-- - -

-.

-J
~

CHAPTER

13

Special
Considerations
with Assessments

Case Study
Introduction
Classroom Environment and Assessments
Creating a Positive Environment Classroom
Assessment Environment Classroom
Structure and Conditions Seating
Arrangements
Test Preparation and Assessments
Formal Preparatory Programs
and Assessments
Test Preparation Activities

CASE

Test Anxiety
Academic Dishonesty and Classroom.
Assessments
Chapter Summary
Case Study Epilogue
Chapter Activities
Key Concepts
Review Questions
Self-Assessment
References

STUDY

Mr. Thompson is in his second year of teaching physical sciences at a new high school in an urban
school district in the southeast. Due to increased science standards and course requirements for
graduation in his state, Mr. Thompson's science courses are flooded with students. However, many
of his students have little or no background in chemistry and physics or even general science.
Mr. Thompson has discovered that this situation is causing a number of different problems.
Many of his students complain that his classroom is not supportive for students with little science
experience. They also complain that the math needed for his classes was not available to them.
Some of them have complained that Mr. Thompson is not as helpful about the situation as he
should be. Other students have asked for special test review and test preparation classes. Right
before the first test, Mr. Thompson also had a number of students tell him that they had more test
anxiety about his classroom tests than in any other course.
During and after the first test, Mr. Thompson became aware of a potentially even bigger
problem. A number of students appeared to be copying each other's answers on the exam. When he
checks some of their scores, he finds that there are many similar answers.

277

..

278

- --

CHAPTER 13
Special Considerations with Assessments

279

These problems
Mr. Thompson
a number (Stiggins
of questions.
Among th~m
are the
created for students
during leave
different
assessmentwith
procedures
& Conklin,
1992).
following:
As with classroom climate, the central factor is the teacher. There are a number of
aspects to consider about classroom environment and classroom assessment environWhat
can he
do to provide
a more aspects.
positive classroom environment?
ment. The next
section
examines
these various
What can he do to be a more helpful teacher?
What can he do to make the test situations more positive?
Creating aHow
Positive
Environment
can he more
effectively help students prepare for exams? What
ways toenvironment
decrease testand
anxiety
in students?
The researchare
onsome
classroom
climate
indicates that teacher immediacy
and responsiveness
behaviors
important
factors
in students' perceptions of a supWhat should
he doare
about
academic
cheating?
portive classroom (Jordan & Merkel, 1994). Teacher immediacy and responsiveness
behaviors indicate that the teacher wants positive communications. These actions include
eye contact, smiling, physical proximity, encouraging questions, and praising students'
Introduction
work. These teacher behaviors indicate an interest in immediate and active responding to
student needs. The more a teacher demonstrates these behaviors, the more positive the
This
chapter
a number
special issues and concerns about assessment adminstudents'
views
aboutanalyzes
the classroom
willofbe.
istration
and assessment
practices.
A good
part of
these issuesclassroom
and concerns
deal with
Other
teacher
behaviors that
may help
produce
a supportive
environthe relationship between the classroom environment and assessments. For example, the
ment are:
first section of this chapter examines the factors involved in creating a positive class1. Teachers
who are sensitive
as to when
students
need these
help and
whenare
theysupportive
do not 2. teacher
room assessment
environment.
Included
among
aspects
Teachers
who allow
some individual
andphysical
choice by
students and classroom seating
behaviors,
assessment
practices, freedom
classroom
conditions,
3. Teachers
who actively strive to create a positive feeling between students
arrangements.
The second section of this chapter reviews a number of different problem areas
The
to create
a harmonious
working
among
appears toof the
withability
classroom
assessment
practices.
This atmosphere
section begins
withstudents
an examination
be especially
important.
Group
activities,
group
projects,
and
informal
group
assess- are
different methods of test preparation. Ethical and unethical test preparation practices
ments detailed.
may helpThe
in nurturing
a
supportive
climate.
Students
who
are
used
to
working
in the
next part contains the problem of test anxiety. This section reviews
teams seem
more
likely
to
be
supportive
of
each
other.
The
research
indicates
a
number
research on test anxiety and presents recommendations for dealing with test anxiety.
of teacher
behaviors
can provides
enhance aacritical
supportive
classroom
environment.
The fol-cheatThe end
of this that
chapter
analysis
on the problems
of academic
lowinging.
is a This
list ofsection
some of
these activities:
examines
ways that teachers may combat cheating.

Factors Contributing to a Supportive Environment

Classroom
Environment
and Assessments
1. A teacher
who uses a relaxed
and open manner in student interactions
2. A teacher who promotes cooperation among students
theexchange
overall of
setting
3. A Classroom
teacher whoenvironment
encourages a isfree
ideas and context in which all classroom
occur.
It include5
the social
climateofofstudents
the classroom, the physic:11 features
4. A activities
teacher who
clearly
defines what
is expected
the room,
the assessment
situation aand
context,
and instructional
activities
5. A of
teacher
who consistently
demonstrates
desire
for students
to succeed in
class 6. of the
teacher.
classroom
environment
A teacher
whoTherefore,
provides useful
feedback
to students ranges from the educational to the
to the
featuresthe
of classroom,
a classroom.
7. A social
teacher
whophysical
moves around
interacting positively with students 8.
Classroom
climate
is
a
subcategory
of classroom
environment that focuses on the
A teacher who has positive expectations for student
performance
emotional and social interactions in the classroom. Every organization has its own
climate. In the
classroom,
the that
climate
is largely determined
by the social
Unfortunately,
research
indicates
the environment
in many classrooms
tendsand
to psychobe
logical
relationships
between
the
teacher
and
the
students
(Rosenfeld,
1983).
Thisa relanegative rather than supportive (Myers & Rocca, 2001). A negative environment can cause
gives
individual
classroom
its own
atmosphere
or personality.
numbertionship
of problems
with each
classroom
assessments.
In particular,
test anxiety,
inappropriate
behavior, The
leading
factor in developing
these relationships
the teacher.
and negative
self-efficacy
can be increased
in a negative is
classroom
environment. There are a
Classroom
assessment
also is
a subcategory
number of classroom
environment
factorsenvironment
that can adversely
affect
your students:of classroom environment. Classroom assessment environment focuses on the background and context

280

CHAPTER 13
Special Considerations with Assessments

281

Factors Contributing to a Negative Environment

1.
A
who
whenfurther
they miss
questions
a test or
during
rooms can teacher
also have
anembarrasses
impact. Thestudents
next section
examines
the on
physical
structure
class
discussion
factors involved in the classroom assessment environment.
2. A teacher who makes disparaging remarks about students' performance on assess
ments 3. A teacher who encourages competition among students on assessments 4.
Classroom
Structure
Conditions
A teacher
who is and
overly
intrusive or overly controlling in every aspect of student
behavior
The physical
features and conditions of the classroom are an important part of the
5. A teacher
who inappropriately
respondslighting,
to students'
requests.design, and seating
assessment
environment.
Room temperature,
classroom
arrangements can all have an impact on student achievement and the quality of assessment practices. The following teacher application specifically addresses the physical
comfort and conditions of the classroom.
Classroom Assessment Environment
Clearly, certain aspects-positive or negative---can have an effect on the quality of
assessments in your classroom environment. As previously stated, the way that each
Teacher Application
individual classroom teacher interacts with students is the prime variable. Some educators Structure
have focused
more specifically
on the factors that contribute to the classroom
Classroom
and Conditions
for Assessments
assessment
environment.
Recall
that Stiggins
Conklin (1992) defined the classroom
. Is the classroom
temperature
comfortable
duringand
assessments?
assessment
environment
asfor
thestudents?
context created for students during different assessment
. Is the lighting
appropriate
. Is the room
well ventilated?
procedures.
There
are a number of aspects Siggins and Conklin discuss in developing a
. Are there
any unnecessary
distractions,
such asAmong
too much
noise
duringare
assessments?
. Are
positive
classroom
assessment
environment.
these
factors
the following:
the seating arrangements comfortable?
. Are computers, lab equipment, and other instructional devices arranged in an appro
manner
to match the students'
needs
during assessments?
1. priate
A variety
of appropriate
assessment
methods
closely linked to instruction 2.
.Selecting
Does the design
and upkeep
the established
classroom make
it an inviting place for students to
assessments
that of
have
quality
assessments?
3. take
Clearly
defined expectations and positive perceptions of students

4. Fair and consistent assessment policies in grading students

5. Effective feedback after assessments
A physically uncomfortable environment can be a distraction to students during
Research
classroom
environments
that the almost
environment
has an
assessments.
Loud on
noise
levels, assessment
high temperatures,
and indicates
poor ventilation
certainly
impact
on student achievement
in the classroom
(Brookhart,
1997).inNot
surprisingly,
classrooms
reduce
performance.
A..'l uncomfortable
environment
can result
incorrect
or unreliable
with
positive assessment
environment
tend to have
betterfactors,
studentthere
achievement
(Brookhart,
levels
of aachievement
among students.
In addition
to these
are a number
of
1997).
The
research
also
demonstrates
that
there
is
a
reciprocal
relationship
between
classroom
issues concerning seating arrangements. The next section reviews these Issues.

assessment environment and the factors of assessment perceptions, appropriate expectations,

effective feedback, and self-efficacy (Brookhart & De V oge, 1999). In positive assessment
environments, students appear to perceive assessments in a more favorable light. Teachers who
provide
appropriate expectations and effective feedback generally bring about an increase in
Seating
Arrangements
achievement in their students. Student self-efficacy also should be influenced in a positive
Many
studies
indicated
that when
students are allowed to choose their own seats in
manner
withhave
a positive
assessment
environment.
a classroom,
there
is hand,
a noticeable
achievement
during
formal and
informalthat
On the
other
there are effect
certain on
areas
of the classroom
assessment
environment
assessments
(Levine,
O'Neal,
&
McDonald,
1980;
Wulf,
1976).
Students
who
choose
may be beyond the teacher's control. Class size can be a factor in this envi ronment. Theretois a
sit nearest
the larger
teacher
tead to
rates of
who
choose
tendencyto for
classes
to have
have higher
a somewhat
lessachievement;
positive and students
supportive
environment.
to sit
far
from
the
teacher
tend
to
have
lower
rates
of
achievement.
However,
whenFor
Schoolwide or systeJ11wide policies may have an effect on the assessment environment.
students
are
assigned
seats,
this
effect
essentially
disappears,
with
no
significant
example, increasing academic standards may have an
relationship
seat environment.
assignment and
achievement.
A similar
patternor can
impact on between
the assessment
The actual
physical layout
of buildings
elassbe seen

with class participation on informal assessments. If allowed to choose their own seats,
students who sit near the teacher will participate more in class discussions and on infor mal assessments requiring student participation.

,.

282

CHAPTER 13
Special Considerations with Assessments

283

Another aspect about seating arrangements is t..'1e issue of organizing classroom seating
during assessments. There are three standard patterns:

2. Row Seating. Introduction of new material, formal assessments, independent

work,
audiovisualseating
presentations
1. Row seating refers
to and
the traditional
of four or five rows with desks one
3.
Circular
Seating.
Teacher
mobility, eye contact, interpersonal communication,
behind another.
playing seating) consists of some type of circular
2. Circular seatingand
(or game
semicircular
arrangement with all desks having a clear view of the teacher.
best advice
is to change
arrangements
3. Cluster seating Perhaps
refers tothe
groups
of students
seatedseating
at large
tables. based on the preceding activities.

Rather than rely on only one type of seating, altering your seating arrange ments based on your
assessment
activities
may enhance
the classroom
One recent
surveyand
of instructional
K-5 classroom
seating
arrangements
foundenvironment.
that approxi-

mately 75 percent of elementary school classrooms use some form of cluster seating
(Patton, Snell, Knight, & Gerken, 2001). The primary grades are more likely than later
grades to use cluster seating. According to the researchers, these findings are in marked
Test Preparation
and Assessments
contrast
to previous surveys
in this area that indicated that row seating was the predominant pattern in elementary classrooms through the 1980s.
The major
reason(1987)
for thecoined
changethe
is term
the idea
that cooperative
learning
andschool
groupdistricts where
Popham
high-stakes
testing to
refer to
assessment activities
are fostereddecisions
by clusterare
seating
Patton
and colleagues
major educational
basedarrangements.
on standardized
test scores.
As noted before, there
(2001) state that
many teachers
believe about
that cluster
helps foster
cooperative
is considerable
controversy
the useseating
of high-stakes
testing.
Many educators believe
learning and that
helps test
foster
student
However, the
that cooperative
such testinglearning
may improve
scores
butachievement.
without a corresponding
gain in learning
authors note that
previous
research
does
not clearly
that these
beliefs are sup(Cannell,
1988;
Shepard,
1990;
Shepardindicate
& Dougherty,
1991).
ported.
High-stakes testing has produced some other troubling educational problems. One
Achievement
levels onis classroom
assessments
appear toforbetaking
any greater
such problem
the extensive
time spentdoinnot
preparation
the tests. Weeks and
with cluster seating
than with
other forms
of seating.
As previously
indicated, One
assigned
even months
in some
cases may
be devoted
to test preparation.
elementary school
seating arrangements
not appear
to have
effect
student for
achievement.
The assessments.
that I amdofamiliar
with spent
an any
entire
year on
preparing
the standardized
research is more
the issue
of off-task
of to bring up its
The straightforward
school was on aabout
state watch
list for
low test behaviors.
scores and A
hadnumber
one year
studies of K scores to the mandated level or be placed under direct state control. Although the school
12 students indicate
thatinrow
seating,
cluster score,
seating,it decreases
off-task
succeeded
meeting
thenot
mandated
devoted the
entire behaviors
year to test-taking skills
and increasesand
on-task
behaviors for
(Axelrod,
Hall, & Tams,
~eldall,
Morris,
test preparation
this standardized
test. It 1979;
is perhaps
the most
extreme form of
Vaughan, & Ng,
1981;
~eldall
&
Lam,
1987).
In
these
studies,
seating
in
rows
markedly
"teaching to the content of the test" about which I personally know.
reduced off-task behavior
with cluster
in rows, programs.
versus
Smith when
(1991)compared
studied various
types seating.
of state Seating
test preparation
These proclusters, produced
noticeable
in skills,
on-taskexhortations
behaviors. by the faculty, teaching content known to
grams
included increases
test-taking
There may
be an increase
student
participation
when
a circular/horseshoe
seat- parallel tests
be covered
by theintest,
teaching
to the test,
stress
inoculation, practicing
ing arrangement
is used
rather than row seating (Rosenfeld, Lambert, & Black, 1985).
items,
and cheating.
Circular seating arrangements
may enhance
instruction
informal
assessments
that
Teaching test-taking
skills,
such as and
limiting
guessing
and answering
the easy
focus on groupquestions
discussion
andis student
participation.
Again,
participation
seat- aspects are
first,
clearly ethical.
However,
some
of the otherwith
testthis
preparation
ing arrangement
appears
to be primarily
influenced
by whether
students
choose
clearly
not ethical.
For instance,
it is clearly
unethical
to teach
the their
test items directly,
seats or are assigned
seats.
either through teaching to a previous or a current version of the test. Parallel forms,
So what's
a teacher
to do
about choosing
(1976)
provided
by the
publisher
for actualseating
practicearrangements?
by students, isPapalia
an ethical
practice, although
makes an important
point about
classroomteaching
seating:practice.
No one seating
arrangement
is going
a somewhat
questionable
In effect,
practice tests
and practice test
to work all theexercises
time. Foraresome
activities
seating
may
be better,
whereasand
withlearning
other are all about.
acceptable,
butrow
they
are not
really
what teaching
activities it may
be better
use either
cluster or circular
seating.
Papalia's review states
Cheating
byto
teachers
or administrators
is clearly
unethical.
that the following In
activities
may ofbehigh-stakes
best performed
the and
threeDougherty
major seating
their survey
testing,with
Shepard
(1991) found that 6
arrangements:percent of teachers believed that changing incorrect answers to correct ones on answer
documents
occurred
in theirArrangements
school. The study reported that 8 percent of teachers
Instruction,
Assessments,
and Seating
indicated
that students
who might
have
trouble onuse
theoftest
were encouraged to be absent
1. Cluster Seating.
Tutoring,
peer teaching,
peer
assessments,
self-instruc
on the day
testing. Additional
indicated
thatand
23 percent
tional materials,
andofcooperative
groupingfindings
according
to interests
activitiesof teachers believed
that hints to correct answers were given and that 18 percent believed that questions were
rephrased to help students in their school.
!

284

CHAPTER 13

Th~se types of teacher behaviors are considered unethical by the major professional
educational and psychological associations. Such practices compromise the integrity of the tests
and call into question the entire assessment and educational process.

F onnal Preparatory Programs and Assessments

A number of companies claim that they can produce a.significant increase in students'
scores with formal preparatory classes and programs. Messick (1982) presented evidence
that coaching and preparatory programs were able to substantially improve SAT scores.
On the other hand, in his review of the effects of preparatory programs, Cunningham
(1986) stated that short-term courses result in only modest improvements in assessment
scores. Cunningham did acknowledge, however, that intensive training may produce
greater increases in scores. Cunningham also pointed out that the scores on mathematics
tests were more likely to be improved than other areas. This finding appears to be
consistent with other research.
In the teacher application section that follows, a number of veteran teachers were
asked to provide their views on test preparation programs and how they use standardized
assessment scores.

Teacher Application
Views on Test Preparation and on Using Test Scores
I use a testing and instructional program called Scoring High to prepare students for the Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills (CTBS). I use it so children can test in a fonnat like the CTBS. I
also use this program as a review. I check the results of the CTBS to see if modifications are
needed for students who are having trouble. But I do not use them to put [the students] into levels.
I teach whole-class instruction; I do not track. I think that these types of tests are only one
indicator. Some children cannot test well but do well otherwise. I think tracking and labeling can
have a real negative impact if [a child is] placed in a low group.-Linda Parker, thirdgrade teacher

I do not do any special preparation for the Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills. Unless everyone
does it, it would be unfair.-Nanry Thompson, third-grade teacher
As a school, we do a test item analysis of our standardized achievement scores. Our whole fac ulty
senate looks at strengths and weaknesses. We go to work on the weaknesses.-Nanry Goheen, firstgrade teacher
I use a standardized achievement scores only when another indicator, such as classroom per fonnance, observations, verbal or nonverbal ability, would indicate a need to use them. Very high
or very low achievers would be checked. I think my own classroom measures are more helpful.
The standardized tests take up too much time. I would rather use the time for class room
instruction.-Rebecca Queen, second-grade teacher

III

.
286

CHAPTER 13
Special Considerations with Assessments

285

On some of these
tests I think
thatPreparation
students are tested on materials that have never been covered in
Point/Counterpoint:
Extensive
Test
class. Keep in mind that learning outcomes vary from school system to school system, from

Point
county to county, and from state to state. It is unfair to assume that a standardized test or a national
Supporters
of all
extensive
test preparation
point
out thatteacher
standardized assessments in
exam can take
this into account.--Sheila
Leach,
sixth-grade
public schools appear to be here to stay. The issue is how best to deal with them. School
systems
are forced
the
and government
agencies
to administer
these
tests;the
We use these
types ofby
tests
to public
chart student
progress and the
weaknesses
of each child.
We pass
therefore,
bestskills
in providing
students
with
equal
informationschool
along tosystems
the next must
teacherdoto their
see what
are weak. That
way she
willan
know
what
opportunity
in taking
Fortime
example,
supporters
of test
preparation programs
needs to be worked
on. Itthe
cutstests.
wasted
for the next
teacher.-Mary
Russell,first-grade
teacher
claim that intensive programs can level the playing field for children from low-income,
minority, or second-language backgrounds. These children often are not provided with
the type of educational support offered to mainstream children. By training students in
test-taking strategies, in different testing formats, and in using practice tests, school
districtsAsare
providing
a service
rather than
a disservice
to have
thesea students.
They
are
indicated
in these
statements,
individual
teachers
number of
different
offering
a way
cope with an
otherwise
Some supporters
of test
ideas about
testtopreparation
programs
anddifficult
how to situation.
use test results.
Some teachers
and
preparation
practicesprograms;
should be integrated
into the
curriculum.are
schools usebelieve
formalthat
testthese
preparation
others believe
thatregular
such programs
By
using
test preparation
part students
of regular
school
systems can
maximize
either
inherently
unfair to as
certain
or instruction,
an inappropriate
instructional
practice.
the support that they provide to students. Therefore, all students will have an equal
opportunity to do well on these tests.
Counterpoint
Test Preparation
Activities
Opponents
of extensive
test preparation state that the practice simply puts the

cart before the

horse. The goal of assessment is to support instruction. Extensive test preparation does just the
TeachingInstruction
test-taking
skills
and teaching
how to The
dealtime
withspent
the stress
orpreparation
anxiety about
tests
opposite:
ends
up supporting
assessment.
on test
is far

are appropriate
activities
for teachers.
Test-taking
skills
three separate
areas:are
time
better
spent on direct
instruction.
Opponents
claim
that include
test preparation
programs
management,
test formats,
and identifying
important
simply
teachingpracticing
to whateverwith
is thedifferent
current version
of standardized
tests. No realthe
teaching
and
information
in isitems.
no
real learning
completed in this situation. As soon as the test is over, the test preparation
Time
management
onstandardized
tests helps assessment
stUdents plan
they cantest
devote
to each
skills are
forgotten.
Critics of
also how
state much
that extensive
preparation
can
very
partbeof
theexpensive
test. Oneasrecommendation is that stUdents read through the test and answer
well
as timethat
consuming.
andread.
students
maythe
be second
able to read,
afford the
the items
they are Wealthier
sure aboutschool
duringsystems
this first
During
they
courses,
lessthe
wellitems
off cannot
afford
programs.
The on
endthe
result
that helps
the
should whereas
then dealthewith
that they
arethe
uncertain
about
firstmay
read.beThis
wealthier
systems
will do even
poorer
school
systems
willon
bethe
even
more
students school
manage
the remaining
timebetter,
on thewhile
test and
allows
them
to focus
questions
worse
off.
Extensive
test
preparation
simply
may
reinforce
already
existing
disparities
between
that pose problems for them.
school systems.
Practicing with different item formats allows students to understand some of the
differences between different types of assessments. For example, practicing with certain
item formats, such as multiple-choice items, may enable stUdents to select the correct
answer by the process of elimination. Another important aspect of using different formats
on
U.S.
education.
Onecompleting
result of thecomputerized
increase in high-stakes
testing Many
appearsstUdents
to be a corhelp
stUdents
with
answer sheets.
have
responding
increase
in
test
anxiety.
problems with following directions and responding on "bubble sheets." Practicing how to
actUally answer items from a test booklet with a bubble sheet may help stUdents achieve
at a higher rate.
Identifying important information in items involves ensuring that stUdents can
select the essential parts of the test questions and can effectively respond to the questions.
For example, in responding to an essay question, the stUdents are able to identify what is
the central underlying theme to the question. Students can eliminate certain parts of their
responses and focus on just the essentials. Figure 13.1 shows some recommendations
from one state department of education on how to prepare for standardized assessments.
Numerous programs and state websites now exist for preparing stUdents for standardized formal assessments. This proliferation shows the effects of high-stakes testing

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