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Allotropy:
Allotropy is the property of an element to exist in more than one physical forms having
similar chemical properties but different physical properties.
Carbon exists both in crystalline and amorphous allotropic forms.
Crystalline allotropes of carbon:
Diamond
Graphite
Fullerene
Amorphous allotropes of carbon:
Coal
Coke
Charcoal
Lampblack
Gas carbon
Coke
Diamond:
Diamond is a rigid, compact, three dimensional structure.
Diamond is very hard to break.
Diamond is bad conductor of heat and electricity. Because in diamond each carbon is
bonded to four other carbon atoms. There are no free electrons present in it.
Diamond are not attacked by acids, bases and other reagents but it can reacts with fluorine
to form carbon tetrafluoride at about 1023 K temperature.
C + 2F2 CF4
Diamond burns in air at about 1173 K to produce carbon dioxide gas.
In diamond carbon atoms are in tetrahedral arrangement.
Uses:
Diamonds are used in glass cuttings and in making drills.
Because of reflection property it is used as gem in jewellery.
Graphite:
Graphite contains carbon atoms in hexagonal rings, which are joined to form layers.
The layers of carbon can slide over each other.Graphite is a good conductor of heat and
electricity. Since graphite contains free electrons, it is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
Graphite burns in air at about 973 K to produce carbon dioxide gas.
Uses:
Since graphite is a good conductor of electricity it is used as electrode.
Graphite is used as moderator in nuclear reactors.
It is also used as solid lubricant in machines.
Fullerenes :
Fullerene was discovered in the year 1985.
C60 is the very popular and stable form of the known fullerenes. This consists of 60 carbon
atoms arranged in pentagons and hexagons, like in a standard football.
Fullerenes are also called Buckminsterfullerenes as they are shaped like the geodesic
dome designed and built by the US architect Buckminster fuller.
Fullerenes are prepared from graphite at higher temperatures.
There exists other members of fullerenes like C70, C84...etc
electrons to produce two bond pairs. Thus, they share these two electron pairs to form a double
bond
Representation of a Bond:
Bond formation can be represented using Lewis structures. The Lewis dot structures
provide a picture of the bonding in molecules in terms of the shared pairs of
electrons and the octet rule.
Example: Lewis dot structures of CCl4 and CH4.
The existence of such a large number of organic compounds is due to the unique properties of
carbon.
The unique properties of carbon are:
Tetra valency
Catenation
Formation of multiple bonds
Tetravalency:
Carbon shares its four valence electrons with other atoms and forms four single covalent bonds
to get nearest noble gas formation. This is known as tetravalency.
Catenation:
The property of self linkage among identical atoms to form long chain compounds is known as
catenation.
Carbon exhibits maximum catenation, when compared to elements like sulphur and silicon, due
to strong carbon-carbon bonds and tetra valency. Due to this catenation, carbon atoms can form
various types of straight chains, branched chains and ring structures.
Carbon atoms are capable of forming multiple bonds with other carbon atoms.
Hydrocarbons:
All the carbon compounds which contain just carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons.
Classification of hydrocarbons:
Hydrocarbons are broadly divided into two groups.
Open chain hydrocarbons
Cyclic or closed chain hydrocarbons
Open chain hydrocarbons:
Open chain hydrocarbons contain carbon-carbon straight chains. They are further classified into
two types.
Saturated hydrocarbons
Unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Saturated hydrocarbons or Alkanes:
Saturated hydrocarbons are straight chain compounds containing only single covalent bonds.
These are also known as alkanes.
General formula of alkanes is CnH2n+2.
Example: Methane, ethane, propane, butane... etc.
Unsaturated hydrocarbons:
Unsaturated hydrocarbons are the straight chain compounds containing double or triple covalent
bonds.
Unsaturated hydrocarbons are classified into two types. They are alkenes and alkynes.
Alkenes:
Hydrocarbons with a double bond between carbon atoms are known as alkenes.
General formula of alkenes is CnH2n.
Alkynes:
Hydrocarbons with triple bonds between carbon atoms are known as alkynes.
General formula of alkynes is CnH2n-2.
Example:
Benzene: Benzene (C6H6) containing a six membered carbon ring with alternate single and double bonds is an aromatic
compound.
Homologous Series:
A series of organic compounds with the same general formula but differ from adjacent members by "-CH 2-" group
are referred to as homologous series of compounds.
Example:
Homologous series of alcohols:
CH3 - OH : Methanol
CH3-CH2-OH : Ethanol
CH3-CH2-CH2-OH : Propanol
CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-OH : Butanol
The difference between methanol and ethanol, the difference between ethanol and propanol is by a CH 2 group.
IUPAC system
The trivial names are given on the basis of the source and certain properties of organic compounds.
Ex: Citric acid is named, as it is found in citrus fruits.
In the year 1947 the IUPAC that is the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry system of
naming compounds was first developed.
The IUPAC system is a systematic nomenclature in which the name of a compound correlates to its
molecular structure.
The IUPAC nomenclature system is a set of logical rules devised and used to write a unique name for every distinct
compound. According to the IUPAC system of nomenclature, the name of an organic compound consists of a root
word, a suffix and a prefix.
Root Word:
The root word indicates the number of carbon atoms in the basic skeleton.
Number of carbon atoms
Root word
Meth
C-C
Eth
C-C-C
Prop
C-C-C-C
But
C-C-C-C-C
Pent
C-C-C-C-C-C
Hex
C-C-C-C-C-C-C
Hept
C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C
Oct
C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C
Non
C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C
Dec
Example: C-C-C-C-C
Root word in the above system is Pent (as it contains five carbon atoms).
Suffix:
A suffix designate the functional groups that may be present in the compound. The suffix is
again divided into primary and secondary.
Primary suffix:
Primary suffix indicates the degree of saturation or unsaturation in the basic skeleton and is
added immediately after the root word.
Primary suffix + Root word Saturated or unsaturated carbon chain
Nomenclature of Alkanes:
For saturated hydrocarbons, the primary suffix ane should be added.
Example: The IUPAC name of a molecule which contains single bond between carbon atoms.
CH3-CH3 : Eth + ane : Ethane
CH3-CH2-CH3 : Prop + ane : Propane
Nomenclature of Alkenes:
Hydrocarbons containing double bonds are known as alkenes. For such hydrocarbons,
the primary suffix ene should be added to the root word.
Example: The IUPAC name of a molecule which contains double bond between carbon atoms.
CH2=CH2: Eth + ene: Ethene
CH3-CH=CH2: Prop + ene: Propene
In writting nomeclature of alkenes according to IUPAC, it is important to mention the position of
double for the molecules which contain more than three carbon atoms.
Example:
CH2=CH-CH2-CH3:
Root word: But
Prefix: 1-ene
Root word + prefix: 1-Butene
CH3-CH=CH-CH3:
Root word: But
Prefix: 2-ene
Root word + prefix: 2-Butene
Nomenclature of Alkynes:
Hydrocarbons that contain a triple bond between carbon atoms are known as alkynes and for
naming such hydrocarbons the primary suffix yne should be added.
Example: The IUPAC name of a molecule which contains triple bond between carbon atoms.
CHCH: Eth + yne: Ethyne
CH3-CCH: Prop + yne: Propyne
In writting nomeclature of alkynes according to IUPAC, it is important to mention the position of triple bond for the
molecules which contain more than three carbon atoms.
Example:
CHC-CH2-CH2-CH3:
Root word: Pent
Prefix: 1-yne
Root word + prefix: 1-Pentyne
CH3-CC-CH2-CH3:
Root word: Pent
Prefix: 2-yne
Root word + prefix: 2-Pentyne
Secondary Suffix:
A secondary suffix indicates the functional group present in the carbon compound. Functional
groups are defined as specific atoms, group of atoms or ions which are part of a larger hydrocarbon chain and impart
characteristic properties to the compounds.
Organic Compound
Functional Group
Alcohols
-OH
-ol
Aldehydes
-CHO
-al
Ketones
>CO
-one
Carboxylic acid
-COOH
-oic aid
Acid amides
-CONH2
-amide
Acid chlorides
-COCl
-oyl chloride
Esters
-COOR
-alkyl...oate
Cyanides
-CN
-nitrile
Thioalcohols
-SH
-thiol
Amines
-NH2
-amine
Example:
A molecule of ethyl alcohol contains two carbon atoms, so the root word should be eth.
It is saturated so the primary suffix should be ane but as there is a functional group (alcohol) "
OH" in the molecule, remove the e from the name of the molecule and add the secondary
suffix ol.
Therefore, the IUPAC name of ethyl alcohol is ethanol.
CH3-CH2-OH : Eth + an+ol : Ethanol
Similarly:
The IUPAC name of the propanaldehyde molecule can be written as Propanal,
CH3-CH2-CHO :
Root word:Prop
Primary suffix: an
Secondary suffix: al
Root word + Primary suffix + Secondary suffix: Propanal
Prefix:
The parts of the name that precede the root word are called prefixes. For example, in the
compound, cyclobutane, cyclo is the prefix that indicates the alicyclic nature of the
compounds.
A primary prefix is used to differentiate acyclic and cyclic compounds. But the rules for using these are slightly different.
Ex: In cyclic compounds, the prefix cyclo is added before the word root.
Formula
Prefix to be used
Flourine
-F
Flouro
Chlorine
-Cl
Chloro
Bromine
-Br
Bromo
Iodine
-I
Iodo
The system of assigning a name to a compound is known as nomenclature. There are two systems for
naming organic compounds
IUPAC system
The trivial names are given on the basis of the source and certain properties of organic compounds.
Ex: Citric acid is named, as it is found in citrus fruits.
In the year 1947 the IUPAC that is the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry system of
naming compounds was first developed.
The IUPAC system is a systematic nomenclature in which the name of a compound correlates to its
molecular structure.
The IUPAC nomenclature system is a set of logical rules devised and used to write a unique name for every distinct
compound. According to the IUPAC system of nomenclature, the name of an organic compound consists of a root
word, a suffix and a prefix.
Root Word:
The root word indicates the number of carbon atoms in the basic skeleton.
Root word
Meth
C-C
Eth
C-C-C
Prop
C-C-C-C
But
C-C-C-C-C
Pent
C-C-C-C-C-C
Hex
C-C-C-C-C-C-C
Hept
C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C
Oct
C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C
Non
C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C
Dec
Example: C-C-C-C-C
Root word in the above system is Pent (as it contains five carbon atoms).
Suffix:
A suffix designate the functional groups that may be present in the compound. The suffix is
again divided into primary and secondary.
Primary suffix:
Primary suffix indicates the degree of saturation or unsaturation in the basic skeleton and is
added immediately after the root word.
Primary suffix + Root word Saturated or unsaturated carbon chain
Nomenclature of Alkanes:
For saturated hydrocarbons, the primary suffix ane should be added.
Example: The IUPAC name of a molecule which contains single bond between carbon atoms.
CH3-CH3 : Eth + ane : Ethane
CH3-CH2-CH3 : Prop + ane : Propane
Nomenclature of Alkenes:
Hydrocarbons containing double bonds are known as alkenes. For such hydrocarbons,
the primary suffix ene should be added to the root word.
Example: The IUPAC name of a molecule which contains double bond between carbon atoms.
CH2=CH2: Eth + ene: Ethene
CH3-CH=CH2: Prop + ene: Propene
In writting nomeclature of alkenes according to IUPAC, it is important to mention the position of
double for the molecules which contain more than three carbon atoms.
Example:
CH2=CH-CH2-CH3:
Root word: But
Prefix: 1-ene
Root word + prefix: 1-Butene
CH3-CH=CH-CH3:
Root word: But
Prefix: 2-ene
Root word + prefix: 2-Butene
Nomenclature of Alkynes:
Hydrocarbons that contain a triple bond between carbon atoms are known as alkynes and for
naming such hydrocarbons the primary suffix yne should be added.
Example: The IUPAC name of a molecule which contains triple bond between carbon atoms.
CHCH: Eth + yne: Ethyne
CH3-CCH: Prop + yne: Propyne
In writting nomeclature of alkynes according to IUPAC, it is important to mention the position of triple bond for the
molecules which contain more than three carbon atoms.
Example:
CHC-CH2-CH2-CH3:
Root word: Pent
Prefix: 1-yne
Root word + prefix: 1-Pentyne
CH3-CC-CH2-CH3:
Root word: Pent
Prefix: 2-yne
Root word + prefix: 2-Pentyne
Secondary Suffix:
A secondary suffix indicates the functional group present in the carbon compound. Functional
groups are defined as specific atoms, group of atoms or ions which are part of a larger hydrocarbon chain and impart
characteristic properties to the compounds.
Functional Group
Alcohols
-OH
-ol
Aldehydes
-CHO
-al
Ketones
>CO
-one
Carboxylic acid
-COOH
-oic aid
Acid amides
-CONH2
-amide
Acid chlorides
-COCl
-oyl chloride
Esters
-COOR
-alkyl...oate
Cyanides
-CN
-nitrile
Thioalcohols
-SH
-thiol
Amines
-NH2
-amine
Example:
A molecule of ethyl alcohol contains two carbon atoms, so the root word should be eth.
It is saturated so the primary suffix should be ane but as there is a functional group (alcohol) "
OH" in the molecule, remove the e from the name of the molecule and add the secondary
suffix ol.
Therefore, the IUPAC name of ethyl alcohol is ethanol.
CH3-CH2-OH : Eth + an+ol : Ethanol
Similarly:
The IUPAC name of the propanaldehyde molecule can be written as Propanal,
CH3-CH2-CHO :
Root word:Prop
Primary suffix: an
Secondary suffix: al
Root word + Primary suffix + Secondary suffix: Propanal
Prefix:
The parts of the name that precede the root word are called prefixes. For example, in the
compound, cyclobutane, cyclo is the prefix that indicates the alicyclic nature of the
compounds.
A primary prefix is used to differentiate acyclic and cyclic compounds. But the rules for using these are slightly different.
Ex: In cyclic compounds, the prefix cyclo is added before the word root.
Formula
Prefix to be used
Flourine
-F
Flouro
Chlorine
-Cl
Chloro
Bromine
-Br
Bromo
Iodine
-I
Iodo
Prefix: 2-Chloro
Prefix + Root word + primary suffix: 2-Chloro propane
CH3-CH3
Sunlight
CH3Cl + HCl
Sunlight
CH2Cl2 + HCl
Sunlight
CHCl3+HCl
Sunlight
CCl4+HCl
Polymerization reaction:
Alkenes and alkynes at higher temperatures under polymerization to form bigger
molecules called as polymers.
Example:
Ethene at 400 C undergoes polymerization to form polyehene.
nCH2 = CH2 [-CH2 -CH2 - CH2 - CH2-]n
Cracking:
At higher temperatures in absence of air higher hydrocarbons breaking into smaller hydrocarbons. This process is called cracking.
Example:
C10H22
C6H14 + C4H8
The two important carbon compounds are Ethanol and Ethanoic acid.
Alcohol:
Molecules in which hydroxy group attached to alkyl groups are the alcohols.
The formula of alochols can be written by replacing hydrogen ("H") from alkanes with hydroxy group ("OH").
R - H + OH R - OH
Alcohols can be named by replacing "e" from alkanes with "ol".
Alkan -e + ol Alkanol
Some of the important alcohols are:
Name of the alcohol
Methanol
CH3-OH
Ethanol
CH3-CH2-OH
Propanol
CH3-CH2-CH2-OH
Butanol
CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-OH
Pentanol
CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-OH
Ethanol:
Hot Conc. H SO
CH2=CH2+H2O
Oxidatation:
Ethanol undergoes oxidation in presence of Potassium dichromate to form intially ethanal and finally
formsfurther oxidised ethanoic acid.
CH3-CH2-OH + K2Cr2O7 CH3-CHO CH3-COOH
Esterification:
Reaction of ethanol with carboxylic acids is called esterification reaction. The product formed in this reaction
is an ester along with water.
Esters are sweet smelling substances which are used in making perfumes and as flavoring agents.
Example:
CH3-CH2-OH + CH3-COOH CH3-COOC2H5 + H2O
Uses of Ethanol:
Ethanol is used in pharmaceutical preparations like tincture of iodine, cough syrups, and tonics.
Ethanol is used in the manufacture of organic compounds like acetaldehyde, acetic acid and chloroform.
Ethanol is used as a preservative for biological specimen.
Acetic acid:
The molecular formula of acetic acid is CH3COOH.
5-8% solution of acetic acid in water is called vinegar.
Sodium Hydroxide
CH3-COOH + CH3-CH2-OH
Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of long chain carboxylic acids. They are using as cleansing
agents to remove dirt, oil from the skin and clothes.
Generally soaps are prepared by heating animal fat or oil with alkalies like sodium hydroxide or
potassium hydroxide. This is saponification reaction.
Fat or Oil + Alkali Soap + Glycerol
Glycerol is by -product formed in the saponification reaction. This is used in the preparation of cosmetics, paints and even
explosives.
The Soap molecule has two ends with different properties. They are hydrophillic end and
hydrophobic end.
Hydrophillic end :
Hydrophillic end dissolves in water.
Hydrophobic end:
Hydrophobic which dissolves in hydrocarbons.
Scum:
In hard water soap don't give lather .Hard water contains calcium and magnesium salts, which
combine with soap molecules to form insoluble precipitates known as scum.
Detergents:
Detergents have almost the same properties as soaps but they are more effective in hard
water. Detergents are generally ammonium or sulphonate salts of long chain carboxylic acids.
The charged ends of these compounds do not form insoluble precipitates with the calcium and
magnesium ions in water.