuated prior to hurricanes
o Several hundred, very important in terms of production & value
Floating production systems
o
o
o
o
Tension leg platform

Semisubmersible
Spar
FPSO
Mobile offshore drilling units

- Jack up
o 480
o Drilling over pearl wellhead jacket
Semisubmersible drilling unit
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220
Hurricanes
- Katrina august 2005
o 45 failures FP
- Rita sept 2005
o 74 failures FP
Change in design load over time North sea and GoM
Old platforms in GoM fail because actual load exceeds design load (x2), not because they
deteriorate
Facts & learnings from GoM failures

- No loss of life due to hurricanes because GoM installations are evacuated prior to hurricane
arrival
- Majority of failures relate to old structures installed before 1980
- 17 structures installed after 2000 collapsed. This is due to inadequate deck elevation &
inadequate
- 100 year wave heights
- Re-evaluation of wave height criteria after Katrina/Rita led to increases of 11-25% in some
areas. Deck elevation raised to 1000 year crest level
- API Bias Factor was determined to be 1.06 for Katrina & Rita and 1.09 for al recent hurricanes.
For given conditions the API design approach is conservative by 6-9%. Confidence in wave load
recipe and pushover analysis
- No failures in other regions due to extreme storms
What is appropriate target safety level for L-2 wellhead platform?
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Cost-Risk trade-off: Total jacket cost = Cost + Risk of failure = Cost + Pf(Service Life)*Loss
Target Pf=5*10^-4/year (RP=2000 years) is appropriate for new L-2 installation
What is appropriate target safety level for L-1 permanently manned installations?
- Potential for loss of lie is major consideration in addition to loss of asset and environmental
release.
- Ensure that targets for extreme storm risk dovetail well with regulatory requirements for storm
risk & overall risk to personnel (Pf <10^-4)
- Ensure that recourses to improve safety are used in the most effective manner considering
relative difficulty of reducing each risk ALARP principle (As Low As Reasonably Practicable)
- Based on above considerations
o Extreme storm target Pf=3*10^-5/year (RP=33000 years) for L-1 installations
Design standards and safety levels for fixed platforms
Exposure level
API RP 2A defines L-1, L-2, L-3 levels and provides performance requirements for each level
ISO also defines L-1, L-2, L-3 but provides different performance standards from those in API
o Different target reliabilities different action factors, RSRs, deck elevation
Safety levels achieved by
- API RP 2A steel platforms
o Suitable for manned-evacuated installations (GoM)

ISO 19902 steel platforms
o Suitable for permanently manned installations
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Suitable for L-2 exposure
Long term load distribution in different areas

- Often referred to as hazard curve
Conclusions regarding safety levels for fixed platforms
- Fixed steel platforms in GoM exhibit high failure rate (0.003/pl-year); largely legacy problem;
designed to low wave heights, old wave force recipes & low deck elevations
o No loss of life because they are evacuated
- Modern GoM structures designed to latest API will achieve Pf=1 in 2000/year
- Fixed steel platforms outside GoM have shown extremely good reliability (0 failures in 70,000 plyrs)
- New structures designed to ISO 19902 achieve
o Exposure L-1: Target Pf=3*10-5^/year (Pf=1 in 33000 years)
o Exposure L-2: Target Pf=5*10-5^/year (Pf=1 in 2000 years)
Floating systems
- Hurricane damage to TLP
o Drilling rig TLP overturned during hurricane Katrina, GoM (2005)
Rig tie-down inadequate
- TLP capsized during hurricane rita
o Brand new Typhoon TLP capsized by hurricane RITA, GoM (2005)
- FPSO, mooring line integrity
o North Sea FPSO suffered loss of 1 mooring line and damage to another 4 mooring lines
during a storm, (jan 2012)
- FPSO, hull integrity & mooring line failures
o West of Shetlands North Sea
o Experiencing severe integrity issues
o Hull cracking
o Mooring line failures (out of plane bending)
o Plans to replace FPSO underway
- Flexible riser performance, failures with loss of containment
o Blocked annulus vent system + cracked pressure sheath
o Slow leak inside end-fitting
o High external pressure, no venting, smoothbore WI, collapse of internal sheath
o Leaking external sheath, corrosion near waerline
o Bird caging caused by external sheath damage
o PVDF slipping out of end-fitting
o Local bending
o 3x PVDF slipping out of end-fitting
o Leak in end-fitting, no annulus venting
- Flexible riser integrity
o Flexible risers have seen a range of different failure mechanisms
Sand erosion
Seal leak
Burst sheath
Bend stiffener failure
Corrosion
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What are appropriate safety levels for floating systems?

- Potential for loss of life is major consideration in addition to loss of asset and environmental
release.
- Ensure that targets for extreme storm risk dovetail well with regulatory requirements for storm
risk & risk to personnel
- Safety critical elements (SCEs) designed to survive 10,000 yr
- conditions.
o Pf(floating stability) < 1*10-4/yr (RP=10,000yrs)
o Pf(stationkeeping) < 1*10-4/yr (RP=10,000yrs)
o Pf(riser) < 1*10-4/yr (RP=10,000yrs)
- In GoM where installations are evacuated, survival in 1000 yr conditions is considered adequate
Conclusions regarding floating system safety
- Experienced several integrity issues with floating systems
o Capsizing of 1 TLP in GoM hurricane
o Loss of P36 semisubmersible in Brazil due to fire
o Severe cracking of Schiehallion FPSO plus mooring line failures resulting in early
replacement
o Mooring line failures in FPSOs (Gryphon, Pierce, Anasuria, Girasol)
o Flexible Riser failures
o Loss of fairings and strakes in steel risers leading to VIV
Serious attention to inspection & maintenance of SCEs to maintain integrity, especially components
which span water column (risers & moorings)
Jack up KS ENDEAVOUR - blowout 16-01-2012
-
Fire on the rig

Built in 2010
Offshore Nigeria
Drilling depth: 11000 ft
Jack up Kolskaya - capsize 18-12-2011

- Fire on the rig KS ENDEAVOUR Escravos
- Built in 1985
- Converted to accommodation unit: 1992
- Converted back to drilling unit: 1996
- Fatalities: 53
Jack up punch through
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Hurricane damage loss
Jack up loss of legs under tow
Drilling semi sub- macondo well blow-out
Jack up on location accidents 2000-2006
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Reasons for high failure rate of modus (jack ups & semis)
- Difficulty to maintain well control in exploration wells blow out risk
- Punch through risk of jack ups difficult to manage
- Every jack up move needs to be assessed like a new installation time, data & effort
- Lack of uniform industry standards on location assessments
o Return period= 5, 10, 50, 100 year
o Warranty surveyor rules not uniform
- Tow risk of jack ups
- Shell has spent considerable effort since 1990 to improve industry practices with MODUs
Conclusions for MODUs (jack ups & semis)
- Failure rate of MODUs continues to be too high
- Accidents with MODUs are not restricted to GoM hurricane failures only
- Blow-out, punch through risk and tow risk are global risks
o Tend to result in loss of life
- Careful location assessment for every MODU move needed to improve safety
- Location assessment should be based on 50 year return period environmental conditions as per
new ISO 19905 (jack ups)
Fire & explosion risk on production platforms
- Piper Alpha accident in 1988, UK N Sea resulted in 167 fatalities
- Hydrocarbon release led to fire
- Gas riser rupture led to significant escalation
- Key lessons learnt
o Systematic evaluation of process related risks
o Mandatory use of ESD valves
o Living Quarters should function as safe refuge (rated for fire, explosions, smoke)
o Goal setting philosophy to reduce risks to As Low As Reasonably Practicable (ALARP)
Major industry disasters
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Process safety basic requirements
AI-PS & Offshore risks

- What is AI-PS ?
o Asset Integrity/Process Safety Management (AIPSM)
Asset Integrity means the ability of an asset to perform its intended function
effectively while safeguarding life and environment
Process Safety means the management of hazards that can give rise to major
accidents involving the release of potentially dangerous materials, release of
energy such as fire or explosion, or both. (Baker Report/UK Health & Safety
Exec.)
- HEMP Process and safety case (or HSE CASE)
o HEMP = Hazard & Effect Management Process
1. Identify Hazards and Potential Effects
2. Evaluate Risks
3. Record Hazards and Effects
4. Define SCE & Performance Standards
5. Establish Risk Reduction Measures.
Design and construct phase
Identify risks mitigation
Design risk barriers
Formally document
Construct
Verify & handover
Operate phase
Plan to operate
Schedule inspection maintenance program
Inspect & maintain risk barriers
Analyze & assure
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What is a hazard?
Something with potential to do harm (e.g. earthquake, gas release)
o What is consequence?
(e.g. earthquake leading to platform loss)
o What is risk?
Frequency x consequence
Asset Integrity Process Safety Management
o Design Integrity:
We design and build so that process safety risks are as low as reasonably
practicable
o Technical & Operating Integrity:
We prevent process safety incidents by maintaining our hardware barriers and
by working within the operational barriers
o Integrity Leadership:
Leaders play an important role in avoiding process safety incidents and must
demonstrate visible and felt leadership in the field
o Overall:
Know your role
Know your barriers and controls
Measures of risk and risk tolerability (ALARP)
Risk to people
IRPA = Individual Risk Per Annum
TRIF= TR Impairment Frequency (yr)
PLL = Potential Loss of Life
o Risk to asset
$= asset damage (risked, i.e. freq*damage)
o Risk to environment
Emissions
Discharges
o Risk may be tolerated if further risk reduction is impractical or if cost or effort is grossly
disproportionate to the benefit gained
Demonstration of ALARP
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Concluding remarks
- Fixed steel platforms outside GoM have shown extremely good reliability (0 failures in 70,000 plyrs)
o Legacy issues with old GoM platforms
- New fixed steel structures designed to ISO 19902 achieve :
o Exposure L-1: Target Pf=3*10-5/yr (Pf=1 in 33,000yrs)
o Exposure L-2: Target Pf=5*10-4/yr (Pf=1 in 2,000yrs)
- Some integrity issues with Floating Systems in all regions
o Especially moorings, risers, hull cracking, corrosion
- Significant integrity issues with MODUs (jack ups, semis)
o Focus on well integrity, tow, punch-through, location assessments
o Industry harmonization
- Ensure learnings from major incidents are not forgotten
o Basic requirements (mandatory)
- Carry out systematic safety assessments - HEMP
o Understand risks and implement measures to reduce to ALARP
- Consistent messages that safety is top priority
- A successful project is a safe project
- Safety is not an after-thought it is our responsibility as engineers
Lecture 10: Functional Profile & Structure Types

FLNG (Floating Liquid Natural Gas)
- Some numbers
o 488m long, 74m wide
o 5 of the largest aircraft carriers would displace the same amount of water as the facility
o 6,700 horsepower thrusters
o 5.3 million tons per annum, enough for a city like Hong Kong
o Final investment decision on the Prelude FLNG Project on 20 May, 2011 (engineers
started work before 2003)
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Permanently moored for around 20-25 years before needing to dock for inspection and
overhaul
o 50 million liters of cold water will be drawn from the ocean every hour to help cool the
natural gas
Basin test
o Even the scale of FLNG models used for lab and field-scale trials have broken records:
the FLNG facility model is more than 8 meters long and weighs around 4.5 tons.
Operators and Contractors

- Offshore industrial activities may be:
o Oil and Gas recovery
o Wind Farming, (floating) tidal turbines
o Mining (manganese nodules, rare or precious metals, diamonds)
- The industrial activities more or less all follow the same path
o Government
Offshore blocks
License (placed on bid)
o Operator
Functional profile
o Field Development Scenarios
Cost/benefits analysis
o Infrastructure & equipment definition
-
Do not look at todays market, but at the market in about 3 to 5 years from now
Functional profiles what influences the structure type selection?

- Production & Storage Capacities (gas, wind, mining)
o Size & weight of topsides, deadweight/payload requirements, installation requirements
- Waterdepth
o Bottom Founded, Floating, Hybrid, Station keeping aspects
- Metocean & Ice data
o (Wind, waves, current, spectra, directions, persistence data)
o Motion behavior, freeboard requirements, ice class etc.
- Field Life ?
- Decommissioning
o Ease of removal/re-use in future, floating is easier to remove than bottom founded
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Local Infrastructure
o Supply of goods, storage on the unit, accommodation
- Rules & Regulations?
Structure types
- What main structure types can be identified in the offshore?
o Bottom Founded Structures (BFS)
o Floating Offshore Structure (FOS)
o Hybrid Offshore Structures (HOS)
Structure type selection
- Mobility, speed, DWT and motion behavior
- Two options: same size hull but unequal displacement
o Slender:
High speed (at same power)
Low carrying capacity
Motions poor (roll)
Less stability
More green water
o Full:
Low speed (at same power)
High carrying capacity
Motions good
Increased stability
Less green water
o To have the best of both options the ship is to be increased (also increased steel and
power requirements) mobility influences costs (with sufficient funding you can
construct anything)
- Structures vs waterdepth
9 primary mission profiles

1. Renewable Energies (windfarms, current and wave energy)
2. Hydrocarbons Exploration & Production
3. Hydrocarbons Transport (from the field to shore and infield)
4. Hydrocarbons Production Support Services
5. Seabed Investigation & Correction
6. Infrastructure Installation & Removal
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7. Infrastructure Fixation
8. Infrastructure Support Services
9. Transport to/from Field (Structures & Goods)
1. Renewable Energies (windfarms, current and wave energy)
2. Hydrocarbons Exploration & Production
3. Hydrocarbons Transport (from the field to shore and infield)
4. Hydrocarbons Production Support Services
5. Seabed Investigation & Correction
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6. Infrastructure Installation & Removal
7. Infrastructure Fixation
8. Infrastructure Support Services
9. Transport to/from Field (Structures & Goods)
Lecture 11: Floating structures hull characteristics

Hull selection criteria
- Mobility: speed, range, sailing/working ratio, transit time & costs
- Carrying capacity
- Motion behavior
- Water depth: too deep, too shallow?, station keeping aspects
- Construction costs
- Versatility (upgradability)
Floaters: motion behavior
The Response Amplitude Operator (RAO)
Response Amplitude Operator: see response of vessel to the waves
RAO for heave example
- Why is it exactly one
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Heuristic approach
o single degree of freedom, heave (x):
o
o
How to interpret m, k and f initially?
o k =Archimedes law, hydrostatic stiffness
o f = Hydrodynamic interaction: integral of the pressures over the hull
o m =Mass of the floater
But the force f is the result of incoming and diffracted waves as well as the motion of the body,
how to capture that ?
A simplified approach
o Transfer to frequency domain
o
o
o
We still have the problem that the force F is a result of the waves and the motion of the
body; let us split the dynamics in two cases
Pressure variation by incoming and diffracted waves onto the fixed body
Moving body in otherwise still water
The theory used to calculate describes the water is using harmonic functions
Incoming and diffracted waves lead to a frequency dependent Fwave()
Body motions in still water
Potential theory is used to calculate
A frequency dependent Fwave() : forces by incoming and diffracted waves
Frequency dependent added mass A () and damping C () leading to:
Still one step to go, we want to relate wave forces to wave height:
In which H is a transfer function depending on frequency and wave direction a and Z the
surface elevation
The result is the 6-dof equation of motion in the frequency domain:
Assumptions:
Velocity field can be described potentials (no viscosity)
Mathematical simplifications (linearization) based on small motion amplitudes
and low waves
Vertical wave force on a vertical cylinder
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Wave spectrum
Wave diffraction
Heave motion of a vertical cylinder (RAO)
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Hull selection types

- Barge (non-self-propelled, can be HOS)
- Ship
- Catamaran
- Semi-Submersible
- Spar
- Tension Leg Platform [HOS]
- Jack-Up & Self-Installing Platform [HOS]
- SWATH: Small Water plane Area Twin Hull
Hull types and water depth
Hull types
- Barge (non-self-propelled, can be HOS)
o Transport, launch, exploration &
production
Derrick barge
(=kraanschip)
Pipe lay barge
Accommodation barge
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Derrick lay barge

Advantages
Plentiful and cheap
Simple and Strong
Shallow draft
Cargo capacity
Versatility
Disadvantages
Unpowered
Need for tugs and anchors
Motion behavior
Lack of mobility
Ship
Exploration, Production, construction, pipe lay, surf, survey, servicing & supply,
support
o Advantages
Construction costs
Many yards / docks
Speed
Deadweight
o Disadvantages
Stability?
(Roll) Motion?
Hull deflection
Catamaran
Crane vessels, decommissioning & installation vessel (construction vessels)
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Advantages
Twin hulls (repeat build)
Large deck area
Stability
Shallow draft
o Disadvantages
Not many yards / docks
Cross loads in seas
Construction costs
Motion behavior (roll)
Semi-submersible
Exploration, production, construction, pipe lay &accommodation

Advantages
Not many yards / docks
Cross loads in seas
Construction costs
Motion behavior (roll)
Disadvantages
Construction costs
Minimum operating draft
Deadweight capacity
Slow transit speed
Small water plane area allowing for limited change in weight
Spar
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Production platform
Advantages
Simple Shape
Motion behavior (extremely limited heave)
Dry production trees
Disadvantages
Complex Installation
VIVs: vortex induced vibrations
Weight sensitivity / stability
Restricted topsides
TLP
Production platform
Advantages
Configurations
Suppressed motions
Deep water
o Disadvantages
Complex Installation
Expensive
Weight sensitivity / Deadweight capacity
No storage capacity
Jack up & SIP
o
Exploration, production, installation & accommodation

Advantages
Stable platform
Adjustable elevation
Relocation
Easy dry-docking
Disadvantages
Limited payload
Limited water depth
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Slow transfer
Maintenance costs
SWATH
Installation vessel
Advantages
Fast: short transit time
Motion behavior?
Stability?
o Disadvantages
Limited payload
Sensitive to weight variation
Wind moment aspects (sailing)
IPFS: used for heavy lifting
CSD: Cutting Suction Dredges
o
Lecture 12: Design BFOS (Bottom Founded Structures)

Classification of offshore structures based on the type of support
Fixed platform (FP) consists of a jacket or tower (a tall vertical section made of tubular steel
members supported by piles driven into the seabed) with a deck placed on top, providing space
for crew quarters, a drilling rig, and production facilities. The fixed platform is economically
feasible for installation in water depths up to 450 m.
Compliant Tower (CT) consists of a narrow, flexible tower and a piled foundation that can
support a conventional deck for drilling and production operations. Unlike the fixed platform,
the compliant tower withstands large lateral forces by sustaining significant lateral deflections,
and is normally used in water depths between 1,000 and 2,000 feet (300 m - 600m).
SPAR, Anchored semi-sub, FPSO, Subsea systems
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Classification of offshore structures
Function
Degree of permanency
Material
Type of foundation
Load carrying mechanism
Fixed bottom founded platform
Temporary structures
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Jack up (drilling)
Installation
Types of fixed support structures

- In order of increasing complexity
o Free standing conductor/monotower
Guyed free standing conductor
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Braced conductor tower
Concrete GBS
3-leg steel jacket
4-leg steel towers: shearwater
Self-installing jackup platform
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Classification of support structures

- By load carrying mechanism
o
o
CT: Compliant Tower

FS: fixed bottom founded platform
Focus on Bottom Founded Structures

- Fixed to seabed
- Permanent or temporary
- Compliant or stiff
- Steel structures
Steel platform structure
Jacket
o Jacket is fixed structure with leg piles and axial force transfer from the structure and
topsides into the piles at the top of the structure. The jacket provides support for the
foundation piles, conductors, risers, and other appurtenances.
Jacket-pile foundation
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o Main pile connection above water-level

Tower structure
o A tower is a fixed structure supported by foundation
arrangements at the base. A tower foundation usually includes
cluster piles which are inserted through and connected to sleeves
around the legs at the base of the structure
Tower pile sleeve
Design process BFOS
Models and modelling

- Hence, we need
o A model of the structure (topsides, substructure and foundation) to determine the
behavior under loading and estimate the resistance
o Models for the loads (dead load, environmental, etc.)
o A model to check the load versus resistance.
- Note : The industry uses computer programs (e.g. SACS, SESAM, Ansys, USFOS, etc.) for the
design and analysis of offshore structures
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Structural interaction
- Interaction: topsides substructure foundation
Hydrodynamic loads
Soil-pile interaction
Substructure
non-linear w/ wave height

distinctly non-linear
linear elastic
Introduction to topside design

- Design topsides
o Two functions
Space and load carrying capacity for all functions and services (above water)
Structural support for equipment, wells, risers, etc.
o Different configurations (e.g. integrated deck versus modular construction)
o It is a multi-discipline undertaking, hence the structural engineer will interface with
many specialists:
Petroleum
Metocean
Drilling (equipment)
Process, mechanical & piping
Electrical and instrumentation
Pipeline
Safety
Materials & corrosion
Drilling / production / operations
o Shallow water offshore platform complex topsides are often separated by
functionality
At deeper water locations there may be only one support structure with
modular deck or integrated topsides
o Elevation above still water level
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Design of the support structure

- The support structure dimensions are determined by:
o Dimensions (and lay out) of topside
o Water depth
o Base dimensions of structure (foundation requirements)
o Elevation of top horizontal bracing / air gap
- Additional aspects are:
o Number & position of the legs
o Number & position of piles
o Number & position of well conductors, and
o Number & position of appurtenances (risers, caissons)
o Fabrication & installation requirements
- Based on the above we can design a fixed steel structure: the 3D Space Frame
- Brace patterns
Initial sizing of jacket members

- Diagonals :
o Assume KL/R = 80 and K=0.8 for partially fixed ends.
o R=SQRT (I/A).
o For thin walled tubulars I=(D3t/8) and A=Dt.
o Hence, Ddiagonals =0.03L
o Further assume D/t=40
- Horizontals :
o Based on practical experience the horizontals may be more slender than the diagonals.
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o Assume KL/R = 100. Hence Dhorizontals =0.023L

o Further assume D/t=40
Legs :
o The leg diameter is determined by the pile diameter and assume D/t = 60 in view of
lower stress levels, but with minimum of t=0.5 inch.
Note : It is normal practice to use standard API sizes for tubulars.
Loads on Bottom Founded Structures

- Internal loads:
o Mass: topsides, substructure
- All external loads are environmental:
o Air: wind
o Sea: waves, currents
o Seafloor: soil-structure interaction
- Loading types:
o Static: - e.g. weights, water pressure
o Dynamic and stochastic: - e.g. waves
Design loads on an offshore structure
- Permanent loads
o Mass - topsides weight, support structure weight, anodes
o Water pressure buoyancy, hydrostatic pressure
- Variable loads
o Mass temporary structures/equipment, personnel, supplies
o Operations crane loads, drilling loads, ballast loads
- Environmental loads
o Air - Wind
o Hydrodynamic loads - Waves and Current
o Marine growth
- Repetitive loads: fatigue
- Accidental loads
o Collisions, fire, explosions, accidental flooding
o Earthquakes (actually also an environmental load)
Loads (actions) by currents and waves
Wave loading Morison equation
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Selection of wave theory
Wave loading (action)

- Hydrodynamic loads at a particular point
- Combine Morison with wave theory (e.g. periodic airy waves & vertical circular cylinder)
- Wave theory v and v. as a function of place and time
o Cylinder dimensions obstacle
o Morison local drag and inertia loads
- Question: Which of the two terms in the Morison equation is often dominant drag term or
inertia term?
- Airy (deepwater) wave
Calculation of hydrodynamic loads
For hydrodynamic load calculation use Morison equation and the hydrodynamic model of the
structure to calculate drag and inertial loads.
Select appropriate wave theory to calculate water particle kinematics
Add current velocity profile and wave particle velocity profile for drag load calculation.
Note that drag and inertia loading are out of phase
For extreme wave load conditions for steel jackets and towers, the hydrodynamic drag loading
term is often much larger than inertial load.
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Support reactions of a tower frame

- When the external loads (actions) are known we can calculate the jacket
foundation reactions and estimate the forces in the jacket members. Using
some gross simplifications allows us to make an estimate as follows.
- Based on symmetry, the horizontal reactions are equal.
- Consider the overturning moment around mudline support points left and
right and the vertical force equilibrium gives the vertical reactions.
Sectional forces over a substructure
- Next step:
o Transfer the external actions (global) to internal forces (local) in the
substructure frame
- To obtain internal forces:
o Global loading is actually a distributed set of actions and is better represented by a
series of point loads at the framing levels.
o Determine sectional loading in cross sections over the height of the frame/consider
force and moment equilibrium at the cross section
o The internal forces follow from:
Vertical: Topsides and support structure loads
Horizontal: Hydrodynamic and wind loads
o Superimpose separate load cases to arrive at total internal forces in all elements
Limit state design (LSD)
- ISO Standards in 19900 series have adopted the Limit State Format.
- A limit state is a condition of a structure beyond which it no longer fulfils the relevant design
criteria: load versus resistance
- Ultimate Limit State (ULS) safety related
o Limit state that corresponds to the maximum load-carrying capacity
- Serviceability Limit State (SLS) operations related
o Limit state corresponding to the structural ability to perform daily use
- Fatigue Limit State (FLS) safety or operations related
o Limit state corresponding to cumulative damage from repeated loading
- Accidental Limit State (ALS) acceptable damage
o Limit state that corresponds to structural integrity due to an accident
Substructure design governing load conditions
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Design of the support structure

- But, there is much more....
o So far we mainly looked at the in place conditions for extreme storm. Other in place
conditions include operating, accidental loads (e.g. ship impact), fatigue limit state, or
corrosion
o However we must also consider conditions during construction:
Stages of fabrication
Load out
Transportation
Launch or lift
Upending
Unpiled stability
Piling
Cost savings
- Reduction of
o Wave & current loading
o Jacket steel weight
o Pile weight
o Jacket anode weight
o Installation time
o Etc.
Questions you may ask yourselves regarding design of BFOS
- What is the difference between a jacket and a tower type offshore support structure?
o We looked at the loads in a steel frame and compared the leg loads.
- Are the foundation loads at seabed different when comparing a tower and a jacket?
- Are the loads in the diagonal braces the same when comparing a tower and jacket?
- How do we determine the deck elevation for a BFOS?
- Why must the deck level be above wave crest level and what could happen to the platform if the
deck is too low?
- What will be the deck elevation for given waterdepth, wave height, subsidence, etc.?
- Why is a structural bracing frame of a steel jacket/tower configured of triangles?
- What are the load carrying mechanisms for dynamic and static loads on a BFOS?
- What are important factors for calculating the hydrodynamic loads on a steel offshore
jacket/tower?
- Which limit states are considered for the design of a BFOS?
- What is the difference between LRFD and WSD approach?
Fixed structure only in shallow waters
- Less materials less expensive
- Less privy to currents
Jacket
- The piles are driven through the legs and connection leg-pile is on top
o Load carry: legs piles
Tower
- The piles go through the pile-sleeves at the bottom
- Load carry
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o Legs bottom sleeves bottom piles

Tower pile sleeve
- Yellow easy to find in dark water, good entrance (funnel)
Reason top site never gets wet
- Forces get larger otherwise
- Everybody lives and works on top site
Only formula you have to know is the Morrissey equation
Tow of Malampaya
- No crane needed
- Lower it between legs and set it down
- Need a high carrying-thing
Learn: installation methods
Shims: to connect outside diameter of the pile & inside diameter of the leg
See questions of this presentation
Lecture 13: Introduction to fabrication installation and

decommissioning
Lifecycle
Fabric yard general view

- Stages of Fabrication include
o Contracting
o Technical preps (fabrication drawings, shop drawings, procedures)
o Procurement of steel and materials
o Logistics
o Preparatory work in the yard
o Construction of sub-assemblies and final structure
o Painting and coating
o Preparations for load out and tow
o Handover of structure to tow master/installation contractor
o HSEQ is of the utmost importance for all the activities
General view of roll-up of jacket bent
- Note the synchronized movement of cranes in the roll-up
operation is essential for a smooth operation/to avoid crane
overload
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Stages of roll-up operations

- Bent being lifted from horizontal position
Bent lifted towards vertical plane
Substructure ready for load out

- Load out
o Load out is the operation of transferring offshore jackets, topsides and modules from
the fabrication site onto transport barge, for subsequent delivery to the installation site
o Load outs may be executed by crane lift, skidding, rolling by wheeled or tracked vehicle,
or a combination of methods
o Selection of load out method depends on physical structural characteristics, tow
arrangement, installation procedure at offshore site, facilities and equipment available
in the fabrication yard, and tidal conditions
o The process must be thoroughly engineered for smooth (safe) operation
Fabrication yard general view load in progress
Jacket load-out (in the fore-ground), cranes and flat-top barges
Jacket load out reaction forces

- As jacket is progressively skidded onto the barge, different reaction
forces will be imposed on the jacket due to differential elevation of the
barge and other supports
- The correct sequence of ballasting and de-ballasting of the barge as the
jacket is progressively transferred onto the barge is essential
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Crane lift load out of deck
Crane barge movement after lifting deck from yard
Module load out using wheeled trailers
Steel tower structure tow to offshore site
Safety during tow

- Factors to be considered include the following,
o A safe tow route must be selected ensuring sufficient water depth, shelter for storms
(cyclones), etc.
o Primary damage or loss modes for the tow that must be addressed may including
Breakage of tow lines
Stability loss (avoid capsize for anticipated wind, waves and currents)
Structural strength (of seafasts, etc.)
Fatigue damage
o The action of the waves on the cargo (jacket, deck) should be avoided
Forces to be considered for transportation
Installation methods
- Lift (for support structures and topsides)
- Launch and upend (for support structures)
- Float-over (for topsides)
- Self-float and lower (for support structures
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and complete platforms)

Self-floating and mooring (for floating structures)
Offshore lifting
- Crane vessels
- SSCV up to 14,000mt capacity
- Monohull up to 5,000mt capacity
- Sheerleg up to 4,100mt capacity
- Lift vessel station keeping
- Traditional mooring (anchors; piles; weight,..)
- Dynamic Positioning (DP)
SSCV: Semi-Submersible Cane Vessel
Lift considerations
- Everything will be engineered and prepared to ensure safe operation taking the following into
account
o HSE
o Balance and equilibrium (CoG underneath the hook)
o Crane lift capacity at radius viz structure weight (incl. dynamic effects)
o Hook height
o Lifting lugs
o Rigging
Rigging design (lift height, sling angle, shackles, spreader bars, etc.)
o Clearances (boom clearance, vessel clearance, etc.)
o Strength of all components (including, structural members, shackles, slings)
o For final positioning
Hook motion envelope (especially heave)
Guides, bumpers and stabbing cones (primary & secondary)
Tugger/Control lines
- Weather during the lift operation
Tandem lift of jacket
Launch barge
- Installation method for large jackets
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o
o
o
Jacket slides off a barge (normally longitudinally)

Largest jacket is Bullwinkle jacket launched from H-851
Note the rocker arms. These are needed to spread the load on the jacket and for
smooth final trajectory of the jacket as it dives into the water.
Jacket launching sequence from barge
Upending
Installation
Pile
Skirt pile with free-riding underwater hammer
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Connections
o Jacket:
Welding shims
Welding crown plate
Grouting complete annulus
Tower:
Grouting annulus
Hydralok
What is decommissioning?
- To plan, gain approval for and implement the removal, disposal or re-use of an offshore
installation.
- 6 project phases:
o Develop, assess and select options
o Obtain approvals and permits
o Detailed planning and engineering
o Stop production, plug wells and clean facilities
o Removal of structure (wholly or partially)
o Disposal and/or recycling of removed parts
- (Decommissioning is preferred terminology, but is sometimes also referred to as: abandonment
or removal)
Questions
- What are the main stages during construction?
- What are the important considerations for lifting?
- What are the forces in the lifting sling, where do maximum bending moments occur?
- Which installation methods are often used for offshore platforms
o i) for bottom founded support structures,
o ii) for topsides?
- What are important considerations for tow transport?
- Describe launch operations for a jacket structure?
- What is the main purpose of the rocker arms on a launch barge
Lecture 14: Design of Drill Ships

The purpose
- Exploration drilling
- Production drilling
- Well testing
- Completions
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Main components
- Drilling
Design considerations
- General lay out
o Vessel and drilling
Payload
o Drilling
Marine drilling riser
Telescopic joint
BOP
Drill pipes, drill collars, casing, etc.
Mud
Brine
Base oil
Bulk in silos
Bulk in sacks
Drill water
o Vessel
Marine diesel oil
Fresh water
People
Supplies
Stability
o IMU MODU code (for damage stability no
probabilistic analysis is required)
GME and roll motions
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The natural roll period of the vessel has to be beyond (longer) typical wave
periods in operating area
The natural roll period can be estimated using the following formula
Ixx is roll inertia and it can be calculated assuming the roll radius of
inertia equal to 0.4 ships breath
m44 is added mass for roll inertia. Value of m44 depends on number
of parameters including the hull geometry, natural roll period, etc. As a
rough assumption it can be taken as 25% of Ixx
DP3
o
Position will be maintaining in case of any single

component failure including flooding or fire of any single
compartment
o Environmental conditions
Wind
Current
Waves
Choice of
Number and power of gensets
Number and power of thrusters and their allocation
Power connectivity and switch board rooms
Here the design cycle starts
o Drilling equipment
o Payload
o Endurance (fuel, fresh water, etc.)
o Number of persons on board
o Ship speed
o + ship own weight
Required buoyancy
Length layouts
Breadth stability
Depth/draft freeboard
Block coefficient ship speed
Development of Huisman Drill Ship

- Vessel and drilling equipment
- Integrated design
o Drilling equipment - green
o Vessel design - blue
o Optimized integrated design
- Typical drill ship
o Engine room in aft end
o Risers on main deck
o BOP on main deck
o Drill floor above BOP
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Step 1
o
Step 2
o
o
o
o
-
Derrick replaced by MPT

Substructure with large hatch
BOP lowered through hatch
MPT placed lower
Lower COG
Easier & safer handling
Significant increased capacity and payload with smaller
displacement
Step 3
o Engine room to front of vessel
o Exhaust above accommodation
Because of low drill floor no problems with exhaust
gasses
No funnel obstruction aft deck
Step 4
o Space in aft end vessel
o Risers in hold below main deck
Lower CoG
Large clear aft deck
Model tests at TU Delft
o Sea keeping tests
o Resistance
o Moonpool studies
Model tests at Marin
o Sea keeping tests
o Free floating DP
Comparison
o Huisdrill
Displacement 54000 mt
GM (fully loaded) = 2m
GM (unloaded) = 2m
VDL: 20000 mt
Wind area 3250 m
Drill floor above water: 12 m
Thruster power: 6 x 3.7 MW
o Typical drill ship
Displacement 100000 mt
GM (fully loaded) = 3.5 m
GM (unloaded) = 4.5m
VDL: 20000 mt
Wind area: 6600 m
Drill floor above water: 26 m
Thruster power: 6 x 5.5 MW
Dual Multi-Purpose Tower
o Features
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2 hoists: drilling & heavy offline activities

Machinery in tower
o Top drive park system
Offline indoor maintenance
Tripping without top drive
Safety, efficiency
o Heave compensation
Active heave compensation
Measuring vessel heave and counteract with winches
Precise landing
Passive heave compensation
Soft spring
Utilized for well testing
Standby during AHC
o Vertical pipe handling
Main hoist: drilling
Auxiliary hoist: offline stand building
135 ft stands (3 x 45 ft or 4 x 30 ft)
34000 ft drill pipe & 20000 ft casing
The principle
o
Handling of large objects

No V-door limitation
Hoistable floor
Drill floors
o Spacious drill floors, only 5m above main deck
Tower top removal
o Tower head section removable
Allowing sailing through Panama canal, Suez canal & Bosporus
Aft deck
o Transport cart
o Gantry crane
Can travel up to the DMPT
Subsea winch
o Subsea installation winch
SWL 75 mt at 3000 winch
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Active heave compensation

Building method demarcation
o Huisman delivery
o Yard delivery
Smaller vessel
o Lower CAPEX/OPEX
Offline activities
o Increased efficiency
Enhanced logistics
o Increased efficiency and safety
System redundancy
o Increased up-time and safety
Lecture 16: Offshore Wind Energy

Two parent industries
- Onshore
o Loading
+ hydrodynamic
o Foundation considerations
o Maintenance
- Offshore
o Loading
+ (dynamic) wind
+ rotor harmonics
o Single structure vs serial production
o Optimization gains
Most important oil&gas on on-&offshore
- Loading
- Optimization
o Gain is huge
Why Offshore wind?
- Onshore
o Land is increasingly occupied
o Resistance against visual pollution is growing
o Wind turbines are getting larger
Requires more space
Visible from greater distance
- Offshore
o No obstacles more & steadier wind
o Space
o But: remote & tougher conditions
Offshore wind farms
- Primary function
o Convert wind power offshore into electric power onshore
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Main challenge
o Reducing the cost per kWh
Main area of development: NW Europe (shallow seas & favorable wind conditions)
Fast growing industry sector
Lack of trained engineers
Political background
- Need for independent sources of sustainable energy
- NL government targets 2020
o 16% sustainable energy in 2020
o 6000 MW offshore wind 2020
- EWEA European target 2020:
o 40 GW from offshore wind
History
- Persian deserts
- Windmills
- Power from wind 1888
o Brushmill
o 12 kW
o Auto control
- Poul la Cour (Denmark) 1891
o Step forward
Aerodynamics
o Tests in wind tunnel
o Produced hydrogen
- MW size, 1941, Vermont
o 1.25 MW
o Largest wind turbine ever built until 1979
o Steel blades
o Fatigue of blade
Only 1100 hours operational
- Gedser: test turbine in Denmark
o 1957
o By J.Juul
o 200 kW
o 24 m rotor diameter
o The Danish Concept
Domination of the market well into the 1980s
- 70s-80s: NASA program
o Boeing
o General Electric
o Purpose: develop technology and support emerging market
o Largely unsuccessful
o Light pretty shafts/turbines
o Variables generated
o After time energy prices reduced by 3
- Offshore ideas 1970-80
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o Heerema
o RSV
o Boskalis
o Fugro
o Studying offshore wind
Offshore: detailed plans
o Copy offshore structures
o Adapted to be produced in large numbers
o Conclusion: bigger turbines needed
Nogersund
o Installed 1990
o Decommissioned 1996
o 1 wind world 220 kW turbine
o Rotor diameter 25 m
o Water depth 6 m
o Distance to shore 250 m
o Test facility to study influence of offshore wind turbines on:
Birds
Fish and fishing
Shipping
Public opinion
Operation & maintenance
Vindeby
o Installed 1991
o 11 bonus 450 kW turbines
o Max. water depth 5 m
o Distance to shore 2.5 m
o Total power 5.0 MW
o Gravity- based foundations
Lely
o Installed 1994
o 4 NedWind 500 kW turbines
o Distance to shore 750 m
o Total power 2 MW
o 2-bladed turbines
o First driven monopiles
Tuno Knob
o Installed 1995
o 10 Vestas V39 500 kW turbines
o Distance to shore 6 km
o Total power 5 MW
o Gravity-based foundation
Bockstigen
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o Installed 1998
o 5 WindWorld 500 kW turbines
o Max.water depth 8 m
o Monopile foundations
Blyth
o Installed 2000
o 2 Vestas V80 2.0 MW turbines
o Total power 4 MW
o Drilled monopile foundations
Middelgrunden
o Installed 2001
o 20 bonus 2.0 MW turbines
o Total power 40 MW
o Gravity-based foundations
o Public involvement/investment
o First windpark with public involvement
Buy shares
o Also in Holland (windcentrale)
Yttre Stengrund
o Installed 2002
o 5 NEG-micon 2 MW turbines
o Total 10 MW
Horns Rev
o Installed 2002
o 80 Vestas 2.0 MW turbines
o Max.water depth 14 m
o Total power 160 MW
o First large offshore wind farm
o Driven monopile foundations
o Helicopter acces
o Problems with gearboxes (80)
Couldnt handle seawater
Samso
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o Installed 2003
o Water depth 18 m
o Distance to shore 2.5 km
o Total power 23 MW
o Gravity- based foundations
Nysted
o Installed 2003
o Water depth 9 m
o Gravity based foundations
Arklow Bank
o Installed 2004
o 7 GE 3.6 MW turbines
o Water depth 15 m
o Total Power 25.2 MW
o Monopiles
North Hoyle
o Installed 2005
o 30 Vestas 3.0 MW turbine
o Water depth 5 m
o Total Power 90 MW
Scroby Sands
o Installed 2005
o Water depth 10 m
o Total Power 60 MW
Kentish Flats
o Installed 2005
o Water depth 5 m
o Total Power 90 MW
Egmond aan zee
lOMoARcPSD
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Installed 2005
36 Vestas 3.0 MW turbines
Rotor diameter 90 m
Water depth 23 m
Distance to shore 10 km
Total Power 108 MW
First Dutch offshore wind farm
Monopile foundations
The heads started settling in the
2 filled all the monopoles with concrete
Beatrice
o Installed 2007
o 2 REpower 5.0 MW turbines
o Water depth 45 m
o Total Power 10 MW
o Jacket structure
o Most expensive so far
o Delayed by 1 year
Princess Amalia (Q7)
o Installed 2008
o Water depth 25 m
o Total Power 120 MW
o Deepest monopile foundations when constructed
Thornton bank
o Installed 2008
o 6 Repower 5.0 MW turbines
o Water depth 30 m
o Total Power 30 MW
o Deepest gravity-based foundations
o OWF to be built in 3 phases
Alpha Ventus
o Installed 2009/2010
o 6 Repower 5M turbines
o 6 Areva Multibrid M5000 turbines
o Water depth 20 m
o Total Power 60 MW
o Demonstration project
o Tripod & jacket foundations
o Extensively used for research (RAVE)
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Hywind
o Installed 2009
o Floating
o 2.3MW Siemens turbine
o Test project
o Water depth: 100m
o Distance to shore: 10km
- London Array
o Fully operational April 2013
o 175 3.6 MW Siemens turbines
o Area: 100 km2
o Maximum water depth: 23 m
o Distance to shore: 20 kW
o Worlds largest offshore wind farm
o First with about the same size as a large coal or nuclear plant
Danish concept
- Simple turbine
- 3 blades
- Horizontal axis
Key statistics by the end of 2013
- 2080 Offshore Wind Turbines installed and grid connected
- Totaling 6562 MW
- 69 Wind Farms
- 11 European countries
- Average offshore wind turbine size is 4 MW
o Siemens 3.6 MW cape
- 2 Full-scale grid connected floating turbines
Trends in the Industry
- Installed in deeper water
- Larger turbines
- Larger wind farms
Offshore wind farm components
- Wind turbine
- Support structure
o
o
o
Monopile
Gravity-based
Jacket
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o Tripod
o Floating?
MET mast
o Placed 2-3 years before OWF
o Map environmental conditions
Wind
Waves
Current
o Use for detailed design
Electrical infrastructure
o Infield transmission cables
o Substation
o Shore connection cables
o Onshore substation/tie-in
Support structures and installation

- Support structure types
o Monopiles
o Gravity-based
o Jackets
o Tripods
o Tripiles
o Floating
Definitions
- Hub height:
o Elevation of hub above sea level
- Interface level:
o Elevation of bottom tower flange above sea level
- Support structure
o Entire structure holding RNA in place
Tower
o Tubular structure spanning distance between
interface and RNA
Substructure
o Part of the structure spanning distance between
interface level and seabed
Foundation
o Part of structure in direct contact with soil
Design objectives support structure
- Survival
- Extreme loads
- Cyclic loads
- Operation
- Deformations
- Accelerations
o Make sure the sensitive mechanisms (e.g. sensors) arent affected by the accelerations
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Optimization for cost reduction

Secondary aspects
Export of energy
Access and repair
Sources of excitation : wind

- 1P = rotational frequency of rotor
- 3P = blade passing frequency
- Stiff stiff: a lot of steel expensive
- Soft soft: a lot of movement
- Ideal: get it in soft-stiff region
o Very difficult (only Hz)
o Adjust controller to not go in certain in
frequencies (because of resonance)
Damping only in direction where the wind blows
Sources of excitation: waves
- Generic wave spectra
o Pierson-Moskowitz
Fully developed sea state
o JONSWAP (JOint North Sea WAve Project)
Fetch limited situations
Other harmonic sources
- Mass imbalance rotor
- Tower shadow
o Region around your tower where the
velocity is reduced
- Yaw misalignment
o Router is not facing the wind
- Aerodynamic imbalances due to
o Wind shear
Damping only in direction
where the wind blows
o Blade pitch errors
Transformation to loads
Morison
o Waves
o Currents
o Wind BEM
Dynamic interactions
- Aerodynamic damping induced by operating rotor
- Hydrodynamic forces and structural response
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Soil and structure

Interactions between dynamics of different OWEC
Components
Monopile support structure:

- Components
o Foundation pile
o Transition piece
o Tower
- Installation
o Seabed preparation / scour protection installation
o Drilling or driving of pile
o Transition piece options...
o Tower sections bolted
- Foundation pile
o Dpile ~ 4.0 - 6.5 m
o t ~ 45 110 mm
o D/t ~ 80 90
- Transition piece
o Grouted joints settlements...
o Conical grouted joints with shear keys
o New concepts:
Hammering on flange
Slip joint
o Inclination correction?
o Secondary steel?
Gravity based
- Support structures
o Self-weight of gravity base to resist overturning moment/slip
o Extra ballast needed offshore (buoyancy forces)
- Fabrication
o Constructed (hollow) on land - crane lifting
capacity
- Transportation and installation
lOMoARcPSD
Ballast and scour protection
Multimember structures
- Jacket
- Tripod
- Tripile
Why multi-member systems
- Deeper waters, larger turbines
o and increase
o Natural frequency decreases
- For same environmental loading, we
require:
o Increase in EI, without significantly increasing (mass) of support structure per
unit length)
o Place material as far away from the neutral line as possible
- Large diameter piles
OR
- Multi-member structures
Monopiles
- Becomes more impractical and less economic
- Solutions required with higher stiffness for equal mass
- Multi-member structures
- Monopile is the most ideal because it doesnt have complicated joints but the needed diameter
is becoming impractical
Jackets
- Definitions
- Disadvantages
o Fabrication and welding of many
geometrically complex joints
Expensive
o Weld details susceptible to higher
stress concentrations/fatigue
Extra material requirements
o Step down in width necessitates provision of substantial transition section
Heavy!
o Piles needed to attach jacket to seabed
- Transport
- Lifting & landing
Tripod
-
Definitions
Fabrication & installation
Load out
Transport of tripod
lOMoARcPSD
Tripile
-
foundations
o Towed on a barge
Lifting and landing
Pile driving
Turbine installation
o Crane
Jacket load out
Not that optimal
o Still heavy
o Install foundations piles to connect it to the sea bed
Higher lever arms...

Developed by BARD (1st installation 2008)
3 grouted transition pieces
Weight comparable to that of Alpha Ventus jacket (similar water
depths)
Only used once on a project
Concept selection
- Consider:
o Structural design (strength and fatigue)
o Fabrication (onshore)
o Transportation to offshore site
o Installation in-situ
- Keep operation & maintenance firmly in mind
Support structure optimization
- Computer-aided (vs manual) optimization widely used in automotive and aerospace industry,
but not for the design of offshore wind turbine structures
o Why?
o Large number of parameters
o Complexity of working with many engineering disciplines, often using different
assumptions
o Uncertainty about soil conditions
o Simplified models required (large number of load cases)
o Etc.
CapEx
- Capital expenditure
- Shows that wind turbines become more and more expensive
Piles second: postpile

Summary Introduction To Offshore Engineering Oe4606 Complete Lecture 1 16

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Summary Introduction to Offshore Engineering (OE4606):

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Introduction to Offshore Engineering

In general, the oil temperature and pressure in an reservoir is

How do we find it?

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The reservoir is present but it must be found first in order to develop it

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A wax that can be deposited on the inside of pipelines

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Floating mini-tension leg platform of relatively low cost

SPAR Platform (SP)

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Lecture 2: Loads on Offshore Structures Kaminski

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Mooring and riser forces

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Construction loads (@yard)

Valid for /D>5

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Liquefy NG to minimize volume (about 600x) for easier

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Which waves () bend an FLNG (L) mostly?

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Lecture 3: Fatigue of offshore structures Kaminski

All possible failure mechanisms

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o Method: spectral analysis

Lifetime assurance methods

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Lecture 4: Arctic Engineering Part 1

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Or the region north of the northern-most tree

The (high) Arctic

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Arctic offshore environment

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bridge piers, lighthouses, wind turbine foundations, etc.

Examples of artificial islands

Examples of bottom founded structures

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Not all oil and gas

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Vanishing polar ice

Lecture 5: Arctic Engineering Part 2

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The salinity of seawater, in comparison, is about 35 ppt

Factors influencing interaction scenarios

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Ice forces vertical sided structures

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Lecture 6: Introduction to Marine Pipelines (Allseas)

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Considerations for offshore pipe lay

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Infield flow line

Feeder line = Flow line

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