Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Young adult
attitudes to entrepreneurship as a career
Roger Henderson
Reader in International Finance at Leeds Metropolitan University, Leeds, UK
Martyn Robertson
Senior Lecturer in Business Strategy at Leeds Metropolitan University, Leeds, UK
Keywords
Entrepreneurs, Careers,
Young people, Higher education,
Roles
Abstract
The European Union (EU) definition of smalland medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) covers
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Introduction
Various UK governments have championed
the concept of an enterprise culture, yet
much of the growth in the 1990s has come
from large companies, especially in services.
The entrepreneurial spirit remains tenuous
in a society which is ageing yet where the
future working environment will depend
heavily on the creativity and individuality of
the young. In spite of efforts by bodies such
as the Prince's Trust there has been limited
infusion of long-term entrepreneurship
ideals among young people; indeed relatively
little is known about young adult views on
entrepreneurship. The work that has been
undertaken tends to focus on the specific
factors which influence someone to start a
business rather than entrepreneurship as a
career choice. Yet in the new millennium the
prospect of a ``portfolio career'' involving
periods of salaried work, self-employment
and unemployment is increasingly likely, in
which case entrepreneurial skills will be
more important.
This paper raises issues for
entrepreneurial education and draws on
questionnaire surveys undertaken between
1996 and 1998 among young adults, including
MSc students studying entrepreneurship in
Scotland, a group of new bank recruits to the
Enterprise Section of a major UK clearing
bank, and undergraduate business studies
students in England. The results are
compared with theories of entrepreneurial
careers as expounded by Scott and Twomey
(1988), Gibb Dyers (1994) and Curran (1996).
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Enterprise as a career?
Such a spectrum raises questions of whether
enterprise can be considered as a career by
young people and whether it can be taught
successfully in the UK, especially in view of
the aforementioned observations on
educational and training practice. In
examining this area a starting point is to
consider whether entrepreneurs are ``born or
made''. If entrepreneurs can be developed
then business advisers and educationalists
could have a positive effect on small business
development. If on the other hand innate
entrepreneurial characteristics and traits
exist, then these may limit the numbers
pursuing this activity.
Traditionally entrepreneurship
researchers have studied those factors that
motivate someone to start an entrepreneurial
career rather than focusing on career
progression and advancement. Three broad
approaches to the choice of enterprise as a
career may be identified:
1 Trait theory tries to identify common
links among entrepreneurs which bind
them together as a group. McClelland
(1961) and Rotter (1966) suggest these
include a high need for achievement, selfbelief, propensity to take risks, and
independence. However, no single trait
has been proved exclusively
entrepreneurial and trait measurement is
subject to controversy.
2 The social development approach
recognises that decision makers have
access to limited information and are
prone to external influences and
constraints at different stages. Gibb and
Ritchie (1982) cite factors such as risk,
family influences, prior education and
training, and perceived job opportunities.
However, their model does not account for
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young
entrepreneurs nor, importantly, other
influences such as peer groups and
location.
3 The structure opportunity model rejects
the two previous approaches for their
insufficient emphasis on social factors
such as family, neighbourhood, school,
peer group and general work situation.
The latter important demand-side factor
implies that career choice is influenced by
employers' needs and the overall
economic and job climate. Curran (1996)
also suggests the prevailing attitudes of
family, friends and neighbours perpetuate
a young person's social position so that
value structures and attitudes affect their
consciousness.
Elements of all three approaches may be seen
as important in understanding influences on
entrepreneurial careers. However, Gibb
Dyers (1994) observed that ``despite the long
tradition of research in the two fields of
careers and entrepreneurship, most work
has been in parallel. Little has been done
using the theories from both fields to build a
comprehensive theory of entrepreneurial
careers''. He attempted to develop a more
comprehensive model describing the
dynamics of entrepreneurial careers based
on:
.
the factors which influence career choice;
.
career socialisation;
.
career orientation; and
.
career progression.
Factors influencing the decision to become
an entrepreneur include individual or
psychological components, social, and
economic features. These then feed into
socialisation experiences that encourage an
entrepreneurial career. For example, Dalton
and Holloway (1989) found that many
aspiring entrepreneurs had received
significant responsibilities at a young age,
even to the extent of some starting
entrepreneurial ventures. Effective training
and education on running a business can also
push some people towards such a career.
The orientation to an entrepreneurial role
is perceived by Gibb Dyers (1994) as
happening in two stages. Initially there is
acceptance of the ``general'' entrepreneurial
role of creating and owning the business.
This may develop either full or part-time, for
example, many entrepreneurs create their
own business when still in regular
employment and accordingly they adopt
several occupational identities over the
course of a ``portfolio'' career, a feature likely
to become more significant with future job
insecurity. The second stage is the creation of
Methodology
During the period 1996-98 three groups of
young people were asked for their attitudes
to entrepreneurship by means of a
questionnaire survey. The primary group
consisted of undergraduates, mainly aged
between 19-25 years, at Leeds Metropolitan
University. All the 117 final year
undergraduates studying business studies as
part of their full- or part-time degree
programmes were required to complete a
questionnaire in class. Of these half (59) were
studying an elective ``Running a small
business''.
In addition the same survey questions
were put to all ten participants on the MSc
Entrepreneurship degree at Stirling
University and to a cohort of 11 new bank
trainees at a major UK clearing bank, whose
focus was to be on small business customers.
The three groups are thus diverse, both in
terms of composition and numbers of
respondents, hence meaningful inferences
are acknowledged to be difficult, especially
among the postgraduate and bank trainee
responses. Nevertheless, the 138 replies
provide a set of case studies on views of
entrepreneurship among young people either
in, about to leave, or who have just left higher
education yet with some inkling of small
business affairs.
The survey had two broad themes: first to
gauge understanding of what the respondents
knew about entrepreneurs; second, to
examine the influences on young people as
they pursue their career choices. Depending
on the groups involved, the questions were
expected to elicit information relevant to the
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Results
In view of the statistical limitations of the
data sets the results are reported in
qualitative terms and the main findings
summarised in Tables I-IV.
Table I
Keywords associated with the term
``entrepreneur''
Keywords
Risk-taker
Motivated
Ambitious
Successful
Hard-working
Rich
Others (nine citations)
Total
Responses
(numbers)
Responses
47
38
29
26
20
20
146
326
14
12
9
8
6
6
45
100
Table II
Are entrepreneurs born or made?
Percentage
Born
Made
No idea/no response
Total
33
45
22
100
Table III
Career intentions
Employee
Own business
Other
Total
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Undergraduate
Undergraduateenterprise
Postgraduate
Bank trainees
Total
29
7
22
58
27
17
15
59
6
5
11
4
2
4
10
60
32
46
138
Table IV
Main influences on career choice
Career Development
International
5/6 [2000] 279287
Personal experience
Family or friends
Teachers or studies
Careers guidance
Other citations
Total
Undergraduate
Undergraduateenterprise
Postgraduate
Bank trainees
Total
30
23
4
1
3
61
38
25
6
1
70
1
4
10
2
2
2
4
2
12
75
50
12
7
9
153a
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Conclusions
The new millennium is likely to involve
greater uncertainty but also more personal
responsibility for employment and financial
affairs, whether at the end of a working
career in terms of pension or at the start in
terms of job and career orientation. Young
people are likely to experience a ``portfolio''
career consisting of periods of paid
employment, non-work, and selfemployment. Flexibility and creativity will
be necessary survival skills in the workplace.
The changing structure of firms suggests that
a team or project focus and small-scale
working will be important within large firms
while the role of the small firm will increase
with ``down-sizing'' and ``outsourcing''
encouraged by technology.
Such an environment points to greater
need for entrepreneurial activity. It is vital
for future national economic growth that new
additions continue to be made to the business
stock. Hence it is important that young
people are encouraged to pursue
entrepreneurial careers, a challenge for both
educationalists and policy-makers alike.
There is some evidence that more
universities are providing courses and
support for those interested in running their
own businesses and recent government-led
initiatives suggest concern for this area.
However, the level of penetration remains
low and this study confirms the findings of
other authors such as Scott and Twomey
(1988) and Curran (1996) that
entrepreneurship is not readily considered
as a career.
The surveys suggest that entrepreneurs
are favourably regarded for their ability to
make money, their dynamism, their
motivation and their contribution to the
economy. However, there is still a feeling
among many young people that
entrepreneurs are born rather than made, or
that certain special traits are required. A
disappointingly poor knowledge is shown of
actual entrepreneurs, conditioned largely by
media which often portray business people in
an unflattering light. Young people can be
influenced by teachers and careers guidance
specialists but these do not always
demonstrate sufficient knowledge of, or
enthusiasm for, entrepreneurship as a career
choice.
At university level various types of
provision exist from short-courses on specific
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References
Further reading
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