Kol Is CH 1 Beethoven

Tempo and Character in Beethoven's Music
Rudolf Kolisch
The Musical Quarterly, Vol. 77, No. 1. (Spring, 1993), pp. 90-131.
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Sun Feb 24 07:09:03 2008
T e w o and Character
in Beethoven's Music
Rudolf Kolisch
Although there are many instances in which Beethoven clearly indicated tempo by means of metronome markings, the question of tempo
in Beethoven's music is still hotly debated. His markings have hardly
been accepted as fully valid expressions of his intentions, nor have
they been uniformly adopted in performance practice. O n the contrary, their existence has generally failed to enter the consciousness of
performing musicians, and they are lacking in most editions. Traditional performance practice deviates widely from the tempi denoted by
these metronome markings-and when musicians are brought face to
face with this fact, most of them immediately defend (often passionately) the conventional tempi as against those indicated by the composer. This strange situation deserves to be investigated.
The objections to the metronome markings come from all sides.
Sometimes their authenticity is challenged, while at other times it is
acknowledged, but the subjective validity of the markings put into
question: "Yes, the metronome markings are Beethoven's, but they do
not really convey his intentions." (In support of this argument, examples are cited of composers who are said to have given obviously
absurd metronomic indications-Schumann is most frequently mentioned.) From the perspective of musical technique it is claimed that
Beethoven's tempi are "unplayable," and that this fact alone suffices
to dispose of them. Opponents of the metronome will even go so far
as to make the unbelievably nonsensical assertion that our modem
metronome differs considerably from Beethoven's. (My answer: That
could be true only if the speed of the earth's rotation had changed in
the meantime.) Above these specific and practical objections there
hovers a general opposition of a spiritual and esthetic nature: metronomic markings are felt to be "inartistic." They are said to cramp the
freedom of the interpretive imagination; so delicately balanced and
highly developed an organism as a musical artwork cannot, it is said,
be forced onto the Procrustean bed of a mechanical apparatus.
91
These attacks have seriously shaken the status of the metronome

in relation to Beethoven's music; I will attempt to restore it.
Regarding the question of authenticity, a brief account of Malzel
and his relations to Beethoven will be of interest.
Johann Nepomuk Malzel was born in 1772 in Regensburg, the
son of an organ builder and mechanic. He was trained not only as a
mechanic but also as a musician, and is said to have been a good
pianist. He came to Vienna in the same year as Beethoven, 1792, and
set up a mechanical workshop in Stein's piano factory. His inventive
genius and highly developed sense of publicity soon brought him great
success. With his "Panharmonicon," a mechanical orchestra, and with
his "Mechanical Trumpeter," for which many well-known composers
wrote pieces, he toured all over Europe. After returning to Vienna he
constructed a new "Panharmonicon" which incorporated all the
instruments of a military band, and he arranged works for it by famous
composers such as Cherubini, Haydn, and Handel. His steadily growing fame gained him the title of Hoj7ammermaschinist ("Court Machinist"). He later extended his travels as far as America and lived for
some time in Philadelphia. It was in the course of a journey from
there to South America that he died.
Beethoven was first led to this extremely gifted mechanic by the
hope of getting a usable hearing-aid from him. Of the four eartrumpets that Malzel constructed for him, he did indeed use one for a
considerable time, but without its actually bringing him much relief.
During the many visits that Beethoven made to Malzel's workshop,
the two men also discussed the construction of a machine that would
enable a composer to fix exactly the tempo of a piece of music. Malzel
had already been involved for some time with the plans for such a
machine and was working on perfecting it. His relations with
Beethoven had in the meantime become so close that the latter
accepted the proposal to accompany Malzel to England in 1813. The
attempts to bring this project to fruition led to all kinds of
complications-even, in the end, to a break between them and the
threat of a lawsuit with Beethoven as plaintiff. Since many false
accounts of this break remain in circulation even though Beethoven
scholarship has brought out the facts quite clearly, I would like to
examine it in somewhat greater detail.'
Malzel was faced with the task of coming up with the substantial
funds necessary for the projected journey to London. With his unerring sense of publicity, he hit upon a plan to exploit in a clever way
the public interest in Beethoven, as well as the patriotism of the audiences in Vienna and London: Beethoven was to write a symphony on
92 The Mwical Quarterly
the subject of Wellington's victory at Vittoria for Malzel's "Panharmonicon." Strangely enough, Beethoven not only agreed to do so, but
actually carried out a quite detailed plan drawn up by Malzel, who not
only wrote out the drum marches and trumpet calls of the French and
English armies, but also recommended the use of "Rule Britannia,"
"God save the King," and "Malbrouk s'en va-t-en guerre" as themes
for the piece. Beethoven's wholly uncharacteristic acquiesence was
probably due only to his not taking the piece seriously. Malzel, however, considered it important enough to feel that a concert performance of the "Battle Symphony" by a large orchestra would be even
more successful than one by the "Panharmonicon," and so persuaded
Beethoven to make an arrangement of it for symphony orchestra. The
first performance was to take place at a concert for the benefit of disabled soldiers, at which Beethoven's new Seventh Symphony was to
be performed for the first time, and further performances were to bring
in the needed amount. Beethoven complied with this wish too, and
thanks to Malzel, who demonstrated the full range of his publicity
skills (for example, he was able to enlist all the famous musicians who
were in Vienna at the time to collaborate in the performance, including Salieri, Meyerbeer, Hummel, Romberg, spohr, and Moscheles),
the concert, which took place on December 8, 1813, was one of the
greatest successes that Beethoven ever had. Malzel had also gauged
correctly the value of the "Battle Symphony" as a sensation: it proved
possible to repeat the work three more times-on December 12, 1813,
and on January 2 and February 27, 1814-on the last occasion with
the new Eighth Symphony. But the last two of these performances
took place without Malzel's participation, and because of his brother's
illness Beethoven had abandoned the plan of going to England. Thus
Malzel not only found himself deprived of a most effective work for
his "Panharmonicon," but also cheated of all the fruits of his efforts.
Believing in good faith that his property rights to the orchestrion
version extended also to the orchestral arrangement, Malzel sought to
recoup some of his losses through a performance of the "Battle Symphony" in Munich. Beethoven, however, insisted that he alone had
exclusive rights to the piece, and forbade the planned performance.
When negotiations in a lawyer's office proved futile, Malzel had a
copy of the "Battle Symphony" made using parts belonging to some of
the musicians who had participated in the performances; with this
material he produced the work in Munich. This drove Beethoven into
a furious rage, which vented itself in the form of extremely violent
insults and even led to the filing of a legal complaint against Malzel.
93
Assuming, mistakenly, that Malzel intended to stage a performance of

the work in London as well, Beethoven, in order to forestall him, had
a copy of the piece made at his own expense and sent it to the Prince
Regent. But this action failed its purpose completely; the Prince
Regent took no notice of the present, and in fact Malzel had no
intention of performing the symphony in London. When his rage had
subsided, Beethoven seemed himself to have recognized how precipitous his behavior had been, and the matter was settled by a compromise in which each party paid half of the court costs.
A t any rate, the two men were already fully reconciled by the
time Malzel returned to Vienna in 1817; the merry canon Ta, ta, ta,
which was sung at a festive gathering in honor of the inventor of the
metronome, bears witness to that fact. The metronome had meanwhile been put into production and was being marketed from Paris. In
the enthusiasm with which Beethoven greeted the new invention
there is no longer any trace of the unpleasant disagreement between
the two men. Beethoven published the following declaration jointly
with Salieri in the [Viennese] Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung on February 14, 1818:
Malzel's metronome is here! The usefulness of this invention of his will reveal
itself more and more; and all composers of Germany, England, and France have
accepted it; we have, however, considered it not unnecessary to recommend it,
in accordance with our conviction, to all beginners and students as well,
whether in singing or in playing the pianoforte or any other instrument, as
useful, in fact indispensable. Through its use they will be able to learn and
practice the values of the notes with the greatest ease. Also within the shortest
time they will arrive at the point of being able to perform without difficulty
and with enthusiasm; for since the pupil, after having had the appropriate directions and explanations from his teacher, is thus prevented even in the absence of the latter from straying arbitrarily from the tempo in singing or
playing, his feeling for time will in a short time become so developed and directed that in this respect there will soon be no further difficulties for him. We
think it necessary to illuminate this so generally useful invention of Malzel's
from this standpoint, too, since it appears that in this respect it has not yet
been sufficiently appreciated.
But he had already given concrete evidence of his esteem for the
metronome in 1817 by having S. A. Steiner in Vienna publish a pamphlet entitled Bestimmung des Musikalischen Zeitmajes nach M k Z E L ' s
Metronom. Erste Lieferung. Beethoven Sinfonien Nr. 1-8 und Septett
von dem Autor selbst bezeichnet ["Determination of Musical Tempo
According to MALZEL'S Metronome. First Installment. Beethoven
94 The Musical Quarterly

Symphonies Nos. 1-8 and Septet, designated by the Author Himself "1
(publisher's number 281 1). This pamphlet contains metronomic indications for all the movements of the Septet and the eight symphonies
that had been composed up to that point. Soon thereafter a similar
booklet followed as the second installment (publisher's no. 2812),
covering the string quartets composed before 1817: op. 1811-VI, op.
5911-111, op. 74, and op. 95. In 1872 the respected Beethoven scholar
Nottebohm wrote that "it was not possible to get a copy of it."3 This
facile comment led Beethoven scholarship in general to view the metronome markings with the greatest scepticism-as already mentioned
they are missing in most editions-and this in turn provided interpreters with the welcome opportunity simply to overlook them. But good
luck allowed me to find a copy of the second pamphlet during the
course of my research in the Drexel Collection of the New York Public Library.
What follows is a list of the other works for which Beethoven
provided metronomic indications, along with the documentary evidence of their authenticity:
Op. 106 (Piano Sonata in B-flat). A letter to Ries dated April
16, 1819, contains the indications for this work, unfortunately the
only piano sonata for which we have such data:
Here, dear Ries! are the tempi of the sonata. First movement Allegro, but only
Allegro; you must remove the assai. M~lzel's metronome = 138. Second
movement Scherzoso. M's metronome
= 80. Third movement. M's metronome
= 92. Here I must point out that the first bar still has to be inserted,
that is to say [. . .] Fourth movement. introduzione. Largo. Malzel's metronome
= 76. Fifth movement.
time. [. . .] and the last movement: Miilzel's
metronome = 144.4
6.
Op. 112 (Meeresstilk und Gluckliche Fahrt). There are metronomic indications in Beethoven's own hand in the manuscript.
Op. 121b (Opferlied). There is the remark in the manuscript:
"M.M. J = 66 according to the composer's instructions."
Op. 125 (Ninth Symphony). The metronome specifications are
contained in a letter to Schott dated October 13, 1826:
I am using what remains of the fine weather to take a holiday here in the
country, since it was impossible for me to leave Vienna this summer. Meanwhile I have worked out the metronome markings for the whole symphony and
am enclosing the tempi . . . You may also have them engraved separately. Do
not forget what I told you about the second movement.
I will soon let you have the metronome markings for the Mass as
Tempo and Character in Beethoven's Mwic
95
The final remark shows that Beethoven had the intention of

fixing the tempi for the Missa solemnis, which he unfortunately did not
carry out. He had similar intentions for many of the later piano sonatas as well.
The evidence for the authenticity of these markings thus seems
conclusive. What is much harder to establish is their subjective validity: Do they really represent the composer's conceptions of tempo?
And is tempo in general an integral part of a musical work of art,
capable of being fixed as an objective category and thereafter immutable? This question leads far beyond the domain of performance practice to the very heart of musical creation. Let us attempt to answer it,
at least as concerns Beethoven.
First, the subjective question: Did Beethoven himself consider
tempo an essential component of his musical idea? T o help answer
this question I would like to cite just one passage among many utterances in conversations and letters, from a letter to Schott dated
December 18, 1826:
The metronome markings [for the Missa sokmnis] will be sent to you very soon.
Do wait for them. In our century, such markings are certainly necessary; moreover
I have received letters from Berlin informing me that the first performance of
the [Ninth] Symphony met with enthusiastic applause, which I ascribe largely
to the metronome markings. We can hardly have any tempi ordinarii any longer,
since one must be guided by the ideas of unfettered genius6
Thus we see that observing the proper tempo could, in Beethoven's opinion, determine the success of a new work!
O n the question of the extent to which tempo is an immutable
constituent of the musical idea, I would like to cite Beethoven's letter
to Hofrat von Mosel in 1817, which gives us profound insights into
his conception of the tempo question:
Noble Sir! I am heartily delighted that you share my own opinion concerning
the terns to indicate tempo, which still stem from the barbarous days of music;
for, to take only one example, what can be more nonsensical than allegro
which simply means merry, -how far away we often are from this notion of this
tempo, so that the music itself says the opposite of the indication. -As far as these
four principal tempi are concerned, which incidentally do not possess anywhere
near the truth or importance of the four principal winds, we would gladly do
without them. But the words that indicate the character of the piece are a different matter. These we cannot abandon, since the tempo is really more the
body of a piece, while these terms refer to its very spirit.-As far as I am concerned, I have long been thinking of abandoning these nonsensical terns alkgro, andante, adagio, presto, and Malzel's metronome gives us the best

opportunity to do so. I give you my word here and now that I will never use
them again in any of my new compositions. Another question is whether by
doing so we will further the much needed proliferation of the metronome-I
hardly think so. But I have little doubt that we will be decried as tyrants and
yet, if the cause itself were really served in the process, it would be better at
any rate than to be accused of feudalism. That is why I believe it would be
best, especially for our countries, in which music has become a national necessity, and every village schoolmaster must be urged to use the metronome, for
Malzel to try to sell a certain number of metronomes by subscription at higher
prices, and as soon as his costs have been covered by that number he will be in
a position to provide the remaining metronomes for the musical needs of the
nation so cheaply that we may surely expect their most widespread use and distribution. It goes without saying that a few people must lead the way, to stimulate others to follow; as far as I am concerned, you can surely count o n me,
and I await with pleasure the task which you will assign me in this regard.
I am, noble Sir, with great respect,

Your most devoted
Ludwig van B e e t h ~ v e n . ~
Thus we see that the old Italian terms seemed "nonsensical" to

Beethoven; they now indicate only a tempo and no longer the "character" of a piece. These two categories are now separated, their juxtaposition deepened by the metaphorical antithesis "body-spirit." The
discrepancy between the sense of the old Italian terms and the new
"characters" of the pieces is felt to be very disturbing. At times this
discrepancy even becomes an actual contradiction! But the metronome-has rendered these old "barbaric" designations superfluous. The
categories of tempo and character can be expressed independently
from each other: tempo in absolute and exact fashion by means of the
metronome; character by means of the adequate and discriminating
terms of the vernacular.
But it is not only the indications of tempo that have become
inadequate; the very tempi indicated by them are no longer suitable.
The conventional categories of tempo-the tempi ordinarii-are no
longer suited to embody the "New Spirit." This "New Spirit" characterizes Beethoven's colossal and revolutionary achievement and manifests itself in the new types of expression with which he enriched the
language of the Vienna Classic Style. These new types of expressioncharacters-correspond to new tempi, which can no longer be indicated unambiguously by the old Italian terms, despite all sorts of
modifications. The inherited, early Classic types now appear only
infrequently: "We can hardly have any tempi ordinarii any longer."
We see that Beethoven sensed the problem very clearly and drew
the necessary conclusions from it. He was aware of tempo as an essen-
97
tial part of his language, coordinated with that mysterious category

which he himself termed "character." If further evidence is needed
that Beethoven was aware of this interrelation, and that his conception of tempo was compelling and unambiguous, it may be found in
the fact that he indicated the same tempo for different pieces of the
same character. Beethoven's construction of typical tempo categories,
corresponding to categories of expression, eliminates any suspicion
that his metronomic indications could be merely casual expressions of
subjective ideas of interpretation. No: the tempo of a piece is born with
the conception of the music itself, and is an integral component of it.

But can the required tempi be realized in practice? It is often
maintained that Beethoven's inability to hear the realization of his
music had distanced him so far from the practical considerations of
musical performance that his tempo indications became "abstract,"
conceived without consideration of their practical possibility. They are
that, of course-for they are, after all, a part of his compositional
idea. But this idea is not derived from the instrument; it does not
even meet the instrument h a l f - ~ aThus,
~ . ~ if a given tempo should
really prove to be impossible in practice, this would only indicate the
inadequacy of our technique. I can, however, affirm in good conscience and on the basis of experience that the tempi required by
Beethoven of stringed instruments, at least, are perfectly playable with
today's average technique.
Nor do I believe that difficulties of instrumental technique are
the real reason-at least not the sole reason-for the past and present
disregard of Beethoven's tempi. The real reason is rather that Beethoven's language, because of its newness, was not understood by his
contemporaries, and that therefore the new tempi for his unprecedented expressive characters simply could not be conceived. The following comment by Beethoven in the Wiener Vaterbndische Bbtter of
October 13, 1813, confirms this:
[. . .] I consider the invention of the metronome a welcome means of assuring
that the performance of my compositions everywhere will be in the tempi that
I conceived, which to my regret have so often been misunderstood.
Contemporary musicians were also aware of this difficulty, as is

demonstrated by the following letter from Galitzin, dated December
30, 1823:
I should also have wished that you would have sent me the tempi for all the
movements of the Mass according to Malzel's metronome, which will give us a
more exact idea of the manner in which you wish them to be performed. I
even urge you strongly to do this for all the works you have composed; for I
have often observed great variations in the manner in which your music is performed, and in order to resolve the question and the differing opinions, what is
needed is your own word as to the tempi in which you wish all your compositions to be played. Malzel's metronome seems to me very valuable for this purpose.9
In light of all this, we may consider it demonstrated, in my opinion, that Beethoven was aware of the importance of tempo in his
music and considered it an integral element of its "characteru-that
category which he felt to be most essential to his music.
How, given all this, can the use of an apparatus for fixing tempo
still be called "inartistic"? This attitude on the part of amateurs and
"creative" interpreters is the result of a serious misunderstanding. The
violent opposition to the metronome stems from the widespread
assumption of an antithesis between mechanical apparatus and artistic
freedom. But this antithesis simply does not apply here! To be sure,
the metronome is a machine; but its only purpose here is to measure
exactly an absolute quantity-the relation of music to time. This is
not unlike the function of modem musical notation (itself no longer
modem) which gives the exact pitch, another departure from "the
barbarous days of music" when this was not the case. The enormous
differentiation of tempo and its close relation to "expression" has
made precise specification necessary; the metronome is no more "inartistic" than a well-tuned piano.
It seems to me that the opponents of the metronome misunderstand something crucial: they believe its use demands that a piece of
music be played from beginning to end according to the unvarying
beat of the metronome. That, however, would not only be inartistic;
it would destroy the meaning of the music. Except in special cases,
such as a perpetuum mobile or certain etudes and marches, there is
hardly a measure in music in which the beats have equal time-value.
The use of the metronome to establish a tempo does not involve using
it to compare the length of beats-it can be used for that, too, though
that is a question of rhythm-but simply to determine the basic
"speed." It affords the interpreter complete rhythmic freedom and
complete "artistic freedom" for the performance as a whole. It serves
only to establish objectively an objective category. But it removes this
category from the domain of subjective caprice, upon which it would
otherwise be helplessly dependent (and unfortunately still is).
Attempts to reduce the fixing of tempi ad absurdum are frequently made by pointing out the inaccuracy of composers' own conceptions of tempo. Composers have often changed or disavowed their
99
own tempo indications, it is said. They have often failed to notice

deviations from their instructions when listening to their own works,
and even when they have performed their own works themselves their
tempi have always varied. These objections bring us to the important
question of quantity in tempo indications. How exact is the conception of tempo? Variations of tempo in the interpretation of their own
works prove little about the exactness of composers' conceptions.
Every interpreter will confirm that it is very difficult to realize a preconceived tempo, particularly when one is not the sole performer
involved in producing it. As for changes by composers of their own
previous tempo indications, these only prove that the first notation
was not quite right, just as other elements of composition are sometimes inaccurately set down the first time. Insensitivity on the part of
composers towards deviations from a tempo they themselves established seems to constitute a strong argument against the idea that
tempo is a binding and integral part of their conception. But in the
first place, the present investigation concerns only Beethoven, about
whom we have no evidence of such insensitivity; on the contrary, we
know that he took the greatest pains to make sure that the tempi he
intended were followed. In the second place, what really matters is
the extent of the deviation. l o
Slight deviations do not in general disturb the meaning of the
music. A metronome number indicates a tempo category which allows
more or less leeway. It is only when this category is abandoned that
the tempo becomes essentially mistaken, and distorts the character of
the music. How wide this leeway is cannot, of course, be determined
in general terms. (Many composers begin their tempo indications with
"ca."; or they write, for example, J = 126-132.) As far as Beethoven
is concerned, we may say that the leeway is narrower where the tempo
categories lie closer together and wider where they encompass a larger
range. (The table which follows below will make this clear in detail.)
But what matters is always, of course, only significant divergences
which destroy the meaning-never mere nuances within the categories!
The deviations which are traditional in Beethoven performance
are, however, quite significant; in some cases they lead to a complete
distortion of his idea. We have already seen how these deviations
arose; we will also understand how it is that they have held their
ground so stubbornly when we consider that the works have been
handed down in this distorted form by tradition, and that the distortions have then been firmly established by the performance practice of
leading contemporary musicians. These distortions have thus been
taken up, "petrified" as it were, into the inventory of "mankind's
sacred heritage" and are deeply rooted in the consciousness of the

consumers of music. This explains the surprisingly strong resistance to
the restoration of Beethoven's original tempo intentions. l 1
But if what really matters to us is that Beethoven's music appear
in its intended form, and if we believe that his intended tempo is
crucial to the realization of the characters of his music, then we must
insist with great decisiveness that his tempo prescriptions be observed.
Unfortunately he provided explicit tempo markings for only twentyfour of his ca. 150 principal works with opus numbers; for the remaining works we would seem to be left in the dark, dependent upon our
"instincts," our "healthy musical sense." But this only seems to be the
case, for it is possible to deduce the tempi for those works that
Beethoven did not mark by studying those for which he did provide
such indications. In order to lay the foundation for such deductions, it
will first be necessary to examine the principle according to which
Beethoven noted his tempi.
Except in very few instances, Beethoven employed the scorned
Italian tempo marks-Adagio, Andante, Allegretto, Allegro, Presto-to
designate his tempi. For slow tempi he also employed Largo, Larghetto,
and Lento, without making any fundamental distinctions among these
terms. These tempo categories are modified quantitatively by additions
such as molto, poco, ma non troppo, or assai; supplementary indications
such as serioso, mesto, scherzoso, and grazioso are used as a means to
characterize the music. In general, Beethoven regularly used the same
tempo designation for the same tempo.
The absolute measure of the tempo indicated by one tempo designation varies, however, according to the meter signature and the
relation between the metric unit and the tempo unit. (I use the term
"metric unit" to indicate the unit in which the meter is expressed,
e.g. in &, J in i, in 68. The metric unit or sum of the metric units
6
to which the tempo marking refers, I call "tempo unit," e.g. @ in
Allegro.) It is essential, in deciding tempo questions in Beethoven, to
understand this aspect of his practice thoroughly, for if there is no
metronome marking given, his notation does not always indicate
clearly to which metric unit his tempo indications refer (e.g. Adagio
2
& , Allegro i ) . The measure of the tempo varies within the tempocategory according to the number of metric units constituting the
tempo unit. The greater this number, the slower the measure of the
tempo.
Thus, for example, in Beethoven the tempo category Allegro
(ordinario) encompasses a tempo between 88 and 176. In a Allegro,
the tempo indication refers either to one metric unit (one quarter) or
to a sum of three metric units (a full measure). In the former
-
101
= 88-100. In a Alkgro
instance, J = 152-168; in the latter
where the tempo unit embraces three smaller metric units,
= 104-1 12. In Allegro alla breve and in meter, the tempo unit
coincides with the metric unit, just as in f meter. But since an alla
breve or 2 measure contains only two tempo units, the tempo is considerably slower, i.e. = 112-132 in &, J = 120-132 in :, J = 144176 in f .l 2 This principle is observed consistently. The following
table, which contains the tempi occurring in Beethoven's works
arranged according to meter signatures and tempo categories, illustrates the systematic nature of their notation:
hhh
As has already been remarked, the tempo indication alone does

not always enable one to classify a piece as belonging to a specific
tempo category. Sometimes the system of the designations is not
strictly maintained, and then frequently the relation of the metric unit
to the tempo unit remains an open question. The movements in
scherzo form in op. 18/IV, op. 1 8 N , op. 20, op. 59/11, and op. 591111
are all marked "Menuetto" andlor "Allegretto"; yet each of these
movements is in a different tempo, and the differences are by no
means mere nuances; on the contrary, the tempo varies from J = 116
to J = 252! Only the meaning of the music can lead us to what is
correct. What we must first decide is whether we are confronted here
with a true minuet, in which the quarters are the tempo units, or with
waltz-type compositions, in which whole measures constitute the
tempo units. This decision will be possible only through closer examination of the specific musical nature of the pieces-of their character.
Thus we must determine the essential quality of the music, its

"spirit." Then we can assign to the spirit its proper "body." Beethoven
undertook this himself for most of his character-types by means of his
metronome markings. Thus if we succeed in identifying a piece as
having a certain specific character, we shall have determined its
tempo. Musical character manifests itself in the musical form. Similarity of form in different pieces permits us to infer identity of character. In the specific discussion which follows, I have attempted to carry
out such a phenomenological identification of all of Beethoven's
character-types. Such a taxonomy does not undermine the individuality of particular works. The systematic model being set up here
does not imply that all pieces grouped within one type are identical
in their form of expression. Nor am I attempting to simplify the infinite complexity of musical phenomena. Among all their varied manifestations, I am simply emphasizing the commonality of one single
element: character.
The decisive question in determining the tempo of the slow
movements in Beethoven is the question of which metric unit the
tempo indication refers to. The answer to this question is by no means
always obvious, and it is here that violence is most often done to
Beethoven's intentions. It seems that German Romanticism, and the
traditional performances inspired by it, believed that one could only
do justice to the "profundity" of the Beethoven Adagio by means of an
extremely slow tempo. l 3 This interpretation sometimes leads, however, to a complete distortion of the musical idea such that it is no
longer recognizable.
1) Adagio
&
Piano Concerto No. 1, op. 15

Piano Sonata, op. 26
Piano Sonata, op. 27/11
Violin Sonata, op. 30111
Romance, op. 40
Romance, op. 50
String Quartet, op. 59/11
Symphony No. 9, op. 125
String Quartet, op. 131
d = 30-33
Largo
Marcia funebre C
Adagio sostenuto
Adagio cantabile
(no tempo marking)
Adagio cantabile
Molto Adagio C = 60
Adagio un poco mosso
Adagio molto e cantabile C J = 60
No. 1. Adagio ma non troppo e molto
espressivo
Canzona di ringraziamento. Molto adagio
103
The alla breve Adagio, which I refer to as the "chorale type" on

account of its articulation in half-notes, has not been accepted as such
by most editors; even the Breitkopf & Hartel Gesamtausgabe took
away most of the alla breve signs. This unwillingness to let the tempo
marking refer to large note values naturally has its counterpart in
performance practice. The tempo is applied to the quarter-notes,
which are then however not played really Adagio (J = 30-40)-which
would be completely absurd-but rather in an Andante tempo (ca.
J = 50). This makes the tempo seem faster than it would be if played
correctly, despite the faster quarter notes (1 = 60), for what determines perceived tempo is the distance between two accentuated
points. By suppressing the emphasis on the second and fourth quarters
one can make it possible to feel the tempo as really applying to the
half-notes, revealing the intended character as a broad Adagio. '4
Op. 27/11
Adagio sostenuto
7
,-
Op. 30/1I
Adagio cantabile
Op. 59/11
Molto Adagio
Op. 7.3
Adagio un poco mosso
Op. 125
Adagio molto e cantabile
op. 1 3 1
Adagio m a non troppo e m~)ltoespressiso
Op, 132
;Llolto Adagio
I
I
105
In the Adagio movements notated in i meter, the problem consists in finding out whether the indication "Adagio" applies to the
quarter-notes, resulting in a true i, or to the eighth-notes, which
would produce a i meter. Beethoven, however, never used a i signature. Thus the notation by itself again does not give us sufficient
information; we must seek it in the music.
2) Adagio
J = 32-40
String Trio, op. 3

Serenade, op. 8
String Trio, op. 91111
Serenade, op. 25
Sextet, op. 81 b
Adagio
Adagio
Adagio con espressione C
Adagio molto
Adagio cantabile
Adagio
Adagio molto espressivo
Marcia funebre. Adagio assai
Adagio
Adagio espressivo
80
The articulation of these themes in quarter-notes leaves no doubt

that the Adagio indication applies to the quarter-notes. (The relationship between the Sonata op. 13 and the Ninth Symphony op. 125
confirms this inference.) The Funeral March of the Third Symphony
op. 55 constitutes a special case, since the considerable rhythmic
variety of its theme has almost always led to its being interpreted as a
Adagio. What makes such an interpretation untenable is principally
the Maggiore section.
The String Trio, op. 91111, contains the only movement in f
meter in which the Adagio tempo indication refers to the quarternotes. In all other similarly notated instances it refers to the halfnotes. But the structure of the piece shows clearly that what we are
dealing with here is not a real f meter but two 1 measures, since the
third quarter has the force of a down-beat.
Op. 3
Adagio
Op. 91111
Adagio con espressione
Op. 1011
Adagio ~nolto
Op. 13
Adagio cantabile
Op. 55
Marcia funebre. Adagio assai
Op. Xlh
Adagio
107
Op 96
Adagio espre\si\o
3 ) Adagio
(Q)

String Quartet, op. 18NI
Piano Trio, op. 7011
Woodwind Sextet, op. 71
Cello Sonata, op. 102111
.?
= 40-50
Adagio
Adagio, ma non troppo = 80
Adagio molto e mesto = 88
Largo assai ed espressivo
Adagio
Adagio con molto sentimento d'affetto
,h
Figurations such as those contained in op. 5911 or op. 7011 demonstrate that in these works the Adagio applies to the eighth-notes as
is, in fact, clear from the physiognomy of the themes.
Adagio
Op. 18NI
Adagio. ma non troppo
Op. 59/l
Adagio molto e mesto
o p . 7011
Largo assai ed espressivo
0
o p . 102111
Adagio con molto sentimento d'affetto
4) Adagio
s,
12
Piano Trio, op. 1/11

Cello Sonata, op. 10211
1. = 24-30
Largo con espressione

Largo e mesto
Andante
= 88
Adagio sostenuto. Appassionato e con
molto sentimento = 92
Lento assai, cantante e tranquillo
Adagio, ma non troppo e molto cantabile
12
In
quarter.
o p . 10fl11
meter the tempo indication always refers to the dotted
Op. 106
Adagio sostenuto
Op. 135
Lento assai. cantante e tranauillo
Op. 117
Adagio, ma nc~ntroppo e molto cantabile
I
5) Adagio
J = 36-44
Piano Trio, op. 111

Piano Sonata, op. 7
Serenade, op. 8
Piano Trio, op. 11
String Quartet, op. 18/11
String Quintet, op. 29
Woodwind Trio, op. 87
Adagio cantabile
Adagio
Largo appassionato
Largo, con gran espressione
Adagio
Adagio
Adagio con molta espressione
Adagio cantabile = 72
Adagio
Adagio con espressione
Adagio
Adagio = 84
Adagio cantabile
Cavatina. Adagio molto espressivo
.h
.h
109
110 The Mwical Quarterly
The f Adagio is by far the most common type among the Adagios; in it the tempo indications always refer to the quarters.
op. 12/111
Op. 18/11
Adagio cantabile
Op. 24
Op. 60
Adagio
r ,,r,ri~ll,l,
'Op. 130
Cavatina. Adagio molto espressivo
6) Adagio
:,
111
J. = 40-46; h. = 50
String Trio, op. 911

Septet, op. 20
Adagio, ma non tanto, e cantabile f

Adagio affetuoso ed appassionato h. = 138
Adagio cantabile ) = 132
Adagio grazioso
Arietta. Adagio molto semplice e cantabile

9
16
The identity of the pieces notated in meter, i.e. their common

reference to the dotted-quarter, is clearly shown in op. 911, which is
notated in time.
The unique case of the Piano Sonata, op. 111, notated in
meter, surely reflects an attempt to do justice to the special character
-and tempo-of this piece. This movement lies between a Adagio
(J. = 40-46) and a (Adagio = 52-72).
Op. 911
Adagio. ma non tanto. e cantabile
op.
In/!
Adagio affetuoso ed appassionato
op. 20
Adagio cantabile
op. 1 1 1
Arietta. Adagio n~oltosernplice e cantabile
Piano Concerto No. 3 , op. 37

Triple Concerto, op. 56
Largo
Largo
Adagio ma non troppo
h = 72
The two movements marked Largo are similar to the Adagio

while the slow movement of op. 74 is on the way to an Andante.
(The Larghetto from the Second Symphony op. 36 belongs completely
to the Andante category; see type 16.)
op. 37
Op. 56
Largo
113
Op. 74
Adagio ma non troppo
8) Andante C
J = 60-63
Violin Concerto, op. 61
Larghetto
Andante con moto, ma non troppo. Poco

scherzoso
The Larghetto of the Violin Concerto is probably the piece that has
undergone the most extensive distortion in performance: it is played
nearly twice as slowly as intended. It is treated as if it were an Adagio
with the tempo referring to the quarter notes, and is articulated (and
"beaten" by the conductor) in eighth notes at a tempo of h. = 71-74.
As a result, this light, spirited, gracious Andante movement is made
into a solemn, devotional hymn. To me it is inconceivable how this
misunderstanding could arise, and even more inconceivable that it
could persist for so long. The incoherence of such an interpretation
should have been evident immediately from the sixteenth-note arabesques encircling the theme [at the violin's first entrance] which must
now be played with a solemn profundity weighted down by a cantabile
espressivo. But this conception becomes completely absurd in the contrasting middle section where the melodic progression is articulated in
half notes. When the Adagio diction settles on two trills in whole
measures, all the virtuosi steeped in tradition run out of breath and
abbreviate this resting point considerably.
The unusual marking Larghetto may have contributed to the gross
misunderstanding of this piece; it appears only one other time, in the
second movement of the Second Symphony where Beethoven establishes it as equivalent to Andante by marking it .h = 92. Though the
Violin Concerto has no metronome markings from Beethoven's own
hand, we still have proof that he conceived the piece as an Andante
(despite the precious term Larghetto-whose diminutive form was perhaps supposed to indicate its light character): Beethoven marked the
114 Tk Musical Quarterly
transitional cadenza to the third movement, which he wrote for the

piano arrangement of the concerto, as "Transition from the Andante
to the Rondo."
Op. 130
Andante con mot0 ma non troppo. Poco scherzoso
9) Andante
'82
J.
50
Andante molto rnosso J = 50
Tempo and Character in Beethouen's Music
115
Op. 68
Andante molto mosso
10) Andante
&

d = 46-50
Andante
Andante
The Andante alla breve appears once in the form of a variation

movement and then later as a three-part song-form.
Op. 14/11
Andante
Op. 2711
Andante
11) Andante

Serenade, op. 8
String Quartet, op. 1 8 N
Septet, op. 20
Serenade, op. 25
Andante cantabile con Variazioni

Tema. Andante quasi Allegretto
Tema con Variazioni. Andante con mot0
Andante cantabile = 100
Andante h
, = 120
Andante con Variazioni
116
The Musical Quarterly
Rondo (for Piano), op. 51/11

Andante cantabile e grazioso

Andante con mot0
No. 4. Andante ma non troppo e molto
cantabile
In light of the intermediate position of the Andante between the

Adagio and the Allegretto, we find in this category some pieces that are
closer to the Adagio and some that already have the character of a n
Allegretto. Between them lies the true Andante type: the variation
theme with folk-song character.
Op. l l l l l
Andante cantabile
Op. 1211
.Andante con moto
Op. I XIV
Andante cantabile
I
Op. 2 0
Andante
Op. 37
Andante
1
Op. 57
Andante con moto
Op. 131
Andante ma non troppo e molto cantabile
i,li// i
12) Andante
:(i)
Piano Quintet, op. 16

Piano Sonata, op. 81 a
Lil
LL
h = 72-88
Andante cantabile
Andante espressivo
Op. 81a
Andante espressivo
I n gehrnder Brwegung, doch mlt v ~ eAu\druch
l
117
13) Andante
J. = 50-60
String Trio, op. 9/11

Woodwind Octet, op. 103
Andante quasi Allegretto

Andante
Andante con mot0 quasi Allegretto
J.
56
Allegretto J . = 60
Op. 9/11 exhibits the Scherzando character of op. 18/IV (2nd

movement-see type 22) and is thus virtually a 2 x:. The melancholic minor movement from op. 591111 is an isolated case which has
no scherzo elements.
Op. 9/11
I
o p . 59/111
Andante con moto quasi Allegretto
14) Andante

Piano Trio, op. 97
The
op. 109.
J = 60-76
Tempo di Minuetto ma molto moderato e
grazioso
Andante cantabile
Gesangvoll, mit innigster Empfindung.
Andante molto cantabile ed espressivo

Moderato cantabile molto espressivo
No. 6. Adagio quasi un poco andante
Andante appears twice as a variation theme: op. 97 and
Op. 30/111
Tempo di Minuetto
Op. 97
,
Andante cantahile
Op. 109
(;esang\oll, mit innipster I.:nipfindung
I
o p . I I0
119
15) Andante
J. = 50
Andante
op. 7')
Andante
16) Andante
58
h = 1 2 0 ; h = 92
String Trio, op. 3

Andante
Andante cantabile con mot0

Andante (for Piano), WOO 57

Larghetto h. = 92
Andante con mot0 = 92
Andante grazioso con mot0
h = 120
Op. 3 and op. 21 are borderline cases which tend in two directions: conceived in whole measures (J. = 40), they belong to the
realm of the Adagio; but the articulation in eighth-notes relegates
them to the domain of the Allegretto. They represent Mozart's
"Andantino"-a term Beethoven did not use.
Andante cantabile con moto
PP
Op. 26
Andante
121
-.
Op. 36
On. 67
Andante con moto
I
woo 57
Andante erazioso con mot0
h:
17) Allegretto C
J = 100-120

Piano Sonata, op. 6
Piano Trio, op. 11
Rondo. Grazioso
Rondo. Moderato
Allegretto
The rondo form offers Beethoven much less of an opportunity to

exercise his power of creating new character-types than does the
sonata form. In the Allegretto tempo the rondo pieces all share the
basic character of the Grazioso in duple meter, which leads us to designate this group the "Grazioso-type."
op. 2/11
.
Op. I I
Allegretto
18) Allegretto
J = 66-76; J = 60
String Trio, op. 9/11

Violin Sonata, op. 12/11
Piano
Piano
Piano
Piano
Sonata,
Sonata,
Sonata,
Sonata,
op.
op.
op.
op.
7
22
53
54
Allegretto
Andante, pih tosto Allegretto
Andante scherzoso, pih Allegretto
Andante
Allegretto
Allegretto = 76
Allegretto ma non troppo J = 66
Rondo. Poco Allegretto e grazioso

Rondo. Allegretto
Rondo. Allegretto moderato
Allegretto
The two outstanding representatives of Beethoven's Allegretto in
2 meter are not identical in character. The theme of op. 92 has a
solemn, marching character-one might almost interpret the half

notes (J = 38) as the pace of a funeral procession; the harmony
changes with the measures. The theme of op. 95, on the other hand,
is more cantabile in character, and is on the borderline between Alkgretto and Andante. l5 The two pieces are nevertheless related. Their
affinity manifests itself in the four-measure "raising of the curtain" in
Tempo and Characm in B e e h e n ' s Music
123
op. 95, which exhibits the same march character as op. 92, and in
the dolce Maggiore section of the latter, which in turn shows clear
kinship in character with the theme of op. 95. Also interesting is the
similarity in the structure of the development, which in both cases
adds a sixteenth-note counterpoint to afugal theme derived from the
primary material.
The anomalous notation of op. 53 (doubled note values!) makes
this piece a meter; this is apparent by comparison with op. 7.
Op. 23
Andante scherzoso, pi8 Allegretto
I
Op. 70A1
Op. 92
Alleeretto
top. 95
I
Allegro ma non troppo
o p . 95
5
,!,<::<,,,,<,'
Op. 92
o p . 95
op. 7
Poco Allegretto e grazioso
op. 22
Allegretto
/
o p . 53
Allegretto moderato
op. 7
Poco Allegretto e gra~ioso
op. 53
125
19) Allegretto
(t)

.h = 88-92
Andante con mot0 h. = 92
Andante
Allegretto scherzandoh. = 88
The second movement of op. 93 is noteworthy for the fact that

it is in i meter-although Beethoven does not indicate this here any
more than in his Adagio movements. The motivic function of the
32nd notes makes this clear. This movement has a special relation to
the metronome, for the idea behind it was inspired by the metronome's beat. The humorous text to the canon using the theme of this
movement, which Beethoven wrote to be sung at an evening of merriment in Malzel's honor, shows that the pulsing sixteenths "sempre
staccato" are an imitation of the "tick-tock" of Malzel's instrument.
Whether the canon preceded the symphonic movement or whether
the theme from the movement was employed for the canon-a question upon which Beethoven scholars disagree-in either case, this
work provided the metronome with an everlasting monument within
Beethoven's work. l6
Op. I X / I I I
Andante con moto
127
Op. 28
o p . 93
Allegretto scherzandc,
20) Allegretto
J.
6s
= 72
Etwas lebhaft und mit der innigsten Empfindung. Allegretto, ma non troppo
The fact that here there exists only one instance of the Allegretto type which was so common in Mozart's work-and that even
this instance is not of true Allegretto character-is certainly remarkable, and illustrates the transformation in the vocabulary of the
Vienna classic composers.
op. 101
Etwas lebhaft und mit der innigsten Empfindung
Allegrsllo.
111:~111111
Iroppo
I
21) Allegretto
"Polonaise"
Serenade, op. 8
Triple Concerto, op. 56
Polonaise for Piano, op. 89
J = 100
Allegretto alla Polacca
Rondo alla Polacca
Alla Polacca, vivace
128 The Musical Quarte~ly
Op. 89
Alla Polacca, vivace
22) Allegretto
h.
String Quartet, op. 18lIV
Andante scherzoso quasi Allegretto

J. = 56
Allegretto vivace e sempre scherzando
J. = 56
= 168
T h e relationship between these two movements is striking to

both eye and ear. They form a n isolated pair, and it is certainly
remarkable, from the viewpoint of the history of style, that six years
after op. 18lIV and in an idiom that had developed considerably in
the interim, Beethoven once again employed the idea of the Allegretto
scherzando for the same setting-and then never again. T h e difference
in the indications for the same tempo is striking.
Op. 18AV
. Andante scherzoso quasi Allegretto
129
op. 59n
Allegretto vivace e sempre scherzando
23) Allegretto quasi Allegro

String Quartet, op. 18NI
88
J. = 88
Allegretto quasi Allegro J. = 88
Allegretto
Here there is a slight inconsistency in the tempo indications: op.
3 1/11 is marked simply "Allegretto." But the similarity of the motives

leaves no room for doubt that the same tempo is intended as in op.
18NI.
Cp. 18NI
Allegretto quasi Allegro
Op. 3 1/11
Allegretto
(TO BE CONTINUED)
Notes
Rudolf Kolisch's "Tempo and Character in Beethoven's Music," originally written in German, was given as a talk before the Greater New York Chapter of the
American Musicological Society on December 29, 1942 in a translation by Arthur
Mendel, and published the following year in Vol. XXIX of The Musical Quarterly (pp.
169-187 and 291-312). In 1961 Mr. Kolisch developed a shortened version of the
German text as part of a lecture-demonstration for West German radio. In the 1970s,
when David Satz was Mr. Kolisch's teaching assistant at the New England Conservatory, he and Mr. Kolisch worked for several years to revise the article for publication
by Universal Edition (Vienna).
The revision was not finished at the time of Mr. Kolisch's death o n August 1,
1978. The most that could then be done was to present the available material in the
best possible condition; but by the time the manuscript was ready for submission,
Universal felt that it could no longer undertake the project. It was agreed instead that
the Munich-based publication series Musik-Konsepte, which had shown great interest
in Rudolf Kolisch's work, would publish the article. Regina Busch, a musicologist who
had participated in the Schoenberg seminars in Modling, Austria, led by Rudolf
Kolisch and Rudolph Stephan, assumed primary responsibility for editing the text.
Her edition, upon which the present translation by Thomas Y. Levin and David Satz
is based, has just been published under the title Rudolf Kolisch, Tempo und Charakter in
Beethovens Musik (Musik-Konzepte 76/77, July 1992). It offers extensive notes and
commentary on the sources plus a substantial collection of supplementary research
material, and is highly recommended for those wishing to study this article in depth.
Unless otherwise indicated, all footnotes below are by Rudolf Kolisch. For reasons of length the article is being published in two parts, the second of which will
appear in the following issue.
1. Once, in a conversation about Beethoven's metronome marks, a well-known
conductor refused to consider them, on the ground that Beethoven had brought suit
against Malzel because his metronome had proved wholly unreliable! What passions
must be raging in a musician's heart if his mind can believe such an absurdity!
2. Reprinted in Beethovens samtliche Briefe und Aufzeichnungen, ed. Fritz Prelinger
(ViennaiLeipzig: C. W . Stern, 1911), 5:13f; reprinted in Beethoven. Das Probkm der
Interpretation, Musik-Konzepte 8 (April 1979), 80.
3.
Gustav Nottebohm, Beethoveniana (Leipzig: Verlag C.F. Peters, 1872), 1: 131.
4. Emily Anderson, ed. and trans., The Letters of Beethoven (New York: St. Martin's
Press, 1961; New York: Norton, 1985), 2: 806.
5. Letters of Beethoven, 3: 1314-13 15

6.
Letters of Beethoven, 3: 1325; trans. modified.
7.
Letters of Beethoven, 2: 727-728; trans. modified.
8. "I don't consider your lousy fiddles when the spirit comes over me," Beethoven is
reported to have said to Schuppanzigh; see Adolph Bemhard Marx, Ludwig van
Beethoven. Leben und Schaffen. 4th Ed. ed. Dr. Gustav Behncke (Berlin: Verlag von
Otto Janke, 1884), 2: 41.
9. For the original French of this letter, see the Deiters edition of Alexander Wheelock Thayer's Ludwig van Beethovens Leben (Leipzig: Reimann, 1908), 5: 558 (Appendix 11).
131
10. Most interesting in this context is the case of Bela Bartdk, whose conception of
tempo was so exact that the indications given o n the metronome scale were not sufficient for him. Thus he might indicate = 130, but would note right away, as I had
repeated occasion to observe, the slightest deviation from that tempo.
11. In Europe, where for understandable reasons the traditional deviations are much
more firmly rooted than in the United States, this resistance has sometimes taken o n
passionate forms. I remember with pleasure a n occasion in Paris when, after a performance of op. 95 which I had played according to Beethoven's metronomic markings,
a professor from the Conservatoire, a true keeper of the Holy Grail of Tradition,
could hardly wait for the last note to die away before crying out, "Tout $a mop vite!"
[That's all much too fast!] This promptly led to a fistfight.
Nowadays such resistance may have other sources as well, for "mankind's sacred
heritage" has become to a great extent a tool of commercial advertising. Its value for
commodity culture would be seriously affected if it were essentially transformed, rendering it, if not entirely unrecognizable, then at least unfamiliar.
12. Kolisch's manuscripts reflect a continuing struggle not only with the wording of
these two paragraphs but also with the choice of phenomena to be considered in them
as the factors that influence the tempo. From his notes it is clear that he was still not
be satisfied with this formulation of the "tempo principle." I believe that a complete
explanation would need to include the note value of the tempo unit as a n inverse
factor. -"Metric unit" is not always used by Kolisch as a special term; sometimes it is
simply equivalent to "note value" [D.S.].
13. This is probably still due to the influence of Wagner, who once wrote of the
Adagio, "In a certain subtle sense one may say that the pure Adagio can not be taken
slowly enough" ("About Conducting," in Richard Wagner, Prose Works, trans.
William Ashton Ellis [New York: Broude Bros., 19661, 4: 314).
14. T h e lower limit of the metronome scale at that time was 50. Therefore when
Beethoven gives a tempo between 50 and 100 we cannot conclude that the smaller
note values are meant as the tempo unit [D.S.].
15. But only o n the borderline; there is hardly a piece by Beethoven that has been
made more banal by the mere placing of it in a conventional category, that of
Andante cantabile, than this particular one, of which the unique quality lies in the
very fact that it hovers between the cantabile (but never purely lyric) elements of the
theme and the sinister footsteps of the opening. Too slow a tempo would resolve this
indefin~tenessin favor of the conventional singing character. T h e interpretation of
the sixteenth-note counterpoint as a jolly, bouncing spiccato also contributes, by the
way, to this banalization.
16. T h e authenticity of the Malzel canon has long presented a historical puzzle; as
Nottebohm points out, in the year of Malzel's return to Vienna his device was still
known as the "Chronometer" and there is n o particular evidence that the later name
of the device was known to Beethoven in advance. There is n o manuscript source
other than in a conversation book from Schindler, whose refusal to accept Beethoven's position o n the metronome and questions of tempo led him to falsify nearly every
statement he ever made o n the subject [D.S.].

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Tempo and Character in Beethoven's Music

Tempo and Character in Beethoven's Music

These attacks have seriously shaken the status of the metronome

92 The Mwical Quarterly

Tempo and Character in Beethoven's Music

Assuming, mistakenly, that Malzel intended to stage a performance of

94 The Musical Quarterly

Tempo and Character in Beethoven's Mwic

The final remark shows that Beethoven had the intention of

96 The Musical Quarterly

I am, noble Sir, with great respect,

Thus we see that the old Italian terms seemed "nonsensical" to

Tempo and Character in Beethoven's Music

tial part of his language, coordinated with that mysterious category

the conception of the music itself, and is an integral component of it.

Contemporary musicians were also aware of this difficulty, as is

98 The Musical Quarterly

Tempo and Character in Beethoven's Music

own tempo indications, it is said. They have often failed to notice

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sacred heritage" and are deeply rooted in the consciousness of the

Tempo and Character in Beethoven's Mwic

As has already been remarked, the tempo indication alone does

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Thus we must determine the essential quality of the music, its

Piano Concerto No. 1, op. 15

Tempo and Character in Beethoven's Mwic

The alla breve Adagio, which I refer to as the "chorale type" on

104 The Musical Quarterly

Adagio un poco mosso

Tempo and Character in Beethoven's Music

String Trio, op. 3

The articulation of these themes in quarter-notes leaves no doubt

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Tempo and Character in Beethoven's Music

Piano Sonata, op. 21111

108 The Musical Quarterly

Piano Trio, op. 1/11

String Quartet, op. 135

Largo con espressione

String Quartet, op. 127

Adagio, ma non troppo e molto cantabile

meter the tempo indication always refers to the dotted

Tempo and Character in Beethoven's Music

Piano Trio, op. 111

110 The Mwical Quarterly

Cavatina. Adagio molto espressivo

Tempo and Character in Beethoven's Music

String Trio, op. 911

Adagio, ma non tanto, e cantabile f

Piano Sonata, op. 111

Arietta. Adagio molto semplice e cantabile

The identity of the pieces notated in meter, i.e. their common

112 The Musical Quarterly

Piano Concerto No. 3 , op. 37

String Quartet, op. 74

Adagio ma non troppo

The two movements marked Largo are similar to the Adagio

Tempo and Character in Beethoven's Music

Violin Concerto, op. 61

String Quartet, op. 130

Andante con moto, ma non troppo. Poco

114 Tk Musical Quarterly