Electromagnetism

Electric phenomena occur even in neutral matter because the forces act on
the individual charged constituents. The electric force, in particular, is
responsible for most of the physical and chemical properties of atoms and
molecules. It is enormously strong compared with gravity. For example, the
absence of only one electron out of every billion molecules in two 70kilogram (154-pound) persons standing two metres (two yards) apart would
repel them with a 30,000-ton force. On a more familiar scale, electric
phenomena are responsible for the lightning and thunder accompanying
certain storms.

Electric and magnetic forces can be detected in regions called electric and
magnetic fields. These fields are fundamental in nature and can exist in
space far from the charge or current that generated them. Remarkably,
electric fields can produce magnetic fields and vice versa, independent of
any external charge. A changing magnetic field produces an electric field, as
the English physicist Michael Faraday discovered in work that forms the
basis of electric power generation. Conversely, a changing electric field
produces a magnetic field, as the Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell
deduced. The mathematical equations formulated by Maxwell incorporated
light and wave phenomena into electromagnetism. He showed that electric
and magnetic fields travel together through space as waves of
electromagnetic radiation, with the changing fields mutually sustaining each
other. Examples of electromagnetic waves traveling through space
independent of matter are radio and television waves, microwaves, infrared
rays, visible light, ultraviolet light, X rays, and gamma rays. All of these
waves travel at the same speednamely, the velocity of light (roughly
300,000 kilometres, or 186,000 miles, per second). They differ from each
other only in the frequency at which their electric and magnetic fields
oscillate.

Maxwells equations still provide a complete and elegant description of

electromagnetism down to, but not including, the subatomic scale. The
interpretation of his work, however, was broadened in the 20th century.
Einsteins special relativity theory merged electric and magnetic fields into
one common field and limited the velocity of all matter to the velocity of
electromagnetic radiation. During the late 1960s, physicists discovered that
other forces in nature have fields with a mathematical structure similar to
that of the electromagnetic field. These other forces are the nuclear force,
responsible for the energy released in nuclear fusion, and the weak force,
observed in the radioactive decay of unstable atomic nuclei. In particular,
the weak and electromagnetic forces have been combined into a common
force called the electroweak force. The goal of many physicists to unite all of
the fundamental forces, including gravity, into one grand unified theory has
not been attained to date.

An important aspect of electromagnetism is the science of electricity, which

is concerned with the behaviour of aggregates of charge, including the
distribution of charge within matter and the motion of charge from place to
place. Different types of materials are classified as either conductors or
insulators on the basis of whether charges can move freely through their
constituent matter. Electric current is the measure of the flow of charges;
the laws governing currents in matter are important in technology,
particularly in the production, distribution, and control of energy.

The concept of voltage, like those of charge and current, is fundamental to

the science of electricity. Voltage is a measure of the propensity of charge to
flow from one place to another; positive charges generally tend to move
from a region of high voltage to a region of lower voltage. A common
problem in electricity is determining the relationship between voltage and
current or charge in a given physical situation.

This article seeks to provide a qualitative understanding of

electromagnetism as well as a quantitative appreciation for the magnitudes
associated with electromagnetic phenomena.

Fundamentals
Everyday modern life is pervaded by electromagnetic phenomena. When a
light bulb is switched on, a current flows through a thin filament in the bulb;
the current heats the filament to such a high temperature that it glows,
illuminating its surroundings. Electric clocks and connections link simple
devices of this kind into complex systems such as traffic lights that are
timed and synchronized with the speed of vehicular flow. Radio and
television sets receive information carried by electromagnetic waves
traveling through space at the speed of light. To start an automobile,
currents in an electric starter motor generate magnetic fields that rotate the
motor shaft and drive engine pistons to compress an explosive mixture of
gasoline and air; the spark initiating the combustion is an electric discharge,
which makes up a momentary current flow.