Académique Documents
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Clyde Peppin,*
Tom Fudge,*
Karl Hartman,*
Doug Bayer,*
and Terry DeVoe*
INTRODUCTION
The Lucky Friday Mine is located on the east end of the Coeur
d'Alene Mining District in the northern Panhandle of Idaho. The
mine site lies just east of the town of Mullan, 10 km (6 miles)
west of the Montana border (Figure 35.1). The Coeur d'Alene
Mining District has produced over 31,100 tonnes (1 billion
ounces) of silver, 8 million tonnes (8.8 million tons) of lead and
4 million tonnes (4.4 million tons) of zinc from 1885 through
1999. The Lucky Friday Mine has produced 6,350,293 tonnes
(7,371,181 tons) of ore to produce 3,570 tonnes (114,746,000
oz) of silver, 714,500 tonnes (787,600 tons) of lead, and
89,811 tonnes (99,081 tons) of zinc. 1
Production capacity of the Lucky Friday Unit in 2000 is over
1,000 tonne/d with a total work force of 210 employees.
Mechanized underhand cut-and-fill and mechanized overhand
cut-and-fill mining methods are used to extract silver, lead,
and zinc ore from the Lucky Friday and the Gold Hunter veins.
The ore-bearing minerals in both veins are tetrahedrite, galena,
and sphalerite. In 1999, the Gold Hunter vein supplied 75% of
the mill feed from two stopes mined using mechanized
overhand cut-and-fill and two stopes mined using mechanized
underhand cut-and-fill. Ore from the Lucky Friday vein was
produced from two stopes using mechanized underhand mining
GEOLOGY
The Lucky Friday vein crops out as a thin, discontinuous vein in
the St. Regis Formation. Between the 1800 and 2000 levels
(approximately 600 m below the surface), the vein crosses into
the Revett Formation and extends along strike for over 457 m
(1,500 ft). Mineralization has been consistently strong at the
Revett-St. Regis contact to the current mining horizon 1,800 m
(5,930 ft) below the surface (Figure 35.2).
The Lucky Friday and the Gold Hunter deposits are serviced
from the surface through the Lucky Friday's Silver shaft. The
Lucky Friday No. 2 shaft serves as a secondary access and
exhaust route. The Silver shaft is 5.5 m (18 ft) in diameter and
concrete lined. Total depth is 1,890 m (6,200 ft) with stations
at 2800, 4900, 5100, 5300, 5500, 5700, 5900, and 6100
levels. Skip loading facilities are at the 5370 and 5970 levels.
VENTILATION
MINE PRODUCTION
The Lucky Friday vein has produced over 7 million tonnes (7.7
million tons) of ore at an average grade of 533 gm/tonne
(15.49 oz/ton) silver, 10.68% lead, and 1.35% zinc. Production
from the Lucky Friday vein from 1994 through 1997 averaged
544 tonne/d (600 ton/d). Production from the Lucky Friday
vein in 1999 averaged 330 tonne/d (360 ton/d), which
represented about 25% of total production. Most of the Lucky
Friday Unit mill feed was produced from the Gold Hunter
deposit located approximately 1,524 m (5,000 ft) to the
northwest. Reduced production from the Lucky Friday vein
after 1998 was a result of higher-value ore mined from the
Gold Hunter deposit. Lucky Friday reserves are calculated to
the 5930 level, with known resources extending down to the
6290 level.
ROCK MECHANICS
The maximum principal stress in the Coeur d'Alene Mining
District is horizontal and typically strikes N 45&##176;W. In
the Lucky Friday Mine at the 5100 level, 1,554 m (5,100 ft)
below the surface, the magnitude of the major horizontal stress
was measured to be some 69 MPa (10,000 psi) oriented almost
perpendicular to the Lucky Friday vein. This high stress
combined with the brittle nature of the host Revett Quartzite
results in an environment that is prone to rock bursting.
To have a better understanding of the rock burst problem,
Hecla installed a microseismic monitoring system in the early
1970s. The U.S. Bureau of Mines (USBM) had previously
installed a seismograph to detect and study rock bursts and
large seismic events. In 1989, the USBM installed a
macroseismic system to allow waveform analysis of rock bursts
and seismic events. A macroseismic event is generally
SAFETY
The underhand mining method and intense attention from
management and the workforce improved safety performance.
During the period between 1995 and 2000, there have been
two periods of more than 1 year with no lost-time accidents.
Figure 35.4 shows the improvement in injury rates since 1988
and the inception of the LFUL mining method.
STOPE DEVELOPMENT
Access from the Silver shaft to the Lucky Friday vein is via
ramps driven at 15% grade and a 3.2- by 3.3-m (10.5- by 11ft) cross section (Figures 35.3 and 35.5). At 27-m (90-ft)
vertical intervals, a sublevel is developed 100 m in the footwall
of the vein. Each sublevel provides access to mine eight 3.3-m(11-ft-) high cuts. Development is timed so that an entire
sublevel is completed as the ore is mined from the sublevel
above. Normal stoping progress is eight 3.3-m- (11-ft-) high
cuts per year.
Mining a Cut
A stope crew consists of two miners per shift responsible for
the complete cycle. Mining of the cut proceeds with each miner
drilling and blasting one 2.4-m- (8-ft-) long round per shift
each way from the access intersection. Before beginning to
muck out the round blasted on the previous shift, the miners
bar down any loose fill or rock above the muck pile. Then a
strip of 10-gauge chain link wire mesh is hung from Dywidag
rock bolts cast into the cemented sandfill on the previous cut.
This mesh provides overhead protection for the miner as the
round is being mucked out. Each miner mucks the round into
the muck bay in the stope intersection. Once the round is
mucked out, the miners then install additional 1-m- (3-ft-) long
friction bolts in the cemented fill overhead as needed to tighten
up the wire mesh. The walls of the stope are also supported
with 1-m- (3-ft-) long friction bolts on approximately a 1- by 1m (3- by 3-ft) pattern. When width allows and when ground
conditions warrant, more aggressive support is installed, i.e.,
1.2- and 1.8-m (4- and 6-ft) long friction bolts or 1.8-m (6-ft)
grouted rebar bolts. All bolt installation is done with jackleg
drills. When extremely poor ground conditions are encountered
or when seismic activity is very high in a stoping block,
shotcrete is used to support broken fill overhead or badly
fractured walls. The shotcrete is applied immediately after
mucking out, then bolts and wire are installed over the
shotcrete.
Once the round is supported, the next 2.4-m- (8-ft-) deep
round is drilled using a single-boom, diesel over hydraulic,
narrow-vein jumbo. Eighteen 38- or 44-mm (1.5- or 1.75-in)
holes are used to break a heading up to 3.1 m (10 ft) wide and
3.5 m (11.5 ft) high. An additional row of holes is added if the
Fill with compressive strength less than 1.5 MPa (250 psi) will
not support itself for more than 1 or 2 days at widths over 2.5
m (8 ft). Fill with strengths over 4.5 MPa (650 psi) is
susceptible to damage from seismic events and stope closure,
causing it to break into large blocks. Fill with compressive
strengths of 3.4 to 3.8 MPa (400 psi to 550 psi) will compress
during stope wall closure and during a seismic event will
fracture into smaller pieces and actually compress but not
break into large blocks and fall out.
Preparation for Backfilling
Once mining of a cut is complete, the stope is cleaned out, and
a 0.3-m (12-in) layer of broken waste rock, called prep rock, is
placed on the bottom of the stope with a 1-yd3 LHD. Dywidag
bolts 2 m (6 ft) long and 22 mm (7/8 in) in diameter are driven
into the loose prep rock on 1.2-m (4-ft) centers. A nut and
plate are attached to the top of the bolt, and tie wire is used to
stabilize the bolts vertically so they won't fall over during fill
placement (Figure 35.7).
When the next lift below is mined and as each round is blasted,
the loose muck cushions the fill from the blast and gives a little
expansion room for the blast. The loose muck falls away from
the fill and the bolts, leaving a short distance of bolt exposed.
The miner can then put wire mesh over the end of the bolt
sticking out of the fill, attach a nut and plate, and provide
overhead protection immediately.
This preparation method is used for stopes up to 5 m (16 ft)
wide. Any stope or area that exceeds 5 m (16 ft) in width will
have timber supports added to the prep. The 10- by 10-in
timbers are installed across the stope on 2.5-m (8-ft) centers.
Holes are drilled in the timbers so the Dywidag bolts can be
The batch plant portion of the plant combines the backfill sand,
cement, and water in batches that are pumped underground
through a 15-cm (6-in) in diameter, schedule 80, pipe in the
Silver shaft and a 10-cm (4-in) in diameter pipe on the level to
the stope. The proportions of sand, cement, and water in each
batch are computer controlled to ensure a consistent mix that
meets requirements for the backfill needed. The dewatered
sand is picked up with a bucket wheel reclaimer and dumped
on a conveyor feeding a sand hopper. Cement is transferred
from a silo to a cement weigh hopper. The weighed portions of
sand and cement are dropped into a Nikko high-intensity
concrete mixer where water is added under computer control.
Each batch is mixed for approximately 2 min, then dropped
into the pump hopper.
The most common batch used in the Lucky Friday is a mix with
10.5- to 11-in slump. The batch proportions are 2,558 kg
(5,640 lb) of moist sand at 12% to 13 % moisture, 304 kg
(670 lb) Type I/II portland cement, and 360 to 378 L (95 to
100 gal) of water. This mix yields a backfill with an unconfined
uniaxial compressive strength of 3.4 to 4.1 MPa (500 to 600
psi) at 28 days.
progress.
When the depth of the fill in the stope is 0.6 m (2 ft) higher
than the tops of the Dywidag bolts, the miner informs the
batch plant operator that the stope is full enough. The batch
plant then begins the shut-down sequence. The remaining fill in
the pump hopper, the batch being mixed, and the batch being
weighed must be completed and pumped out. Once these are
pumped into the system, water is pumped into the line to flush
the whole system clean. The batch plant operator informs the
miner when the water is entering the system. From 15 to 30
min later, the water reaches the stope. When the miner sees
flushing water at the stope valve, the valve is opened, the
miner notifies the batch plant operator, and the batch plant
operator turns off the water.
Experience has shown that excess water in the stope, either
from groundwater or flushing water, creates very poor backfill
quality. Before a fill is made, any water collected in the stope is
pumped out and only enough flushing water is directed into the
stope to be sure the pipe line from the flush valve to the end of
the stope is clear at the beginning and end of the pour.
When a cut has been filled, the mining crew begins to drill and
blast out the bottom of the access ramp beginning at a point
15 m (50 ft) from the sand wall. The gradient of the reentry is
set at -20%. Within this 15 m (50 ft), the bottom has been
taken up sufficiently to have a face of rock 3 m (10 ft) high
when the face is just under the recently poured sandfill.
This reentry time period of 3 to 5 days combined with one or
two shifts repairing ground support outside the stope allows
enough time for the most recent pour to gain sufficient
strength to stand up while mining under the fill.
COSTS
The highest single cost item for direct stoping cost is labor
(Table 35.2). Miners' pay is based on a guaranteed hourly
wage set by the labor-management agreement, and incentive
is paid to miners on a total-cut incentive system. A value is set
for the labor to mine a complete cut, and at the end of the cut,
the value is divided by the miner shifts to complete the cut.
Progress payments are made at the end of each 2-week pay
period based on an estimate of the percentage completed.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Contributors to this section on the Lucky Friday have been Tom
Fudge, Lucky Friday Unit manager; Randy Anderson, senior
geologist; Steve Thomas, mine planner; Karl Hartman,
ventilation engineer; Doug Bayer, senior engineer; Wilson
Blake, consultant; and Clyde Peppin, engineering supervisor, all
of the Lucky Friday Mine staff.
REFERENCES
Blake, W., and D.J. Cuvelier. Rock Support Requirements
in a Rockburst Prone Environment: Hecla Mining
Company's Lucky Friday Mine. Paper in Rock Support in
Mining and Underground construction: Proceedings of the
International Symposium on Rock Support, ed. By P.K.
Kaiser and D.R. McCreath (Sudbury, ON, June 16-19,
1992). Balkema, 1992, pp. 665-674.
Bolstad, D.D., Rock Burst Control Research by the US
Bureau of Mines, Proceedings of the 2nd International
Symposium on Rockbursts and Seismicity in Mines, ed.
by Charles Fairhurst (Minneapolis,