UNIVERSIDAD DE JAN

Departamento de Filologa Inglesa

UNIVERSIDAD DE JAN
Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educacin
Departamento de Filologa Inglesa

Unit 1. New Zealand

1.1. RELATIVE PRONOUNS AND SENTENCES
1.1.1.- Defining relative clauses
Defining relative clauses define the preceding noun and are placed directly
after it. The relative pronouns used in defining relative clauses are:
Object

Subject

Possessive

For persons
For things
A.- Subject
When the subject is a thing which or that can be used. When the subject
is a person who is normally used.
B.- Object
For persons the object form is whom, although there are other alternatives.
For things we can use which, that or no relative.
C.- With a preposition
There are two constructions:
- preposition + whom / which
- moving the preposition to the end of the clause
D.- Possessive
Whose is the commonest form.
E.- Relative adverbs: when, where, why
They are used to speak about time, place and reason, respectively.
1.1.2.- Cleft sentences
The pattern of cleft sentences is it + be + noun / pronoun + defining
relative clause.

MCMG / Ingls Instrumental 2

UNIVERSIDAD DE JAN
Departamento de Filologa Inglesa

1.1.3.- A relative clause replaced by an infinitive or participle

Relative clauses can be replaced by an infinitive or participle when there is
an idea of purpose, a habitual or continuous action, and when the clause
has a passive meaning.
1.1.4.- Non-defining relative clauses
Non-defining relative clauses are placed after nouns which are definite.
They are not essential in the sentence and can be omitted.
The relative pronouns used in non-defining relative clauses are:
Object

Subject

Possessive

For persons
For things
A.- Subject
Who is the only possibility for persons and which for things.
B.- Object
Which and whom are the correct forms.
C.- Object of a preposition
The preposition comes before whom or which or at the end of the clause.
D.- Possessive
Whose is used for persons, animals and things.
1.1.5.- Connective relative clauses
Connective clauses do not describe their nouns. The pronouns used in
connective relative clauses are who, whom, whose, which.
1.1.6.- All, both, few, most, several, most + of + whom / which
This pattern can be used for both people and things.
1.1.7.- What
What can also be used as a relative pronoun.
1.1.8.- Whoever, whichever, whatever, whenever, wherever
These have a variety of meanings and can introduce relative clauses.

MCMG / Ingls Instrumental 2

UNIVERSIDAD DE JAN
Departamento de Filologa Inglesa

1.2. COMPARISON
1.2.1. Comparison of adjectives and adverbs
There are three types of comparisons:
- Comparison to a higher degree: inflected and/or periphrastic forms
are used
- Comparison to the same degree: as (so) ... as
- Comparison to a lower degree: less / least
Higher degree comparisons:
Absolute
Inflection
Adjective
Adverb
Periphrasis
Adjective
Adverb

Comparative

Superlative

A. Comparisons of adjectives: regular form

Certain changes in spelling or pronunciation may be introduced in the base
of the adjective when adjectives take regular inflection:
- Doubling the final consonant of the base:
- Change of y to i
- Dropping of final e
- Syllabic /l/ ceases to be syllabic
- The /r/ is pronounced before the inflection
- Variant spelling in verbs ending in -l:
Some adjectives take inflected forms, some adjectives take periphrastic
forms and some adjective can take both:
Which adjectives take inflectional comparison, periphrastic
comparison or both?
B. Comparisons of adjectives: irregular form
Can you fill in the table below with some irregular adjectives?
Adjective
Comparative
(absolute form)

Superlative

MCMG / Ingls Instrumental 2

Further issues

UNIVERSIDAD DE JAN
Departamento de Filologa Inglesa

Adjectives and adverbs can:

- Be modified by intensifiers
- Be used with any and no
Further
-

comparative constructions are:

Comparative + and + comparative
The comparative + better
The comparative + the comparative

C. Comparisons of adverbs: regular and irregular forms

Regular form adverbs can be identical or not identical in form to adjectives
Can you fill in the table below with some irregular adverbs?
Adjective
Comparative
(absolute form)

Superlative

1.2.2. Comparison of clauses

The comparison can be of:
- equivalence
- non-equivalence
- sufficiency
- excess
Ellipsis is one of the features of comparative clauses
Are the following examples right? Why?
4

MCMG / Ingls Instrumental 2

UNIVERSIDAD DE JAN
Departamento de Filologa Inglesa

James and Susan often go to plays but

1. James enjoys the theatre more than Susan enjoys the theatre.
2. James enjoys the theatre more than Susan enjoys it.
3. James enjoys the theatre more than Susan does.
4. James enjoys the theatre more than Susan.
5. James enjoys the theatre more.
6. James knows more about the theatre than Susan knows.
7. Jane is healthier than her sister is healthy.
8. James enjoys the theare more than Susan much enjoys the theatre.

MCMG / Ingls Instrumental 2

UNIVERSIDAD DE JAN
Departamento de Filologa Inglesa

1.3. INVERSION STRUCTURES

1.3.1. Subject-verb inversion
Subject
-

and verb are inverted:

In direct speech
To achieve end-focus of the subject
For emphasis
With expressions of place
With here and there

1.3.2. Subject-operator inversion

Common structures are:
- Elliptical clauses with initial so / neither / nor
- Where a phrase of negative form or meaning is fronted:
- Negative adverbs
- Phrases with only
- So + adjective
- In comparative clauses when the S is not a personal pronoun
- In subordinate clauses of condition and concession

MCMG / Ingls Instrumental 2