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( x, y )
hypotenuse
opposite
q
x
tan q + 1 = sec q
adjacent
opposite
sin q =
hypotenuse
adjacent
cos q =
hypotenuse
opposite
tan q =
adjacent
hypotenuse
csc q =
opposite
hypotenuse
sec q =
adjacent
adjacent
cot q =
opposite
y
=y
1
x
cos q = = x
1
y
tan q =
x
sin q =
1
y
1
sec q =
x
x
cot q =
y
csc q =
tan q , q n + p , n = 0, 1, 2,
2
csc q , q n p , n = 0, 1, 2,
1
sec q , q n + p , n = 0, 1, 2,
2
cot q , q n p , n = 0, 1, 2,
Range
The range is all possible values to get
out of the function.
csc q 1 and csc q -1
-1 sin q 1
-1 cos q 1 sec q 1 and sec q -1
- < tan q <
- < cot q <
Period
The period of a function is the number,
T, such that f (q + T ) = f (q ) . So, if w
is a fixed number and q is any angle we
have the following periods.
2p
w
2p
=
w
p
=
w
2p
=
w
2p
=
w
p
=
w
sin ( wq )
T=
cos (wq )
tan (wq )
csc (wq )
sec (wq )
cot (wq )
1 + cot 2 q = csc 2 q
Even/Odd Formulas
sin ( -q ) = - sin q
csc ( -q ) = - csc q
cos ( -q ) = cos q
sec ( -q ) = sec q
tan ( -q ) = - tan q
cot ( -q ) = - cot q
Periodic Formulas
If n is an integer.
sin (q + 2p n ) = sin q
csc (q + 2p n ) = csc q
cot (q + p n ) = cot q
2
2
a + b a - b
sin a - sin b = 2 cos
sin
2 2
a + b
a - b
cos a + cos b = 2 cos
cos
2
2
a + b
cos a - cos b = -2sin
2
Cofunction Formulas
a - b
sin
sin - q = cos q
2
csc - q = sec q
2
cos - q = sin q
2
sec - q = csc q
2
tan - q = cot q
2
cot - q = tan q
2
Unit Circle
y
3 1
- ,
2 2
( -1,0 )
3p
4
5p
6
( 0,1)
p
2
1 3
- ,
2 2
2 2
,
2 2
2p
3
p
3
90
120
1 3
2 , 2
-1
45
135
2 2
,
2 2
p
4
60
30
p
6
3 1
2 , 2
y = sin -1 x
-1 x 1
-1
150
p 180
360
2p
y = cos x
-1 x 1
y = tan -1 x
- < x <
(1,0 )
3 1
- ,-
2 2
7p
6
2
2
,
2
2
330
225
5p
4
4p
3
240
1
3
- ,
2 2
315
7p
300
270
4
5p
3p
3
2
( 0,-1)
11p
6
For any ordered pair on the unit circle ( x, y ) : cos q = x and sin q = y
cos -1 x = arccos x
tan -1 x = arctan x
Law of Sines
sin a sin b sin g
=
=
a
b
c
Law of Tangents
a - b tan 12 (a - b )
=
a + b tan 12 (a + b )
Law of Cosines
a 2 = b 2 + c 2 - 2bc cos a
b - c tan 12 ( b - g )
=
b + c tan 12 ( b + g )
c = a + b - 2ab cos g
2
5p 1
cos
=
3 2
tan -1 ( tan (q ) ) = q
b 2 = a 2 + c 2 - 2ac cos b
Example
tan ( tan -1 ( x ) ) = x
3 1
,-
2 2
1
3
,
2 2
sin -1 ( sin (q ) ) = q
2
2
,
2
2
sin ( sin -1 ( x ) ) = x
Alternate Notation
sin -1 x = arcsin x
Range
p
p
- y
2
2
0 y p
p
p
- < y<
2
2
c
210
Inverse Properties
cos ( cos -1 ( x ) ) = x
cos -1 ( cos (q ) ) = q
a - c tan 12 (a - g )
=
a + c tan 12 (a + g )
Mollweides Formula
a + b cos 12 (a - b )
=
c
sin 12 g
3
5p
sin
=2
3
Derivatives
Integrals
Basic Properties/Formulas/Rules
d
( cf ( x ) ) = cf ( x ) , c is any constant. ( f ( x ) g ( x ) ) = f ( x ) g ( x )
dx
d n
d
( c ) = 0 , c is any constant.
( x ) = nxn-1 , n is any number.
dx
dx
f f g - f g
(Quotient Rule)
( f g ) = f g + f g (Product Rule) =
g2
g
d
f ( g ( x ) ) = f ( g ( x ) ) g ( x ) (Chain Rule)
dx
g ( x)
d
d g ( x)
g x
ln g ( x ) ) =
e
= g ( x ) e ( )
(
dx
g ( x)
dx
( )
Common Derivatives
Polynomials
d
d
(c) = 0
( x) = 1
dx
dx
d
( cx ) = c
dx
Trig Functions
d
( sin x ) = cos x
dx
d
( sec x ) = sec x tan x
dx
d
( cos x ) = - sin x
dx
d
( csc x ) = - csc x cot x
dx
d
( tan x ) = sec2 x
dx
d
( cot x ) = - csc2 x
dx
d
1
cos -1 x ) = (
dx
1- x2
d
( csc-1 x ) = - 12
dx
x x -1
d
1
tan -1 x ) =
(
dx
1 + x2
d
( cot -1 x ) = - 1 +1x2
dx
d n
( x ) = nxn-1
dx
d
( cxn ) = ncxn -1
dx
Basic Properties/Formulas/Rules
cf ( x ) dx = c f ( x ) dx , c is a constant.
f ( x ) g ( x ) dx = f ( x ) dx g ( x ) dx
a f ( x ) dx = F ( x ) a = F (b ) - F ( a ) where F ( x ) = f ( x ) dx
b
a cf ( x ) dx = c a f ( x ) dx , c is a constant. a f ( x ) g ( x ) dx = a f ( x ) dx a g ( x ) dx
a
a f ( x ) dx = 0
b
a f ( x ) dx = -b f ( x ) dx
c
a f ( x ) dx = a f ( x ) dx + c f ( x ) dx
If f ( x ) 0 on a x b then
a c dx = c ( b - a )
a f ( x ) dx 0
If f ( x ) g ( x ) on a x b then
a f ( x ) dx a g ( x ) dx
Common Integrals
Polynomials
1
dx = x + c
k dx = k x + c
x dx = n + 1 x
1 dx = ln x + c
-1
dx = ln x + c
1 dx = 1 ln ax + b + c
ax + b
a
p
q
-n
dx =
p
q
+ c, n -1
1
x - n +1 + c , n 1
-n + 1
dx =
n+1
1 q +1
q
x +c=
x
+1
p+ q
Trig Functions
cos u du = sin u + c
p+q
q
+c
sin u du = - cos u + c
sec u du = tan u + c
sec u tan u du = sec u + c csc u cot udu = - csc u + c csc u du = - cot u + c
tan u du = ln sec u + c
cot u du = ln sin u + c
1
sec u du = ln sec u + tan u + c
sec u du = 2 ( sec u tan u + ln sec u + tan u ) + c
2
Exponential/Logarithm Functions
d x
d x
( a ) = a x ln ( a )
(e ) = ex
dx
dx
d
d
( ln ( x ) ) = 1x , x > 0
( ln x ) = 1x , x 0
dx
dx
Hyperbolic Trig Functions
d
( sinh x ) = cosh x
dx
d
( sech x ) = - sech x tanh x
dx
2005 Paul
u du =
1
( - csc u cot u + ln csc u - cot u ) + c
2
Exponential/Logarithm Functions
u
u
e du = e + c
d
d
( cosh x ) = sinh x
( tanh x ) = sech 2 x
dx
dx
d
d
( csch x ) = - csch x coth x
( coth x ) = - csch 2 x
dx
dx
csc
u
a du =
au
+c
ln a
e au
( a sin ( bu ) - b cos ( bu ) ) + c
a + b2
e au
au
e
cos
bu
du
=
(
)
( a cos ( bu ) + b sin ( bu ) ) + c
a 2 + b2
Dawkins
au
sin ( bu ) du =
ln u du = u ln ( u ) - u + c
ue du = ( u - 1) e
u
+c
1 du = ln ln u + c
u ln u
2005 Paul
Dawkins
u
du = sin -1 + c
2
2
a
a -u
sin
1
1
u
du = tan -1 + c
2
2
a
a +u
a
1
1
u
du = sec-1 + c
a
a
u u2 - a2
Hyperbolic Trig Functions
sinh u du = cosh u + c
-1
tan
u du = u sin -1 u + 1 - u 2 + c
1
u du = u tan -1 u - ln (1 + u 2 ) + c
2
-1
cos
-1
u du = u cos - 1 u - 1 - u 2 + c
cosh u du = sinh u + c
sech
csch coth u du = - csch u + c csch
sech u du = tan sinh u + c
Miscellaneous
1 du = 1 ln u + a + c
2
a - u2
2a u - a
2au - u 2 du =
u du = tanh u + c
u du = - coth u + c
1 du = 1 ln u - a + c
2
u - a2
2a u + a
-1
u
a2
a + u du =
a 2 + u 2 + ln u + a 2 + u 2 + c
2
2
2
u
a
u 2 - a 2 du =
u 2 - a 2 - ln u + u 2 - a 2 + c
2
2
u 2
a2
u
2
2
2
a - u du =
a - u + sin -1 + c
2
2
a
2
Factor in Q ( x )
u Substitution
Integration by Parts
The standard formulas for integration by parts are,
udv = uv - vdu
a udv = uv a - a vdu
Choose u and dv and then compute du by differentiating u and compute v by using the
fact that v = dv .
ax + b
A
ax + b
ax 2 + bx + c
Ax + B
ax 2 + bx + c
( ax + b )
( ax
Term in P.F.D
A1
A2
Ak
+
+L +
k
ax + b ( ax + b ) 2
( ax + b )
+ bx + c )
Ak x + Bk
A1 x + B1
+L +
k
2
ax + bx + c
( ax2 + bx + c )
u-a
a2
a -u
2 au - u 2 + cos-1
+c
2
2
a
Given
Trig Substitutions
If the integral contains the following root use the given substitution and formula.
a
a 2 - b2 x2
x = sin q
and
cos2 q = 1 - sin 2 q
b
a
b2x2 - a 2
x = sec q
and
tan 2 q = sec 2 q -1
b
a
a2 + b2 x2
x = tan q
and
sec 2 q = 1 + tan 2 q
b
Partial Fractions
P ( x)
If integrating
dx where the degree (largest exponent) of P ( x ) is smaller than the
Q (x)
degree of Q ( x ) then factor the denominator as completely as possible and find the partial
fraction decomposition of the rational expression. Integrate the partial fraction
decomposition (P.F.D.). For each factor in the denominator we get term(s) in the
decomposition according to the following table.
2005 Paul
Dawkins
1. If n is odd. Strip one sine out and convert the remaining sines to cosines using
sin 2 x = 1 - cos2 x , then use the substitution u = cos x
2. If m is odd. Strip one cosine out and convert the remaining cosines to sines
using cos 2 x = 1 - sin 2 x , then use the substitution u = sin x
3. If n and m are both odd. Use either 1. or 2.
4. If n and m are both even. Use double angle formula for sine and/or half angle
formulas to reduce the integral into a form that can be integrated.
n
tan
x
sec m x dx
1. If n is odd. Strip one tangent and one secant out and convert the remaining
tangents to secants using tan 2 x = sec 2 x - 1 , then use the substitution u = sec x
2. If m is even. Strip two secants out and convert the remaining secants to tangents
using sec 2 x = 1 + tan 2 x , then use the substitution u = tan x
3. If n is odd and m is even. Use either 1. or 2.
4. If n is even and m is odd. Each integral will be dealt with differently.
2005 Paul
Dawkins
%!
#
%
,,!"
!"
"
cos
&
&
"
$
!
"
x = r cos '
y=r '
z = r cos
!"
sin #
p
r = x2 p
+ y2 + z2
= arctan( x2 + y 2 /z)
' = arctan(y/x)
ur =
cos 'ux +
u =
cos 'ux +
'uy + cos uz
'uy
uz
r = rur
r = u + zuz
!"#
p
= x2 + y 2
' = arctan(y/x)
z=z
"
sin
u = cos 'ux +
'uy
u' = 'ux + cos 'uy
uz = uz
"
x = cos '
y=
'
z=z
sin #
!"
"
"
!"
#!
%!
"!
"
$!
"
dSr = dl d' = r2
dd' ;
dS = dlr dl' = r
d = dlr dl d' = r2
drd' ;
drdd'
d'u'
f = f (r, , ')
A' (r, , ')u'
f = f (x, y, z)
Az (x, y, z)uz
@f
@f
@f
ux +
uy +
uz
@x
@y
@z
@Ax @Ay @Az
rA =
+
+
@x
@y
@z
!
@Az @Ay
@Ax @Az
@Ay @Ax
rA =
ux +
uy +
uz
@y
@z
@z
@x
@x
@y
@ 2f
@2f
@ 2f
r (rf ) r2 f =
+ 2 + 2
@x2
@y
@z
rf =
@f
1 @f
1 @f
ur +
u +
u'
@r
r @
r @'
2
1 @(r Ar )
1 @( A )
1 @A'
rA = 2
+
+
r
@r
r
@
r @'
!
1
@( A' ) @A
1
1 @Ar @(rA' )
rA =
ur +
u
r
@
@'
r
@'
@r
!
1 @(rA ) @Ar
+
u'
r
@r
@
!
1 @
@f
1
@
@f
1
@ 2f
r2 f = 2
r2
+ 2
+ 2 2
r @r
@r
r
@
@
r
@'2
rf =
A B
f = f (, ', z)
Az (, ', z)uz
@f
1 @f
@f
u +
u' +
uz
@
@'
@z
1 @(A ) 1 @A' @Az
rA =
+
+
@
@'
@z
rf =
A (B C) = B (C A) = (A B) C
A (B C) = B(A C) C(A B)
f = f (r)
1 @Az @A'
@A @Az
rA =
u +
u'
@'
@z
@z
@
!
1 @(A' ) @A
+
uz
@
@'
!
1 @
@f
1 @ 2f
@ 2f
r2 f =
+ 2 2+ 2
@
@
@'
@z
g = g(r)
r(f + g)
r(f g)
r (A + B)
r (f A)
r (A B)
r (A + B)
r (f A)
r (r A)
r (rf )
r (r A)
A = A(r)
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
rf + rg
f (rg) + g(rf )
rA+rB
f (r A) + A (rf )
B (r A) A (r B)
rA+rB
f (r A) A (rf )
0
0
r(r A) r2 A
B = B(r)
(1)
(2)
(22)
(23)
00
(24)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
p(x)dx
1
General Solution: y =
(x)f (x)dx + C
(x)
Homeogeneous Equations
(7)
(8)
(9)
@
2. Set
= N (x, y)
@y
3. Simplify and solve for h(y).
from step
Alternatively:
R
1. Let = N (x, y)dy + g(x)
(26)
dz
dx
=
f (z) z
x
Bernoulli Equations
(11)
(12)
(18)
P (x, y) =
My
Cauchy-Euler Equation
Nx
N
=) (y) = e
P (x)dx
z 0 + (1
n)p(x)z = (1
then
n)q(x)
(19)
(28)
(x)M (x, y)dx + (x)N (x, y)dy = 0
(14)
(20)
(15)
(16)
(17)
Q(x, y) =
Nx
My
M
=) (y) = e
(29)
R
Q(y)dy
Then
(21)
(30)
(31)
(32)
is exact.
1
p(t)dt
(40)
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(34)
(35)
1) + br + c = 0
8 00
< y + p(t)y 0 + q(t)y = 0
y(t0 ) = y0
: 0
y (t0 ) = y1
(41)
00
Homogeneous: ay + by + cy = 0
Non-homogeneous: ay 00 + by 0 + cy = g(t)
2
Characteristic Equation: ar + br + c = 0
p
b b2 4ac
Quadratic Roots: r =
2a
(39)
is exact.
Exact Equations
General Form: M (x, y)dx + N (x, y)dy = 0
@M
@N
Text for Exactness:
=
@y
@x
Solution: = C where
@
@
M=
and N =
@x
@y
p(t)dt
Integrating Factors
y10 y2 = Ce
y1 y20
(36)
(27)
@
= M (x, y)
@x
3. Simplify and solve for g(x).
2. Set
0
Linear Equations
Series Solutions
(44)
(x
x0 )2 y 00 + (x
x0 )p(x)y 0 + q(x)y = 0
y1 (t) = (x
x0 ) n
1
X
ak (x
xk ) k
k=0
(47)
First Solution: y1 = (x
1)r + q(0) = 0
1
X
x 0 ) r1
ak (x xk )k
k=0
Where r1 is the larger real root if both roots of (46) are real or
either root if the solutions are complex.