THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

How have you changed over the past

year?

SOME ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND WHAT

THEY REGULATE

What has caused those changes?

How do you think you will change in
the next few years?

The Endocrine System regulates,

coordinates and controls:
Growth and development.

Male and female

development.

How your body uses energy.

Levels of salts and sugars in

The amount (volume) of fluid

Appetite.

Many other body functions.

Parathyroids

The Endocrine Glands are the

organs of the Endocrine System.

They produce and secrete (release)

Hormones.

They are located all over your body.

Metabolism, body heat, bone growth

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: DUCTLESS

GLANDS
Most of the bodily reactions that
results from the activity of the autonomic
nervous system are produced by the action of
the system on the endocrine glands.
Endocrine glands play an important
role in growth, sexual and maternal behavior,
the individuals characteristics level of energy
and mood, and his reaction to stress.
ENDOCRINE GLANDS
Pituitary Gland
Adrenal Glands
Thyroid Gland
Parathyroid Gland
Pancreas
Gonads or Sex Glands
Thymus Gland
Pineal Body
Hypothalamus
Pituitary
Anterior lobe
Posterior lobe
Thyroid gland
Parathyroid glands
Adrenal Glands
Cortex
Medulla
Islets of Langerhans
Gonads
Ovaries
Testes

Links nervous system to endocrine system

Adrenal

ENDOCRINE GLANDS

Metabolism, body heat, bone growth

Hypothalamus

in your body.

Pituitary
Master Gland that regulates all other
Endocrine Glands, also releases growth
hormone.
Thyroid

your blood.

Pineal gland
Thymus
others

Response in emergency or stressful

situations, metabolism, blood pressure, salt
balance
Pancreas

Blood sugar
Ovaries

Production of eggs; female characteristics

Testes

Production of sperm; male characteristics

Thymus

Parts of the immune system

Pituitary Gland
major endocrine gland situated
below the hypothalamus.
Master gland because it produces
largest number of different hormones and its
primary function is to control and activate the
secretion of several other endocrine glands.
Secretion is controlled by the
hypothalamus in the base of the brain.
Pituitary
Anterior lobe (= adenohypophysis)
Growth H. (hGH)
Prolactin
Melanocyte-stimulating H.
(MSH)
Thyroid-stimulating H. (TSH)
Adrenocorticotropic H.
(ACTH)
Follicle-stimulating H. (FSH)
Luteinizing H. (LH)
Endorphins ("endogenous morphine")
are endogenous opioid
neuropeptides. They are produced by the
central nervous system and pituitary gland.
When you exercise, your body
releases chemicals called endorphins. These

endorphins interact with the receptors in your

brain that reduce your perception of pain.
also trigger a positive feeling in the
body, similar to that of morphine. For example,
the feeling that follows a run or workout is
often described as "euphoric." That feeling,
known as a "runner's high," can be
accompanied by a positive and energizing
outlook on life.
Endorphins
act as analgesics, which means they
diminish the perception of pain. They also act
as sedatives.
They are manufactured in your brain,
spinal cord, and many other parts of your body
and are released in response to brain
chemicals called neurotransmitters.
The neuron receptors endorphins
bind to are the same ones that bind some pain
medicines. However, unlike with morphine, the
activation of these receptors by the body's
endorphins does not lead to addiction or
dependence.
The Pituitary Gland is divided into 2
areas:
1. Posterior Pituitary
Oxytocin
influences the contraction of the
uterus during childbirth and the reflexive
ejection of milk from the mammary glands.
Vasopressin
regulates the amount of water in the
body cells which indirectly controls blood
pressure.
causes the kidney to retain water.
2. Anterior Pituitary
Growth hormone
(somatotropin) control of timing and amount
of body growth
Dwarfism under secretion of the
growth hormone early in life
Giantism early over-abundance of
the growth hormone
Acromegaly over secretion of the
pituitary growth hormone during adulthood
PituitaryAnterior lobe
Growth hormone (GH or hGH)
Promotes mitosis, cell division
Elongation of long bones, etc.
Healing of wounds
Lack of hGH retards growth
Growth hormone
Lack of hGH retards growth Charles Stratton,
1838-1883, adopted & trained by P.T.
Barnum.
General Tom Thumb
~ 33 in. (84 cm) tall
Married Lavinia Warren, 1863.
Died of CV disease.
Growth hormone
Oversecretion in youth
produces giantism
Oversecretion in adult
produces acromegaly
Acromegaly
One of the most common signs of
acromegaly is enlarged hands and feet. People

with this disorder often notice that they can no

longer put on rings that used to fit and that
their shoe size has progressively increased.
may also cause gradual changes in
the shape of your face, such as a protruding
lower jaw and brow, an enlarged nose,
thickened lips, and wider spacing between
your teeth.
PituitaryPosterior lobe
Posterior lobe
(=
neurohypophysis)
Site of release of hormones
synthesized in hypothalamus
Oxytocin
Antidiuretic H. (ADH)
Oxytocin
Stimulates smooth muscle
contraction of uterus & mammary glands.
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Stimulates water reabsorption
in collecting ducts.
Stimulates vasoconstriction
(vasopressin)
Lack diabetes insipidus
Diabetes insipidus

characterized by intense thirst,

despite the drinking of fluids (polydipsia), and
the excretion of large amounts of urine
(polyuria)

result of your body not properly

producing, storing or releasing a key hormone,
antidiuretic hormone or vasopressin

can also occur when your kidneys

are unable to respond properly to that
hormone.

ADH is produced in a part of the

brain called the hypothalamus. It is then stored
and released from the pituitary gland.

DI caused by a lack of ADH is called

central diabetes insipidus. When DI is caused
by a failure of the kidneys to respond to ADH,
the condition is called nephrogenic diabetes
insipidus.

2. Adrenal Glands

located just above the kidneys

extremely important in neural

functioning and in the ability of the body to
cope with stress.

Two layers: adrenal medulla (inner

core) and the adrenal cortex (outer layer).

One on top of each kidney

Cortex
Steroid hormones
Medulla
Epinephrine

Norepinephrine

of the blood vessels in the stomach and

intestines and make the heart beat faster.

Cortex

Activity stimulated by ACTH

Mineralcorticoids

Epinephrine is of interest to
psychologists because it has emotional as well
as physical effects. It intensifies emotions and
is central to the experiences of fear and
anxiety.

Norepinephrine stimulates the

release of a group of hormones called steroids
which cause the liver to release stored sugar
so the body has energy for quick action.

Aldosterone

Glucocorticoids

Cortisol

Gonadocorticoids

Androgens

Estrogens

ADRENALINE
Where it comes from: Adrenal Gland
Where it acts: heart, blood vessels,
eyes

Cortisol

the stress hormone because its

also secreted in higher levels during the bodys
fight or flight response to stress, and is
responsible for several stress-related changes
in the body. prevents the release of substances
in the body that cause inflammation.

a steroid hormone, in the

glucocorticoid class of hormones, and is
produced in humans by the zona fasciculata of
the adrenal cortex within the adrenal gland.

While cortisol is an important and

helpful part of the bodys response to stress,
its important that the bodys relaxation
response to be activated so the bodys
functions can return to normal following a
stressful event.

Unfortunately, in our current highstress culture, the bodys stress response is

activated so often that the body doesnt
always have a chance to return to normal,
resulting in a state of chronic stress.

What it does: stimulates heart rate,

increases blood pressure, dilates pupils

Causes "Adrenaline Rush

A 'fight and flight' hormone.

It is released in high stress

conditions or in excitement or fear.

Loud noise, high temperature etc.

may also trigger its release since these are
also high stress situations.

Why a person would need increased

heart rate, blood pressure, etc. in a time of
stress?

The answer is that these prepare the

person to handle the stress.

Adrenaline is also known as

epinephrine and is the drug in the Epipen used
to treat severe allergic reactions.
Adrenal cortex

Adrenal Glands

Medulla
Develops as misplaced
sympathetic ganglion

Cells are modified neurons

(lack axons)

Epinephrine

some Norepinephrine

Secretes adrenaline/ epinephrine and

noradrenaline/ norepinephrine.

helps arouse the body to cope with

stress and threats.

Ex. The release of epinephrine

causes nervousness, perspiration, constriction

corticosteroids (cortical steroids)

regulate heartbeat, increase
resistance to stress, promote muscle
development, and cause the liver to release
stored sugar, making more energy available in
emergencies.
adrenalin androgens (cortin)
regulates the development of
certain adult sexual characteristics.
CORTISOL

Adrenal Medulla

Regulated by the pituitary hormone

ACTH (adrenocorticotrophic hormone)

Where it comes from: outer part of

adrenal gland

Where it acts: multiple tissues

What it does:

The adrenal gland also secretes

steroids that affect mineral balance.

mental stimulation, breaks down fat

and protein to glucose, anti-inflammation

It is usually referred to as the "stress

hormone" as it is involved in response to stress
and anxiety.

3. Thyroid Gland

lack of iodine in the

diet is a contributing factor

When hypothyroidism (extreme

thyroid deficiency) occurs in infancy or early
childhood. The condition is known as cretinism.

Cretinism characterized by
retarded development, resulting in dwarfism, a
big stomach and scaly skin.

Hyperthyroidism result from

oversecretion of thyroxin; characterized by
excitability, insomnia, and weight loss.

is located in the neck

can be considered as the bodys

accelerator

Produces thyroxin
affects the bodies metabolism (the
rate at which the body uses oxygen and
produces energy)

Cretinism

a medical condition present at birth

wherein there is a decreased or absent thyroid
function and thyroid hormone production.

When untreated, this could lead to

severely stunted physical and mental growth
of the newborn. This is also known as
Congenital Hypothyroidism

most extreme manifestation of IDD.

Cretinism can be divided into neurologic and
myxedematous subtypes. These subtypes
have considerable clinical overlap. Both
conditions can be prevented by adequate
maternal and childhood iodine intake.

Neurologic cretinism is thought to be

caused by severe IDD with hypothyroidism in
the mother during pregnancy and is
characterized by mental retardation, abnormal
gait, and deaf-mutism, but not by goiter or
hypothyroidism in the child.

Myxedematous cretinism is
considered to result from iodine deficiency and
hypothyroidism in the fetus during late
pregnancy or in the neonatal period, resulting
in mental retardation, short stature, goiter, and
hypothyroidism.

Location in neck

Inferior to larynx

Anterior & lateral to trachea

Thyroxine (T4)

Triiodothyronine (T3)

Calcitonin

Composed of follicles
Follicle cells produce

thyroglobulin

Thyroxin (T4)

Triiodothyronine (T3)
Parafollicular cells

Calcitonin

Goiter is a swelling of the

thyroid

Removal of thyroid gland causes low

level of parathormone (causes nervousness,
muscle spasm)
Thyroid Gland

dullness and most of the time being

overweight; accompanied by goiter in the
neck.

THYROXINE

Where it comes from: thyroid gland

Where it acts: most cells of the body

What it does: controls the rate of

metabolic processes (how energy is used) in
the body and influences physical development

within the thyroid are the parathyroid

glands. These are two pairs of small peashaped glands which secretes parathormone

People may not produce enough of

this hormone and get a condition known as
hypothyroidism. They can take thyroxine to
treat this condition.

Four small glands embedded in

posterior of thyroid

Thyroxin also help control the rate of

physical growth; essential for bodys
metabolism

4. Parathyroid Glands

Parathyroid hormone

(PTH)

Stimulates osteoclasts to free

Ca from bone

One important element in the

thyroxin is iodine

Underactivity of the thyroid gland

results in hypothyroidism, which is
characterized by laziness (sluggishness) and

Stimulates Ca uptake from

intestine
Parathormone this hormone
regulates the level of calcium and phosphorous

and functions in neuromuscular excitation and

blood clotting

If there is deficiency in
parathormone, calcium levels recede and
phosphorus rises .
A high phosphorus level in
your blood can lead to weak bones, itching,
bone pain and hardening of blood vessels.

What it does: Insulin causes cells to

take up glucose (sugar) from the blood, storing
it in the liver and muscle, and stopping use of
fat as an energy source.

Problems with insulin production or

use in the body can lead to diabetes.
Diabetes mellitus

Diabetes mellitus (or diabetes) is a

chronic, lifelong condition that affects your
body's ability to use the energy found in food.
There are three major types of diabetes: type 1
diabetes, type 2 diabetes, and gestational
diabetes.

All types of diabetes mellitus have

something in common. Normally, your body
breaks down the sugars and carbohydrates
you eat into a special sugar called glucose.
Glucose fuels the cells in your body. But the
cells need insulin, a hormone, in your
bloodstream in order to take in the glucose
and use it for energy.

With diabetes mellitus, either your

body doesn't make enough insulin, it can't use
the insulin it does produce, or a combination of
both.

Since the cells can't take in the

glucose, it builds up in your blood. High levels
of blood glucose can damage the tiny blood
vessels in your kidneys, heart, eyes, or
nervous system. That's why diabetes -especially if left untreated -- can eventually
cause heart disease, stroke, kidney disease,
blindness, and nerve damage to nerves in the
feet.

Tetany a condition of physiological

imbalance marked by tonic spasm of the
muscles and often associated with deficient
parathormones.
5. PancreasIsles of Langerhans

located near the stomach

Islets of Langerhans clusters of

special cells secreting insulin w/c float in the
pancreas

Pancreas secretes two hormones

which controls the level of blood sugar or
glucose in the blood stream.
About a million embedded in

pancreas

Control centers for blood glucose

Insulin from beta cells

Glucagon from alpha cells

Insulin stimulates glucose uptake,

glycogenesis

Glucagon stimulates glycogenolysis,

glucose release from liver
Glucagon

Insulin

enables glucose to move out

of the blood into the cells of muscles and other
tissues.

primarily responsible for the

control of blood sugar level.

If insulin is deficient, blood

sugar rises above normal amount and causes
diabetes/diabetes mellitus(high blood sugar)
also called hyperglycemia.
If there is an excess of
insulin , blood sugar falls below normal and
causes hypoglycemia (low blood sugar)

Type 1 diabetes is also called insulindependent diabetes. It used to be called

juvenile-onset diabetes, because it often
begins in childhood.

Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune

condition. It's caused by the body attacking its
own pancreas with antibodies. In people with
type 1 diabetes, the damaged pancreas
doesn't make insulin.

Where it comes from: Insulin is

produced in the pancreas
Where it acts: liver, muscle, and fat

tissue

Type 2 Diabetes

the most common form of diabetes is

type 2 diabetes, accounting for 95% of
diabetes cases in adults.
also called non-insulin-dependent

diabetes.

often a milder form of diabetes than

type 1

INSULIN

releases glucose into the

bloodstream from the glycogen stored in the
liver.

Type 1 Diabetes

With Type 2 diabetes, the pancreas

usually produces some insulin. But either the
amount produced is not enough for the body's
needs, or the body's cells are resistant to it.
Insulin resistance, or lack of sensitivity to
insulin, happens primarily in fat, liver, and
muscle cells.
Type 2 Diabetes

People who are obese -- more than

20% over their ideal body weight for their
height -- are at particularly high risk of
developing type 2 diabetes and its related
medical problems. Obese people have insulin
resistance. With insulin resistance, the
pancreas has to work overly hard to produce
more insulin. But even then, there is not
enough insulin to keep sugars normal.

There is no cure for diabetes. Type 2

diabetes can, however, be controlled with
weight management, nutrition, and exercise.
Unfortunately, type 2 diabetes tends to
progress, and diabetes medications are often
needed.

What it does: controls menstruation

in women and plays a role in pregnancy.

One of the components of birth

control pills

6. Gonads or Sex Glands

Ovaries

Estrogens

Progesterone

Testes

Reproductive functions when we

study reproductive system.

If it were not for testosterone about

six weeks after conception, we would all
develop the external genital organs of females.

It is not only produced by the testes

but also in smaller amounts by the adrenal
glands.

PROGESTERONE

A few weeks after conception,

testosterone causes the male sex organs to
develop.
During puberty, testosterone stokes
the growth of muscle and bone and the
development of primary and secondary sex
characteristics.

Estrogen is responsible for the

female secondary sexual characteristics and
fosters reproductive capacity.
Progesterone stimulates the female
reproductive organs and prepares the uterus to
maintain pregnancy.

Where it acts: uterus

TESTOSTERONE
Where it comes from: testicles

Where it acts: body-hair cells,

muscle, reproductive structures

What it does: stimulates

development of male sexual characteristics

Testosterone is a steroid and has

been administered to athletes in order to
improve performance. This is considered to be
a form of doping in most sports and is a very
dangerous practice.

Females also produce small amounts

of testosterone in their ovaries that affect
muscle development and other body functions.
7. Thymus Gland

located within the chest cavity

secretes thymosin

Promotes production and maturation

of white blood cells

this is known as the gland of

childhood as it keeps a child childish

inhibits the sex glands and sexuality

in the childhood years.

Ovaries produce estrogen and

progesterone as well as small amounts of
testosterone.
Estrogen is also produced in smaller
amounts by the adrenal glands.

Where it comes from: ovary (where

an egg was released)

Testosterone, etc.

Estrogen levels may be related

somehow to migraine headaches in women.

Thymus

= Thymus gland
Thymopoietins, thymic factor,
thymosins
Influence development of T

lymphocytes
8. Pineal Body

This gland is located between

the two cerebral hemispheres of the brain.

It helps the thymus gland and

atrophies at puberty.
*atrophy wasting away of a body
part or tissue

ESTROGEN

Where it comes from: ovary

Where it acts: breast tissue,

reproductive structures in female

What it does: stimulates

development of female sexual characteristics

secretes Melatonin
Helps regulate the sleep-wake
cycle and may affect the onset of puberty

Connected with aging

Appears to be a mild
sedative, and some use it as sleeping pill
Helps people in adjusting to

jetlag

Suspended in third ventricle from

diencephalon
Melatonin

? Inhibits early puberty

? Day/night cycles
Timing of sleep, body

temperature, appetite
9. Hypothalamus
Part of brain

Regulates ANS, emotions,

feeding/satiety, thirst, body temperature, etc.
Hormones related to these

functions

Releasing hormones

Axonal transport to
posterior lobe

TARGET CELLS
Hormones only work on certain cells,
called target cells.

The target cells have special

receptors that recognize the hormones and
allow them to influence that cell.

These receptors recognize the

hormones.

They fit like a lock and key.

Brain reacts by way of secretions from

neurons in hypothalamus (neurohormones)

Brain also reacts by way of nerves from

hypothalamus and brainstem

The hypothalamus controls the many gland

cells in the pituitary by way of secretions from
the hypothalamus that get carried by venous
blood into the pituitary. Various hormones from
the pituitary control many other organs that
make hormones. That is why the pituitary is
called the master gland of the body. The
hypothalamus and some neurons in the
brainstem supply peripheral nerves that
provide automatic and subconscious control
over many vital functions, such as blood-vessel
diameter, rate and strength of heart beat. This
system also can turn on the adrenal gland to
make adrenalin, a true hormone that raises
blood pressure, increases heart rate and
strength of contraction.
CAN YOU ANME SOME INTERNAL AND
EXTERNAL STIMULI?

Hypothalamus

Releasing hormones regulate

Anterior Pituitary

Growth hormone-releasing H.

Growth hormone-inhibiting H.

Thyrotropin-releasing H.

Corticotropin-releasing H.

Gonadotropin-releasing H.

Prolactin-releasing H.

Hypothalamic cell bodies synthesize

oxytocin and ADH

Axonal transport to posterior

pituitary

Release from posterior pituitary

Endocrine Glands

Hormones are chemical messengers that

are secreted (released) from glands into the
blood and affect cells in another part of the
body.

Pineal gland

Control many body functions

exerts control by releasing
special chemical substances into the blood
called hormones
Hormones affect other
endocrine glands or body systems
DEFINITION

Remember, external means coming

from outside of your body and internal means
coming from inside of your body.
STIMULUS
You hear a loud noise
A large dog runs toward you,
growling and barking
You eat a large candy bar
You have not eaten in six hours
You have strep throat
A few hormone systems are positive feedback
systems:
The pituitary gland sends a signal by
way of the hormone oxytocin to the uterus
causing contractions. The pressure of the
fetus on the cervix sends a signal back to the
brain which then stimulates the release of
more oxytocin. This causes more contractions.
The fetus pushes harder on the cervix. More
oxytocin is released. The system continues
until birth occurs.
Vocabulary:
Fetus- The unborn baby calf
Uterus-the reproductive organ that
holds the developing fetus
Cervix- the lower part of the uterus
that is tightly closed until birth, upon which it
opens to allow the baby to pass through to be
born
Again, have students identify the
stimuli and responses.
Description of picture:
An example of positive feedback is
the hormone that causes childbirth (when

babies are born.) The hormone that causes this

is oxytocin. When the baby is ready to be
born, it stretches the muscle in the cervix (the
bottom of the womb.) Nerves in the cervix
send a message to the pituitary. This message
makes the pituitary release more oxytocin. The
oxytocin then causes the muscles of the womb
to contract, or squeeze. This causes more
stretching in the cervix. This stretching then
tells the pituitary to make even more oxytocin.
So levels of oxytocin keep rising until the
squeezing or contractions of the womb force
the baby out. (The womb is also called the
uterus.)

When normal functions lose their negative

feedback control, many times disease is the
result.
An example:
Neurons in the hypothalamus secrete
thyroid releasing hormone (TRH), which
stimulates cells in the anterior pituitary to
secrete thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH).
TSH binds to receptors to cells in the
thyroid gland, stimulating thyroid hormones,
which affect all cells in the body.
When blood concentrations of thyroid
hormones increase above a certain level, TRHsecreting neurons in the hypothalamus are
inhibited and stop secreting TRH.
If this process is disrupted, the
Thyroid keeps producing hormones and
hyperthyroid disease ensues.