Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
23
L4odeling
and EnergyMethods
In termsof g = 9.31m/s2,thisbecomes
Sximum
a c c e t e r a t i o: n
':::"
t )
Example1.3.3
Computethe form of the responseof an underdampedsystemusingthe Cartesianform
of the solutiongivenin Window 1.5.
+ y) : sinxcosy * cosxsiny.Applyingthis
Solution Frombasictrigonometrysin(x
to equation(1.36)with x = a7t and y : $ yields
x(t) : 4"-t'" sin(or7t+ 0) : r-{''(ArsinoT/ * A2cosuat)
where,41: cosSandA2= sin0,asindicatedinWindowl.5.Evaluatingtheinitialconditions yields
x ( 0 ) : x o : e o ( A r s i n 0+ A 2 c o s 0 )
Solvingyields,42 : xo.Next differentiate.r(r) to get
.i:
u0 I
(anxs
(D4
,1ry: .{'.'("#*
*'o.or.ur,)
sino,,/
tr
1.4 MODELINGAND ENERGYMETHODS
Modeling is the art or processof writing down an equation,or systemof equations,
to describethe motion of a physicaldevice.For example,equation(1.2)was-gbtained
by modelingthe spring-masssystemof Figure1".4.8ysummingthe forcesactingon
the massin the x directionand employingthe experimentalevidenceof the mathematicalmodel of the force in a springgivenby Figure1.3,equation(1..2)canbe obtained.The success
of this modelis determinedby how well the solutionof equation
(1.2)predictsthe observedbehaviorof the system.This comparisonbetweenthe vibrationresponseof a deviceandthe responsepredictedby the analyticalmodelis discussedin Section1.6.Themajorityof this book is devotedto the analysisof vibration
24
Introduction
to Vibrationand the FreeResponse
Chao.1
models. However, two methods of modeling-Newton's law and energy methodsare presented in this section. More comprehensive treatments of modeling can be
found in Doebelin (1980),Shames(1980,1989),and Cannon (1967),ryxample.
The force summation method is used in the previous sectionsVd should be
familiar to the reader from introductory dynamics (see,e.g.,Shames,1980).Newton's
law of moticn (called Newton's second /aw) states that the rate of change of the absolute momentum of the mass center is proportional to the net applied force vector
and acts in a direction of the net force. For systemswith constant mass (such as those
considered here) moving in only one direction, the rate of change of momentum becomes the scalar relation
-dl m, x l . \ : m x
dt
2f,,: ^*
(1.4e)
where f, denotes the ith force acting on the mass r.txin the x direction and the summation is over the number of such forces. In the first three chapters, only singledegree-of-freedomsystemsmoving in one direction are considered;thus Newton's law
takes on a scalar nature. In more practical problems with many degrees of freedom,
energy considerationscan be combined with the concepts of virtual work to produce
Lagrange's equations,as discussedin Section 4.7.Lagrange's equations also provide
an energy-basedalternative to summing forces to derive equations of motion.
For bodies that are free to rotate about a fixed axis, the sum of the torques
about the rotation axis through the center of mass of the object must equal the rate
of change of angular momentum of the mass.This is expressedas
) ruo,: "'g
(1.s0)
Sec.
'1.4
25
Modelingand EnergyMethods
(1 . s 1 )
Ur-Ur:Tz-Tt
where U1and {./2representthe particle'spotential energyat the times /r and /t, respectively,and T1 and T2representthe particle'skinetic energyat timest, andt2,reto yield
spectively.
Equation(1.51)canbe rearranged
(7.52)
T+U:constant
(1.s3)
Tr: Uz
Since tlre reference potential energy Uliszero, U2in equation (1.53) is the maximum
value of potential energy in the system. Because the energy in this system is conserved, Z2 must also be a maximum value so that equation (1.53) yields
Z-u" :
(1.54)
U-u*
for conservative systemsundergoing periodic motion. Since energy is a scalar quantity, using the conservation of energy yields a possibility of obtaining the equation of
motion of a system without using vectors.
Equations (1.52), (1.53), and (1.54) are three statementsof the conservation of
energy. Each of these can be used to determine the equation of motion of a
spring-mass syslem.As an illustration, consider the energy of the spring-mass system
of Figure 1.1-4,hanging in a gravitational field of strength g. The effect of adding the
mass /11to the masslessspring of stiffnessk is to stretch the spring from its rest position at 0 to the static equilibrium position A. The total potential energy of the
spring-mass system is the sum of the potential energy of the spring (or strain energy; see,e.g.,Shames,1989) and the gravitational potential energy.The potential energy of the spring is given by
u,p,ing:lt1n+x12
lo
V
(b)
(1.ss)
system
Figure1,14 (a)A spring-mass
hangingin a gravitationalfield. Here A is
the staticequilibriumpositionand x is
the displacementfrom equilibrium.
(b) The free-bodydiagramfor static
equilibrium.
andtheFreeResponse
Introduction
to Vibration
25
Chap.1
The gravitationalpotentialenergyis
Ugro, :
-mgx
(1.56)
(1.s8)
(1.se)
Sincethe staticforce balanceon the massfrom Figure 1.14(b)yields the fact that
kL, : mg, equation(1.59)becomes
(1.60)
i(mi+kx):g
The velocity i cannot be zero for all time; otherwise, x(t) : constant and no vibration would be possible.Hence equation (1.60) yields the standard equation of motion
(1.61)
mi * kx:0
This procedure is called the energy method of obtaining the equation of motion.
The energy method can also be used to obtain the frequency of vibration directly
for conservative systems that are oscillatory. The maximum value of sine (and cosine) is 1. Hence, from equations (1.3) and (1.a), the maximum displacement is ,4 and
the maximum velocity is o,A. Substitution of these maximum values into the expression for U-u* and Z*u* and using the energy equation (1.54) yields
lm(.,A)2: it ,4
Solving this for on yields the standard natural frequency relation ,^ :
(r.62)
{t
/^ .
Example1.4.1
systemhitting a bump.Calculatethe
FigureL.15is a crudemodelof a vehiclesuspension
naturalfrequencyof oscillationusingthe energymethod.Assumethat no energyis lost
duringthe contact.
S e c .1 . 4
andEnergyMethods
Modeling
27
1 .,
= 1 + l lrz)af,*
* l J . , f'^^^
i^i'*^- ,7
t(^
and
U.u*: t1t<*2^-:ltct
Using conservationof energyin the form of equation(1.54)yieldsZ.u* = f/-.^, or
1(
/\,
;lm+-l/U.J;:;K
z \
r-/
1,
/-
Example 1.4.2
Determine the equation of motion of the simple pendulum shown in Window 1.1 using
the energy method.
Solution Several assumptions must first be made to ensure simple behavior (a more
complicated version is considered in Example 1.4.6).The size of the mass,z, is assumed
to be much smaller than the length of the pendulum, /. Furthermore, the mass of the
pendulum arm is considered to be negligible compared to the mass rz. With these
assumptions the mass moment of inertia about point 0 is
Jo : mlz
The angular displacement 0(r) is measuled from the static equilibrium or rest position
of the pendulum. The kinetic energy of the system is
7:)Jsa2:)m1262
The potential energy of the system is
U:mgl(I-cos0)
28
Chap'1
since I ( 1 - cos 0 ) is the geometric change in elevation of the pendulum mass'Substitu(1.52) and
tion of these expressionsfor the kinetic and potential energy into equation
differentiating yields
)
*o lt i- m t ' { +
m s t ( t- c o s o l :] s
or
m l 2 e 6+ r z g l ( s i n 0 ):00
Factoringout 0 yields
o(mtzo+ ngl sinO)= 6
Since6 (r) cannotbe zerofor all time,this becomes
ml20+mglsin0:0
or
0+ ]sin0
t
-n
in Section1.10.However,here,since
This is a nonlinearequationin 0 and is discussed
linear equationof motion for the penthe
angles,
small
sin 0 can be approximatedby 0 for
dulum becomes
q
e + ;o =0
I
for initial condito an oscillationwith naturalfrequency. , .: filt
This corresponds
=
0.
sin
0
approximation
by
the
as
defined
small,
0
remains
tions suchthat
Example1.4.3
Determinethe equationof motion of the shaftand disk illustratedin Window 1.1using
v ethod.
t h ee n e r g .m
Solution The shaft and disk of Window 1.1 are modeled as a rod stiffnessin twisting, resulting in torsional motion. The shaft, or rod, exhibits a tolque in twisting proportional tolhe angle of twist 0(t).The potential energy associatedwith the torsional
spring stiffne.s is U - jke2, where the stiffness coefficient k is determined much like
tire metnoO used to determine the spring stiffness in translation, as discussed in Section 1.1.The angle 0(r) is measuredfrom the static equilibrium, or rest, position.The
: I le2. rnis
kinetic energy associatedwith the disk of mass moment of inertia "r is T
assumes that the inertia of the rod is much smaller than that of the disk and can be
neglected.
Substitution of these expressionsfor the kinetic and potential energy into equa(1.52)
and differentiating yields
tion
d
dt
,16+ko:0
Sec.1.4
29
Modelingand EnergyMethods
i rt'l
The total kinetic energy of the spring is the kinetic energy of the element dy integtated
over the length of the spring:
T
_ spfmg
I ft m,[r.l',
,J, t l7r)o'
rlm'\.,
2\3 t
From the form of this expression,the effective massof the spring is m,f3, or one-third
of that of the spring.Following the energymethod,the maximum kinetic energy of the
svstemis thus
r^*::(* * )),;*
Equatingthis to the maximumpotentialenergy,|k'4,yields the fact that the natural
frequencyof the systemis
30
Chap'1
the natural
Thus includingthe effectsof the massof the springin the systemdecreases
n, the
mass
system
than
the
much
smaller
is
frequency.Note that if the massof spring
is
negligible'
frequency
natural
the
on
effectof the springmass
Example1.4.5
cxhibit vibration.Calculatethe naturalfrequenaswell assolidsysterrrs,
Fluid systems,
cy of oicillationof the fluiciin the U tubemanometerillustratedin FigureL.17usingthe
energymethod.
r:r
1 AI'v
Ah
( i ' - 0 ) : t IT r -
*:lAxz
: Yz
i'ru2'x2
of vibration.Solvingfor ornyields
whereX is usedhereto denotetheamplituAe
tr
,, : v7
fi
Sec.1.4
I
I
Modeling
andEnergyMethods
3l
which is the naturalfrequencyof oscillationof the fluid in the tube.Note that it depends
only on the accelerationdue to gravityandthe lengthof the fluid.Vibrationof fluidsinsidemechanicalcontainers(calledsloshing)occursin gastanksin both automobilesand
airplanesand forms an importantapplicationof vibrationanalysis.
!
Example 1.4.6
Considerthe compoundpendulumof Figure1.18pinned at point 0.A compoundpendulum is a pendulumwith a significantmassmomentof inertiaresultingfrom a distribution of massaboutits length.In the figure G is the centerof mass,O is the pivot point,
and 0(t) is the angulardisplacement
of the centerlineof the pendulumof massrn and
moment / measuredabout the z-axisat point O. Point C is the centerof percussion,
which is definedasthe distance46alongthe centerlinesuchthat a simplependulum(a
massless
rod pivotedat zerowith massm at its tip asin Example1.4.2)of radius46has
the sameperiod.Hence
J
Qn=-
mr
where r is the distancefrom the pivot point to the centerof massNote that the pivot point
O and the centerof percussionC can be interchangedto producea pendulumwith the
samefrequency.
The radiusof gyration,ku,is the radiusof a ring that hasthe sameresistanceto angularaccelerationas the rigid body does.Theradiusof gyrationand center of percussionare relatedby
eor : k2o
Considerthe equationof motionof the compoundpendulum.Taking
momentsaboutits
pivot point O yields
2Mo : /0 (r) : -mgr sinl(t)
lE
ia x
(b)
andthe FreeResponse
to Vibration
ntroduction
32
Chap'1
" 1 6 1 r+; m g r \ ( t ) = 0
The naturalfrequencyof oscillationbecomes
u , , = !t^8'
"/
in termsof the centerof percussionas
This frequencycanbe expressed
a"- : r E
Yqo
e + ;I o : 0
:
This yieldsthe simplependulumfrequencyof orn 'fglt 'which is equivalent
: qs'
to that obtainedpreviouslyfor the compoundpendulumusing/
NextconsidertheuniformlyshapedcompoundpendulumofFigurel.l9(b)of
gyration'
length/. Here it is desiredto calculatethe centerof percussionand radiusof
.I.hemassmomentofinertiaaboutpointoisl,sothatsummingmoments
about O vields
"r0:
-^s
f,"ine
G = centerof mass
S e c .1 . 4
33
Modelingand EnergyMethods
since the massis assumedto be evenly distributed and the center of massis at r : I p.The
m o m e n t o f i n e r t i a f o r a s l e n d e r r o d a b o u tO i s J : \ m l z ; h e n c e t h e e q u a t i o n o fm o t i o n i s
n112,
;u
"
l -
ms10:0
ii+--"0:o
2l
so that the naturalfrequencyis
tri
'": lr7
The centerof percussionbecomes
I.,
4o= mrJ
and the radius of gyration becomes
ko: lw
I
V3
So far, three basic systemshave been modeled: rectilinear or translational motion of a spring-mass system,torsional motion of a disk-shaft system,and the pendulum motion of a suspended mass system. Each of these motions commonly
experiences energy dissipation of some form.The viscous damping model of Section
1.3 developed for translational motion can be applied directly to both torsional and
pendulum motion. In the caseof torsional motion of the shaft, the energy dissipation
is assumed to come from heating of the material and/or air resistance.Sometimes,as
in the caseof using the rod and disk to model an automobile crankshaft,or camshaft,
the damping is assumed to come from the oil that surrounds the disk and shaft, or
bearings that support the shaft.
The damping mechanism for the pendulum comes largely from friction in the
joint, or point of attachment of the pendulum arm to ground, and a little from the mass
pushing air out of the way as the pendulum swings.The energy dissipation or damping associatedwith the spring material in rectilinear motion and the rod material in
torsional motion is much larger than that associatedwith the pendulum.
34
Introduction
to Vibration
andthe FreeResponse
Chap.1
Rectilinear
x (m)
Spring force
Dampingforce
Inertia force
Equationof motion
Stiffnessunits
Dampingunits
Inertia units
Force/torque
kx
c*
mi
mi*c*+kx:0
N/m
N's/m, kgls
kg
N : kg.m/s2
Torsional/pendulum
0 (rad)
ko
CH
JO
t6+cg+to=o
N.m/rad
m.N.s/rad
kg.m2/rad
N.m : kg.m2ls2
1.5 STIFFNESS
The stiffnessin a spring,introducedin Section1.1,canbe relatedmore directlyto material and geometricpropertiesof the spring.This sectionintroducesthe relationshipsbetweenstiffness,elasticmodulus,and geometryof varioustypes of springs,
and illustratesvarioussituationsthat canlead to simpleharmonicmotion.A springlike behaviorresultsfrom a varietyof configurations,
includinglongitudinalmotion
(vibration in the directionof the length),transversemotion (vibration perpendicular to the length),and torsionalmotion (vibrationrotatingaroundthe length).Consideragainthe stiffnessof the springintroducedin Section1.1.A springis generally
madeof an elasticmaterial.For a slenderelasticmaterialof length /, cross-sectional
areaA, and elasticmodulusE (or Young'smodulus),the stiffnessof the bar for vibration alongits lengthis givenby
.EA
I
(1.63)
Sec.1.5
35
Stiffness
E = elastic modulus
,4 : cross-sectionalarea
/ : length of bar
x(t) = deflect'on
Material
Young'smodulus,
E(N/m'z)
Density,
(kgl-')
Shearmodulus,
G(N/m'z)
Steel
Aluminum
Brass
Copper
Concrete
Rubber
Plywood
2.0 x
7 . 1x
10.0x
6.0 x
3.8 x
2.3 x
5.4 x
7.8 x
2.7 x
8.5 x
2.4 x
1.3 x
1 . 1x
6.0 x
g.0 x
2.67 x
3.68 x
2.22 x
1011
1010
1010
1010
10e
1,0e
10e
103
1,03
103
I03
103
103
102
1010
1010
1010
r0r0
8.21x 108
k-
e(0)
Figure 1.21
GJ"
:
=stiffnessofrod
36
Introduction
to Vibrationand the FreeResponse
Chap.1
Example1.5.1
Calculatethe naturalfrequencyof oscillationof the torsionalsystemgivenin Figure1.21.
Solution Usingthe noment equation(1.50),the equationof motionfor thissystemis
16@: -ko?)
This may be wrilten as
t-
t i l r y+ ) o ( r ) : o
This agreeswith the resultobtainedusingthe energymethodas indicatedin Example
1.4.3.This indicatesan oscillatorymotion with frequency
li
IGi
',:vi:ln
Supposethat the shaftis madeof steeland is 2 m long with a diameterof 0.5 cm.If the
disk hasmassmomentof inertia : 0.5kg.m2 and consideringthat the shearmodu"/
lus of steelis G : 8 x 1010
N/m2,the frequencycan be calculatedby
t ox* z m ) 4 / s z ]
, _
*Glp _(B x1010N/m2)[1r'(0.5
= k-
(r):
t.t
(2 m)(0.5kg.-r)
:4.9 (rarl2/s2)
Thus the natural frequency is orn: 2.2 rad/s.
n
Consider the helical spring of Figure I.22.In this figure the deflection of the
spring is along the axis of the coil. The stiffnessis actually dependent on the "twist',
of the metal rod forming this spring.The stiffnessis a function of the shear modulus G.
l,^
{
r/ :
2R :
n :
x(4 :
l_*,,,
,
tJO'
64nRr
S e c .1 . 5
37
Stiffness
x(o)
L"
x(t)
E : elasticmodulus
I : lengthof beam
areaaboutthe neutralaxis
1 : momentof inertiaof cross-sectional
Figure 1.23 Beam stiffnessassociatedwith the transversevibration of the tip of a
beam (Blevins,1987).
the diameterof the rod, the diameterof the coils,and the numberof coils.The stiffnesshasthe value
,
''
Gd4
(1.6s)
64nR3
EEI
t- \,1
mF
(1.66)
r#r
-T-"(o)
I
V
r(t)
38
Chap. 1
change in the natural frequency of vibration of the wing, modeled as in Figure 1.24,as
the airplane usesup the fuel in the wing pod. The estimated physical parameters of the
b e a m a r eI - 5 . 2 x 1 0 5 m a ,E - - 6 . 9 x 1 0 e N / m 2 , a n d l : 2 m .
Solution The natural frequency of the vibration of the wing modeled as a simple massless beam with a tip mass is given by equation (1.66).The natural frequency when the
fuei pod is fuil is
. u r ' r: V
r
EEI
ffi
:ll'6rad/s
^p:l
loTs2x ro'r : [ 5 r a d / s
o e _ p r :ItEr
V ; r , - Vfijxest
ro(af
or 18.5 Hz. Hence the natural frequency of the airplane wing changes by a factor of 10
(i.e., becomes 10 times larger) when the fuel pod is empty. Such a drastic change mav
cause changesin handling and performance characteristicsof the aircraft.
!
( r .61)
Severalother springarrangements
andtheir associated
stiffnessvaluesare listed in Thble 1.3.Textson solid mechanics,
suchas Shames(1989),shouldbe consulted for further details.
,--
EI
I
;-->, ,
xltl
S e c 1. . 5
Stiffness
39
TABLE1.3 SAMPLE
SPRING
CONSTANTS
Axial stiffnessof a taperedbar of length/, modulusE, and end diameters d1 and d,
Torsional stiffnesson a hollow uniform shaft of shear modulus G,
length/, insidediameterdt, and outsidediameterd2
n Ed,d"
4I
- dl\
, - - nc(d1
"-
3a
Tiansversestiffnessof a pinned-pinnedbeamof modulus,E, area moment of inertia 1, and length/ for a load appliedat point a from its end
.
'-
3EII
a 2 U- d 2
,
''
I92EI
13
Example1.5.3
As anotherexampleof vibrationinvolvingfluids,considerthe rollingvibrationof a ship
in water.Figure1.26illustratesa schematicof a ship rolling in water.Computethe natural frequencyof the ship asit rolls back and forth aboutthe axisthroughM.
G: center of gravity
M: metacenter
B: center of buoyance
Introduction
to Vibration
andthe FreeResponse
40
Chap.1
/ 6 ( / )+ w h o ( t ) : 0
Thus the natural frequencv of the svstem tt
*
,r:\/
Springs in series
k2
K1
, -" *, o
ffi
abc
7
llk,+Llk,
Springs in parallel
k1
+-i
,,qnn!b
t.
L2
k o o = k t +k z
Example1.5.4
Considerthe spring-massarrangementof FigureI.28(a) and calculatethe naturalfrequencyof the system.
Solution To tind the equivalentsinglestiffnessrepresentationof the five-springsystem
givenin Figure1.28(a),the two simplerulesof Figure!.27 areapplied.First,the parallel arrangementof k1 and k2 is replacedby the singlespring,as indicatedat the top of
4l
Stiffness
S e c .1 . 5
':{-
(b)
(a)
-3-
l^l
-T-
(d)
(c.)
systemto an equivalentsingle-spring-mass
Figure1..28 Reductionof a five-springone-mass
svstem.
uh+ w
asindicatedin the bottom left sideof Figure1.28(b).Thesetwo parallelspringson the
bottom of Figure1.2S(b)are next combinedusirrgthe parallelspringformulato yield a
singlespringof stiffness
ktu
tlt,+w
:kt-tk2+ks+
I,-
1
. -,,
l/kt + t/K4
ktko _(kt+
b+ k4
t < r + t < r ) ( k t +k o )+ k t t c o
h+
k4
m(t<r+tco)
Note that even though the systemof Figure 1.28containsfive springs,it consistsof only
one massmoving in only one (rectilinear)direction and henceis a single-degree-offreedomsystem.
42
lntroduction
to Vibrationand the FreeResponse
Chap.1
: 20 rad/s
pdiltel
_3000
" " u - V l o o 0 +t l l o o o - 3 + l
3000
4
750N/m
Thecorresponding
naturalfrequency
becomes
:
osc.i.s
r.t^" :
,ry50
V
rO,
8'66rad/s
Note that usingtwo identicalsetsof springsconnectedto the samemassin the two different waysproducesdrasticallydifferentequivalentstiffnessand resultingfrequency.
A seriesconnectiondecreases
the equivalentstiffness,while a parallel connectionincreasesthe equivalentstiffness.This
is importantin designingsystems.
Example 1.5.5illustrates that fixed valuesof spring constantscan be used in various combinations to produce a desired value of stiffnessand corresponding frequency.It is interesting to note that an identical set ofphysical devicescan be used to create
a system with drastically different frequencies simply by changing the physical arrangement of the components.This is similar to the choice of resistorsin an electric circuit.
The formulas of this section are intended to be aids in designing vibration systems.
In addition to understandingthat effect of stiffnesson the dynamics-that ig on
the natural frequency-it is important not to forget static analysiswhen using springs.
Sec.1.6
Measurement
43
In particular, the static deflection of each spring system needs to be checked to make
sure that the dynamic analysis is correctlf interpreted. Recall from the discussionof
Figure 1.14 that the static deflection has the value
A:ry
where m is themasssupportedby a spnngJf rtiffn"r, k in a gravitationalfield providing accelerationof gravity g. Static deflectionis often ignored in introduciory
treatmentsbut is.usedextensivelyin springdesignand is essentialin nonlinearanalysis.Staticdeflectionis denotedby a variety of symbols.The symbols6, a, 6", and xq
are all usedin vibration publicationsto denotethe deflectionof a springcausedby
the weight of the massattachedto it.
1.6 MEASUREMENT
Measurements
associated
with vibrationareusedfor severalpurposes.
First,the quantities requiredto analyzethe vibratingmotion of a systemall requiremeasurement.
The mathematicalmodelsproposedin previoussectionsall require knowledgeof
the mass,damping,and stiffnesscoefficientsof the deviceunder itudy.Thesecoefficientscan be measuredin a variety of ways,as discussedin this section.Vibration
measurements
are alsousedto verify andimproveanalyticalmodels.Thisis discussed
somedetail in Chapter7. Other usesof vibrationtestingtechniquesincludereliai1
bility and durability studies,searchingfor damage,and testingfor acceptabilityin
terms of vibration parameters.
Thesetopicsare alsodiscussed
briefly in -haptei Z.
In many cases,the massof an objector deviceis simplydeterminedby usinga
scale.In fact,massis a relativelyeasyquantityto measure.
However,the massmoment
of inertia may require a dynamicmeasurement.
A method of measuringthe mass
moment of inertia of an irregularlyshapedobjectis to placethe objecton the platform of the apparatusof Figure1..29andmeasurethe periodof osciliationof the system, z. By usingthe methodsof Sectionr.4,it canbe shownthat the momentof
Suspension
wires
of length/
44
Introduction
toVibration
andthe FreeResponse
Chap.1
Io
It-
412l
(1.68)
Strain
The elastic modulus can also be measuredby using some of the formulas given
in Section 1.5 and measurement of the vibratory response of a structure or part. For
insiance, consider thc cantilevered arrangement of Figure I.23.If tlggrass at the tip
is given a snrall deflection, it witl oscillate with frequency a, : V k/m. If o is measured, the modulus can be determined from equation (1.66), as illustrated in the following example.
Example1.6.L
Considera steelbeam configurationas shownin Figure L23.-the beam has a length
/ : 1 m and momentof inertia1 : 10-ema,witha massrrz: 6 kg attachedto the tip.
If the massis given a smallinitial deflectionin the transversedirectionand oscillates
with a periodof T : 0.62s,calculatethe elasticmodulusof steel.
Sofution SinceZ : 2rf otn,equation
(1.66)yields
T :Ztr
mt-
3EI
S e c .1 . 6
Measurement
45
Solvingfor -Eyields
E:
4r2ml3 _
3T2I
4 T ' z ( 6k g ) ( 1 m ) 3
3(0.62s)2(1oi m4)
: 205 x 10eN/m2
x:(:t \
x(t + T)
(1.6e)
^r-La"t sin(oar + g)
4"-La"o+r)
sin(orar+ oaT + g)
(i.70)
Displacement(mm)
1.0
0.5
Time (s)
andtheFreeResponse
to Vibration
Introduction
46
Chap.1
sin(oar + $),andtheexpression
Sinceo2? :2n,thedenominatorbecomes e-{a"(J+r)
for the decrement reduces to
(1.71)
E:lne(',r:L@,7
The period Z in this case is the damped period \2n /<,:a)so that
')6
- : 'itr,.
- - 4----:+ (
,,ft
for ( yields
Solvingthisexpression
5-
2rL
(1.72)
{1=
(1..73)
\/4;';E
E:!,n(
,'i')=,)
n
\x(t + nT) /
where n is any integer number of successive(positive) peaks.While this does tend to
increase the accuracy of computing 6, the majority of damping measurements performed today are based on modal analysismethods, as discussedin Chapter 7.
Example 1.6.2
The free responseof the systemof Figure1.9with a massof 2 kg is recordedto be of the
form givenin Figure 1.31.A staticdeflectiontest is performedand the stiffnessis deat tr and f2 are measuredto be 9 and
terminedto be 1.5 x 103N/m.The displacements
1 mm, respectively.Calculatethe dampingcoefficient.
Solution From the definition of the logarithmicdecrement
6:lnl
fr(r,).1 . Isn*l
From equation(1.73),
2.t972
5
{G,itIefi
= 0.33 or 33%
Also,
,,, : 2fk^:
2@
: 1.095x 1o2kgls
S e c .1 . 6
47
Measurement
and from equation(1.30)the dampingcoefficientbecomes
: ) 3 6 . 1 5k g / s
c : c,,L: (t.ols x 1c'z)(0.33
Example1.6.3
Mass and stiffnessare usuallymeasuredin a straightforwardmanneras suggestedin
that precludeusingthesesimple
Section1.6.However,there are certaincircumstances
methods.In thesecasesa measurement
of the frequencyof oscillationboth beforeand
after a known amountof massis addedcanbe usedto determinethe massand stiffness
of the original system.Supposethen that the frequencyof the systemin Figure1,.32(a)
is measuredtobe?radf s andthe frequencyof FigureI.32(b)with an addedmassof 1 kg
is known to be I radls.Calculatem andk.
(4.)
Solution
--
k
m
and
- .
@0 -
4m: k
and
m+1,:k
--
I
L
--
k
^+I
or
*:tut
and r=lNz-
Introduction
to Vibrationand the FreeResponse
48
Chap.1
Thus, olrru : ,?,(m + no). Solving for the change in mass trs yields
mo:ml
l'l
,\ (06
.\
Ll
/
t)
w,:w\fi,_
or
'o!.4
ry)' - r' )I
wo-- l2orb
' " ' " 1I \r
t o o H z)
: 0.96lb
Since the frequency decreased,the patient gained almost a pound. An increase in tiequency would indicate a loss of weight.
Sec.1.7
DesignConsiderations
49
Section1.5on stiffnessconsiderations
is actuallyan introductionto designas
well.The formulasgiven there for stiffnessin terms of modulusand geometricdimensionscan be usedto designa systemthat has a givennatural frequency.Example I.5.2 pointsout one of the importantproblemsin design,that often the properties
that we are interestedin designingfor (frequencyin this case)are very sensitiveto
operationalchanges.
In Example1,.5.2,the
frequencychangesa greatdealasthe zrirplaneusesup fuel.
Another important issuein designoften focuseson usingdevicesthat are already available.For example,the rulesgivenin Figure I.27 aredesignrulesfor producinga desiredvalue of springconstantfrom a setof "available"springsby placing
them in certaincombinations,asillustratedin Example 1.5.5.Often designwork in
engineeringinvolvesusingavailableproductsto produceconfigurations(or designs)
that suit your particularapplication.In the caseof springstiffness,
springsare usually massproduced,and henceinexpensive,
in only certaindiscretevaluesof stiffness.
The formulas given for parallel and seriesconnectionsof springsare then usedto
producethe desiredstiffness.If costis not a restriction,then formulassuchasgiven
inTable 1.3 may be usedto designa singlespringto fit the statedstiffnessrequirements.Of course,designinga spring-masssystemto havea desirednaturalfrequency may not produce a systemwith an acceptablestaticdeflection.Thus,the design
processbecomescomplicated.Design is one of the most activeand excitingdisciplines in engineeringbecauseit often involvescompromiseand choicewith many
acceptablesolutions.
Unfortunately,the valuesof m, c,andk haveotherconstraints.
In particular,the
sizeand materialof which the deviceis madedeterminestheseparameters.
Hencethe
designprocedurebecomesa compromise.For example,for geometricreasons,the
massof a devicemay be limited to be between2 and 3 kg, and for staticdisplacement conditions,
the stiffnessmaybe requiredto be greaterthan200N/m. In thiscase,
the natural frequencymust be in the interval
8.16rad/s = 0), S 10 rad/s
(r.14)
This severely limits the design of the vibration response,4s illustrated in the following example.
Example 1.7.1
Considerthe systemof Figure1.9with massand stiffnesspropertiesassummarizedby
inequality(1.74).Supposethat the systemis subjectto an initial velocitythat is always
lessthan 300mm/s,and to an initial displacement
of zero (i.e.,x6 : 0, ?ro- 300mm/s).
For this rangeof massand stiffness,
choosea valueof the dampingcoefficientsuchthat
the amplitudeof vibrationis alwayslessthan 25 mm.
Solution This is a design-oriented
example,and henceastypicalof designcalculations
there is not a nice,cleanformulato follow.Rather,the solutionmust be obtainedusing
50
Introduction
to Vibration
andthe FreeResponse
Chap.1
theory andparameterstudies.
First,note that for zeroinitial displacement,
the response
may be written from equation(1.38)as
x(/)
uo
A7
e-(',tsin(orat)
t'-"'
Thus,for smallo2 the amplitudeis largerthanfor largeror7.Hencefor the rangeof frequenciesof interest,it appearsthat the worstcase(largestamplitude)will occurfor the
smallestvalueof the frequency(o, : 8.16rad/s).Also,the amplitudeincreases
with oo
so that usingoo : 300mm/s will ensurethat amplitudeis a large aspossible.Now,o6and
r,rnare fixed,so it remainsto investigatehow the maximumvalue of .r(t) variesas the
dampingratio is varied.One approachis to computethe amplitudeof the responseat
the first peak.From Figure1.10the largestamplitudeoccursat the first time the derivativeof -r(r) iszero.Takingthederivativeof
x(l) andsettingitequaltozero yieldsthe
expressionfor the time to the first peak:
s)de*Lantcos(o;t)
(ans-|'^t sin(co,r) :
= Itun-,ryL--L)
r^: -t-ra"-'13)
@7
\Eo"/
64
The valueof the amplitudeof the first (and largest)peak is calculatedby substituting
the valueof T- into .x(t),resultingin
A^(()=x\T^):
-(2\\
-'lft
/
(
il
- r - - - r - t u " - ( v ' " - /( s' )i n \ t " - ' \ - - a - / /
,,\/t-(2
Simplifyingyields
A.(L) : ?t;1|4'^"
-'l''4-\
\s )
2 ( 3 X 8 . 1 6 X 0 . 2 8:1 ) 1 4 . 1 , 5 k g / s
For this valueof the dampingthe responseis neverlarger than 25 mm. Note that if there
is no damping, the same initial conditions produce a response of amplitude
A : u s f a n : 3 7m m .
n
Sec. 1.7
DesignConsiderations
5t
l o 2 , m : ( 1 0 ) ' z ( 1 0=) 1 0 3 N / m
Gdo.
64nR'
or
Gd:
6.4 x I0o:
nR'
( s . z t t x I o r o N / m 2 ) ( l om
- r) 4
nR3
nR3 = I.292 x l0 2
If the coil radiusis chosento be 10crn,this yieldsthe fact that the numberof tumsshouldbe
l'29]<-lo-2
mj
: r 2 . 9o r 1 3
, =
IU"M'
tr
In Example1'.7.2,several
variableswerechosento producea desireddesign.In
eachcasethe designvariables(suchasd, R,etc.)are sub.iect
to constraints.
Suchcon_
straintsare consideredformally in Chapter5. Other aspectsof vibrationdesignare
presentedthroughoutthe text asappropriate.There are no set rulesto follow in designwork. However,someorganizedapproachesto designare presentedin chapter 5.
52
'l
Chap.
so that
k:
136ltL'f,
k ---g
A
and
i kit:
'":\;/
:r4racrls
I h e s t i l l n e s so f t h e s u s p e n s i o sn y s r e mi s r h u s
: 2 . 6 6 8x 1 0 sN / m
k - 1361(14)2
For critical damping ( : I or c : c,,and equation (1.30) becomes
c : 2man : 2(1361)(14) : 3.81 x 104kgls
Now if the passengers and luggage are added to the car, the mass increases to
136l + 290 : 165l kg. Since the stiffnessand damping coefficient remain the same,the
new static deflection becomes
mF
I : -:
k
frequency
1651(9.8)
- = 0.06m
2.668x It'
Sec. 1.8
53
Stability
Fromequations(L29) and (I.30)the dampingratio becomes
_c
3.81x 104:
Zma,
-:
3 . 8 1x 1 0 0
ilL,
2(1.65r)(r2.7)
is no longercriticallydampedandwill
fuel,andluggage
Thusthecarwith passengers,
exhibitsomeoscillatorv
motionin theverticaldirection.
1.8 STABILITY
the physicalparametersm, c,andk are allconsideredto be
In the precedingsections,
positive in equation (1,.25).Thisallows the treatmentof the solutionsof equation
(1,.25)to be classifiedinto three groups:overdamped,underdamped,or critically
Thesefour sodamped.The casewith c : 0 providesa fourth class,calledundamped.
grow
with
time
and their amthat
they
do
not
well
behaved
in
the
sense
lutions are all
plitudesare finite.There are manysituations,however,in which the coefficientsare
not positive,and in thesecasesthe motion is not well behaved.This situationrefers
to the stabiliryof solutionsof a system.
Recallingthat the solution of the undampedcase(c : 0) is of the form
(co,r
+ +), it is easyto seethat the undampedresponseis bounded.That is,if
,4 sin
lr(t)l denotesthe absolutevalueof x, then
+ o)l : e:
l'(r)l= Alsin(o,r
Lr,T*o * ,1
(1..7s)
for every value of r. Thus lr(r)l is alwayslessthan somefinite number for all time
and for all finite choicesof initial conditions.In this casethe responseis well behaved and said to be stable(sometimescalled marginallystable).If, on the other
hand,the valueof k in equation (1,.2) is negativeandm is positive,the solutionsare
of the form
x(t) : ,4 sinh a,t I B cosh ornt
(1.76)
Introduction
to Vibrationand the FreeResponse
54
Chap.
(mm)
Displacement
1.0
0.5
Time (s)
0.0
10
'\/
).
-0.5
- 1.0
Figure1.33 Exampleof a stableresponse.
(mm)
Displacernent
Time(s)
Consider the responseof the damped systemof equation (1.25)with positive coefficients.As illustrated in Figures 1.10,1.11,1.12,and 1.13,it is clear that x(t) approaches zero as I becomes large becauseof the exponential-decay terms. Such
solutions are called asymptotically stable.Again, if c or k is negative (with m positive), the motion grows without bound and becomes unstable as in the undamped
case.In the damped case,however, the motion may be unstable in one of two ways.
Similar to overdamped solutions and underdamped solutions, the motion may grow
without bound and not oscillate, or it may grow without bound and oscillate. The
nonoscillatory case is called divergent instability and the oscillatory case is called flutter instability, or sometimes just flutter. Flutter instability is sketched in Figure 1.35.
Displacement(mm)
8
o
4
2
0
-6
-8
Time (s)
46810t21416
Figure 1.35 Exampleof flutter instability.
S e c .1 . 8
Stability
55
The trend of growing without bound for large r contirrues in Figures 1.34 and 1.35,
even though the figure stops.These types of instability occur in a variety of situations, often called self-excitedvibratiorzs,and require some source of energy.The following example illustrates such instabilities.
Example1.8.1
Considerthe invertedpendulumconnectedto two equalsprings,shownin Figure1.36.
Assumethat the springsare undeflectedwhen in the verticalpositionand that
the massm of the ball at the end of the pendulumrod is substantiallylargerthan the mass
of the rod itself,so that the rod is consideredto be massless.
If the rod is of length/ and
the springsare attachedat the point I p,the equationof motion becomes
ml26 +
/kt2
\t''u/
c o s O- r n g l s i n 0: 0
(r.77)
Figure 1.36 Inverted pendulum oscillator and its free-body diagram. Heref
force at the pin, and the pendulum is of length /.
56
Chap.1
ExampleL.8.2
The vibrationof an aircraftwing canbe crudelymodeledas
mi*ci+kx:1*
where m, c and k are the mass,damping,and stiffnessvaluesof the wing,respectively,
modeledasa single-degree-of-freedom
system,andwhere1i is an approximatemodel
of the aerodynamicforceson the wing (ry > 0 for high speed).Rearrangingthis expressionyields
mi+(c-"1,)t+kx:0
-
I f l a n d c a r e s u c h t h a t c 1 > 0 , t h e s y s t e m i s a s y m p t o t i c a l l y s t a b l e . H o w e1vi se r , i f
h fe f o r m
s u c h t h a t c- 1 < 0 , t h e n ( : ( c - 1 ) p m a ^ < 0 a n d t h e s o l u t i o n s a r et o
+ s)
xv ) = Ae-tu''sin(urrl
where-(or,/ > 0 for all r > 0. Suchsolutionsincreaseexponentiallywith time,asindicatedin Figure1.35.This is an exampleof flutter instabilityand self-excitedoscillation.
OFTHETIMERESPONSE
1.9 NUMERICALSIMULATION
So far the vibration problems examined have all been cast as linear differential equations that have solutions that can be determined analytically. These solutions are
often plotted versustime in order to visualizethe physicalvibration and obtain an idea
of the nature of the response.However, there are many more complex systems that
cannot be solved analytically.The pendulum equation given in Example 1.4.2is such
a system.In order to solve ihe pendulum equation analytically,the approximation of
sin ( 0 ) : 0 was used.This allowed the analytical determination of an approximate solution that holds only for those initial conditions for which 0 remains less than about
10 degrees.For caseswith larger initial conditions, a numerical integration routine
may be used to compute and plot a solution to the equation of motion.
The free responseof any single-degree-of-freedomsysten may be easily computed by simple numerical means such as Euler's method or Runge-Kutta methods.
This section examines the use of these common numerical methods for solving vibration problems that are difficult to solve in closedform. Runge-Kutta schemescan
be found on calculators and in most common mathematical software packages such
as Mathematica, Mathcad, Maple, and Mant-as, or they may be programmed in more
traditional languages,such as FORTRAN, or into spreadsheets.This section reviews
the use of numerical methods for solving differential equations and then applies these
methods to the solution of severalvibration problems consideredin the previous sections.These techniques are then used in the following section to analyze the response
of nonlinear systems.Appendix F introduces the use of Mathematica, Mathcad, and
Mert-ae for numerical integration and plotting. Many modern curriculums introduce
these methods and codes early in the engineering curriculum, in which casethis section can be skipped, or used as a quick review
Sec.1.9
Numerical
Simulation
of theTimeResponse
57
:llm
A1+0
x(t,*r) * x(t,)
Lt
The concept of a numerical solution is easiestto grasp by first examining the numerical solution of a first-order scalar differential equation. To this end consider the
first-order differential eouation
*(t) : ax(t)
x(0) : xe
(r.7e)
The Euler method proceeds from the definition of the slope form of the derivative
given in Window 1.6,before the limit is taken:
xt+r - xi
:o*,
(1.80)
where rr denotes x(ti), xi+t denotes x(t,*r),and Ar indicates the time interval between
t, and t,*, (i.e., Ar : ti+t - r;). This expressioncan be manipulated to yield
xi+l : x, I
Ltlaxi)
(1.81)
This formula computes the discrete value of the response x,n, from the previous value
x;, the time step A/, and the system's parameter a.This numerical solution is called
58
Chap.1
an Euler or tangentline method.The following example illustrates the use of the Euler
formula for computing a solution using vtbl-Z.
Example1.9.1
-3x, t(0) = 1 for varUse the Euler formulato computethe numericalsolutionof i :
ious time incrementsin the time interval0 to 4, and comparethe resultsto the exact
solution.
Solution First,the exactsolutioncanbe obtainedby directintegrationor by assuming
a solutionof the form x(t) : Arxt.Substitutionof this assumedform into the equation
* : -3x yields , tr'er': -3Ae\', or \ = -3, so that the solution is of the form
x(,t) : 4r-zt.Applying the initial conditions;r(0) = 1 yieldsA : L.Hencethe analytical solutionis simplyx(t) : ,-' '
by equation
Next considera numericalsolutionusingthe Euler methodsuggested
3
,
s
o
t
h
a
t
x
;
n
i
:
+
A
/
(
3
x
;
)
.
S
u
p
p
o
sethatavery
l
r
(1.81).Inthiscasetheconstanta:
:
fiom
the
interval
over
is
formed
and
the
solution
(i.e.,
0.5)
Al
is
taken
step
crudetime
/ : 0 to r : 4.Then Table1.4illustratesthe valuesobtainedfrom equation(1.81):
xo:1
: -0.5
xr = ro + (o.s)(-3)(.ro)
:0.25
xz: -05 - (1.s)(-0.s)
forms the column marked "Euler." The column marked "exact" is the value of e-'' at
the indicated elapsedtin.refor a given index. Note that while the Euler approxlmate gets
close to the correct final value, the value oscillates around zero while the exact value
does not.This points out a possible source of error in a numerical solution. On the other
hand, if Ar is taken to be very small, the difference between the solution obtained by
Index
00
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Elapsed
time
0.5000
1.0000
1.5000
2.0000
2.5000
3.0000
3.5000
4.0000
Exact
1.0000
0.2231
0.0498
0.0111
0.0025
0.0006
0.0001
0.0000
0.0000
Euler
1.0000
-0.5000
0.2500
-0.1250
0.062s
-0.0312
0.0156
-0.0078
0.0039
Absolute
error
0
-0.7231
0.2002
-0.1361
0.0600
-0.0318
0.0155
-0.0078
0.0039
S E c1 . 9
59
A r : 0 . 1s
,Ar:0.5s
Time (s)
0.5
1.5
Figure1.37 Plotofx(1,)versust,fori:
.r(0) : 1.
2.s
3.5
-3rusingA/ - 0.linequation(1.81)with
60
Chap'1
are several) involve a weighted average of values of the right-hand side of the differential equation taken at different points between the time intervals /, and l' + A/.
The derivations of various Runge-Kutta formulas are tedious but straightforward
and are not presented here (see Boyce and DiPrima,1991). One useful formulation
c a n b e s t a t e d f o r t h e f i r s t - o r d e r p r o b l et :m f ( x , r ) , x ( 0 ) : x n , w h e r e / i s a n y s c a l a r
function (linear or nonlinear) as
xn+t:r,, *
(1.82)
where
k6 : f \x,,t,)
x(0) - x0,
t(0) : i0
(1'83)
the Euler method of equation (1.81) can be applied by writing this expression as two
first-order equations.To this end, divide equation (1.83)by the massm and define two
new variablesby x1 : x(t) and 12 : t(/).Then differentiatethe definition of 11(r),
rearrange equation (1.83), and replace x and its derivative with .rr and "t2to get
i1Q) : x2(t)
*r(r):-k*'U)-**'(t)
(1.84)
subject to the initial conditions r,(0) : ro and xz(O) : i6. The nvo coupled firstorder differential equations given in (1.8a) may be written as a single expression by
Sec.1.9
Numerical
of theTimeResponse
Simulation
6l
using a vector and matrix form determinedby first defining the vector 2 x 1 x(/)
and the 2 x 2matrix Aby
A:l
t ko c1l
-;) I
L-*
x(/) :
[;;[;]]
:
x(o)
[;;lS]]
(18s)
The matrix ,4 definedin this way is calledthe statematrix and the vectorx is called
the statevector.The position xt and the velocity x2 lre called the statevariables.
Using thesedefinitions(seeAppendix C), the rules of vector differentiation(element by element)andmultiplicationof a matrix timesa vector,equations(1.84)may
be written as
*(r) : Ax(t)
(1.86)
subject to the initial condition x(0). Now the Euler method of numerical solution
given in equation (1.81) can be applied directly to this vector-matrix formulation of
equation (1.86), by simply calling the scalar x, the vector x, and replacing the scalar
a with the matrix,4 to produce
*(r,*,):x(r,) + A,tAx(r,)
(1.87)
This, along with the initial condition x(0), defines the Euler formula for integrating
the general single-degree-of-freedomvibration problem described in equation (1.82)
for computing and plotting the time response.
As suggested,the Euler-formula method can be greatly improved by using a
Runge-Kutta program. For instance,Merree has two different Runge-Kutta-based
simuiations:ode23and ode45.Theseare automaticstep-sizeintegrationmethods (i.e.,
A/ is chosen automatically). The Engineering Vibration Toolbox has one fixed-step
Runge-Kutta-based method, vtbl_3, for comparison.The M-file ode23usesa simple
second-and third-order pair of formulas for medium accuracyand ode45usesa fourthand fifth-order pair for greater accuracy.Each of these corresponds to a formulation
similar to that expressedin equations (1.82) with more terms and a variable step size
Ar. In general, the Runge-Kutta simulations are of a higher quality than those obtained by the Euler method.
Example 1.9.2
Use the ode45functionto simulatethe responseto 3; + i + 2x : 0 subjectto the initial conditionsx(0) : 0, t(0) : 0.25over the time interval0 < t < 20.
Solution The first stepis to write the equationof motion in first-orderform.This yields
xt=
Next an M-file is created to store the equations of motion.An M-file is created by choosing a name, say sdof . m,and entering
62
Introduction
to Vibration
and the FreeResoonse
C h a p .1
^5
0.2
0.1
-.!_
0>,
E>
0
-0.1
*0.2
Ilme
Mathcad, and
S e c .1. 9
63
0.15
0.1
-0.1
Out[2]= -Craphics-
u
Example 1.9.4
SolveExample1.9.2usingthe Mathcadprogram.
Solution The Mathcadprogramusesa fixed time stepRunge-Kuttasolutionandreturns
the solution as a matrix with the first column consistingof the time step,the secondcolumn containingthe response,and the third column containingthe velocity response.
First type in the initial
condition vectoi-:
[01
L 0 . 2 Is
64
Introduction
to Vibration
andthe FreeResoonse
Then type in the systemin first-order
Chao.1
form:
r-l
,=t| Y_r+r,)_
D(t,y)
1r,_I)
L \3
S o l v eu s i n g Runge-Kutta:
Z := rkfixed(y,0,20,1000,D)
N a m et h e t i m e v e c t o r f r o m t h e R u n g e - K u t t am a t r i x s o l u t i o n :
+
.-
7<0>
N a m et h e d i s p l a c e m e n t v e c t o r f r o m t h e R u n g e - K u t t a m a t r i x s o l u t i o n :
x i= Z'1'
N a m et h e v e l o c i t y
v e c t o r f r o m t h e R u n g e - K u t t am a t r i x s o l u t i o n :
dxdt := Z'2'
d-xdt
D
The useof thesecomputationa!programsto simulatethe responseof a vibrating systemis fairly straightforward.
Further informationon usingeachof theseprogramscan be found in AppendixF or by consultingmanualsor any one of numerous
bookswritten on usingthesecodesto soivevariousmath and engineeringproblems.
You are encouragedto reproduceExample I.9.4 and then repeat the problem for
variousdifferentvaluesof the initial conditionsand coefficients.
In this way,you can
S:c.1.10
Coulomb
Friction
andthePendulum
65
build some intuition and understanding of vibration phenomena and how to design
a svstem to produce a desired response.
..10
C O U L O M BF R I C T I O N
A N D T H EP E N D U L U M
In the previoussections,all of the systemsconsideredare linear (oi linearized)and
havesolutionsthat can be obtainedby analyticalmeans.In this sectiontwo systems
are analyzedthat arenonlinearand do not havesimpleanalyticalsolutions.
The first
is a spring-masssystemwith slidingfriction (coulomb damping),and the secondis
the full nonlinearpendulumequation.In eachcasea solutionis obtainedby usingthe
numericalintegrationtechniques
introducedin Section1.9.Theabilityto computethe
solutionto generalnonlinearsystemsusingthesenumericaltechniquesallowsus to
considervibration under more sophisticated
effects.
Nonlinearvibrationproblemsare much more complexthan linear systems.
Their numericalsolutions,
however,are oftenfairly straightforward.
Severalnewphenomenaresultwhen nonlineartermsare considered.
Most notably,the ideaof a single equilibrium point of a linear systemis lost.In the caseof coulomb damping,a
continuousregion of equilibrium positionsexists.In the caseof the nonlinearpendulum,an infinite numberof equilibriumpointsresult.This singlefact greatlyComplicatesthe analysis,
measurement,
and designof vibratingsystems.
A commondampingmechanismoccurringin machinesis causedby slidingfriction or dry friction and is calledCoulombdamping.Coulombdampingis characterized bv the relation
f , : F , ( * 1:
{lJ;:3}
66
Chap. 1
TABLE1,5 APPROXIMATE
COEFFICIENTS
OF FRICTION
FORVARIOUSOBJECTSSLIDINGTOGETHER
Material
Kinetic
Static
0.07
0.2
0.3
1.0
0.09
0.25
0.75
F-
1an
r(r)
/.:
pN
: pmq
(b)
(4.)
Figure 1.40 Free-body diagram of the forces acting on the sliding block system of
Figure 1.39: (a) mass moving to the left (t < 0) (b) mass moving to the right
( i > 0 ) . F r o m t h e y d i r e c t i o n ,N - m g .
mIIkx:Wmg
for i<0
(1.88)
Here the sum of the forces in the vertical direction yields the fact that the normal
force ,4y'is just the weight, mg, where g is the accelerationdue to gravity (not the case
if rz is on an inclined plane). In a similar fashion, summing forces in part (b) of Figure 1.40yields
mi*kx:_pmg
for i>0
(1.8e)
Since the sign of i determines the direction in which the opposing frictional force acts,
equations (1.88) and (1.89) can be written as the single equation
mi * pmg sgn(i) + kx :0
(1.e0)
Sec.1.'10
67
x ( / ): , 4 1 c o s, o n*t B l s i n r o. r y/
(1.e1)
where .^ : f kJ^and A1 and 81 are constantsto be determined by the initial conditions. To that end, applying the initial conditions yields
Lmg
x ( 0 ): A ' + f = x s
i(0):onB1
(1,.92)
(1.e3)
:0
(1.91).Thus
constantsinequation
HenceBr : 0 andAy- -rs ILmglkspecifiesthe
as
it
moves
the
left,
to
(at
moves
and
rs)
rest
from
starts
the
mass
when
x\t):
/
\"0-
tt^g \
L /cos(l)nt
wmg
(1..e4)
This motion continuesuntil the first time *(t) :0. This happenswhen the derivative of equation(1.94)is zero,or when
t(/) :-'"('o
-"f)sinorn/1 :o
(1.es)
* B2sino,t
,r(t): A2cos.;.nt
ry
(1.e6)
for r f a, < t < /r, where /2is the secondtime that i becomeszero.T'heinitial conditionsfor equation(1.96)are calculatedfrom the previoussolutiongivenby equation (L.94)au1:
/n\
xl -l
\ o",/
: (ro*
flcosn
. / " r \ = -"(to
xt-l
\ to",/
flsint:
pmg
k
2wmg- X g
(r.e7)
(1.e8)
68
Introduction
to Vibrationand the FreeResponse
Chap.1
4pN\
- - l
KI
\'oo":(4#1)
/
- \/' Y o -
2pN\
t
/
xo -
3pmg
(1.ee)
Bz: 0
x ( r ):
3w*S \
\"-;/coso,r
p-g
*.,.il
Zn
(1.100)
This procedure is repeateduntil the motion stops.Themotion will stop when the velocity is zero (* : 0) and the spring force (ftr) is insufficient to overcome the maximum frictional force ( pmg ) . The responseis plotted in Figure 1.41,
Several things can be noted about the free responsewith Coulomb friction versus the free responsewith viscousdarnping.First, with Coulomb damping the amplitude decayslinearly with slope
2p"mga,
(1.101)
rather than exponentially as does a viscously damped system. Second, the motion
under Coulomb friction comes to a complete stop, at a potentially different equilibrium position than when initially at rest,whereasa viscorrslydamped system oscillutes
around a single equilibrium, r : 0, with infinitesimally small amplitude. Finally, the
frequency of oscillation of a system with coulomb damping is the same as the undamped frequency,whereas viscous damping alters the frequency of oscillation.
ExampleL.10.1
The responseof a massoscillatingon a surfaceis measuredto be of the form indicated
in Figure1.41.The initial positionis measuredto be 30 mm from its zerorest position,
and the final positionis measuredto be 3.5mm from its zero rest positionafter four
cyclesof oscillationin 1 s.Determinethe coefficientof friction.
10
69
andthePendulum
CoulombFriction
rad/s,sincefour cycleswere
Solution First the frequencyof motion ts 4 Hz, or 25.1"3
completedin 1,s.The slopeof the line of decreasingpeaksis
-{tt
1a
-26.5mm/s
T:
(:l.l0l).
Therefore.from expression
-2t"g
-2wg a:
-21"ry'8"
:
-26'5 mm/s
:
'
1tk
7t
a'.
T0"
Solvingfor p yields
n (25.13rud/ s)(-26.5mm/s)
(-2X9.81 x 103mm/s2)
= 0.107
is probablyverysmoothor lubricated
thatthesurface
Thissmallvaluefor p indicates
The responseof the systemof equation(1.90)can alsobe obtainedby the numericalintegrationtechniquesof the previoussection,which is substantiallyeasier
thanthe precedingconstructionof the solution.For example,vtbl-5 usesa fixed step
equationof moRunge-Kuttamethodto integrateequation(1.90).Thesecond-order
tion canbe reformulatedinto two first-orderequationssomewhatlike equation(1.86)
and integratedby the Euler method of equation (1.87),or standardRunge-Kutta
methodsmay be employedasdescribedin Appendix F.Figure1.42illustratesthe re-
Time (s)
Figure 1.42 Free response(displacementversustime) of a systemsubject to
coulomb friction with two differentinitial positions(5 m, solid line;and 4.5m, dashed
line) for zero initial velocity (m : 1000kg, p : 0.3,k : 5000N/m)'
Introduction
to Vibration
andtheFreeResponse
Chap.1
i ( r ) + f ( * @ . * ( r ) ): 0
(1.102)
(1.103)
This state space form of the equation is used both for numerical integration (as before for the Coulomb friction problem) as well as for formally defining an equilibrium position by defining the state vector, x, used in equation (1.86) and a nonlinear
vector function, F as
F: I xzu)
,l
L-I\xr, xz))
(1.104)
( 1.10s)
F(x"): o
(1.106)
Sec.1.10
71
andthePendulum
Friction
Coulomb
by
For the Coulombfriction case,the solutionto this expressionis a regiondefined
xz:0
- wmg
k:<xt<
wmg
k
xz
*r:
x t ( B z x -l t )
correspondto
Solution Theseequationsrepresentthe vibrationof a "soft spring"and
= x - x' f6'
1.4.2'wheresinx
of
Example
an approximationoithe pendutumproblem
The equationsfor the equilibrium position are
xz: 0
t , ( 9 ' * ? - 1 ): o
to the three
There are three solutionsto this set of algebraicequations,corresponding
equilibrium positionsof the soft spring'They are
l-,1-l
t-+l
*"= tol
Lol Lol'L o-l
!
in
The next exampleconsidersthe full nonlinearpendulumequationillustrated
point
pivot
its
Figure 1.43.physicaliythe pendulummay swingall the way around
Unstable
equilibrium
l 6 + 4| s i n o = o
i
lStable
| equilibrium
,--)
l__--/
t^
= 1T.Jlr, )rr.
i xl
tx2:v
(a)
(b)
(c)
to Vibration
andthe FreeResponse
lntroduction
72
Chap.'l
and has equiiibrium positions in both the straight-up and straight-down positions as
i l l u s t r a t e di n F i g u r e 1 . 4 3 ( b )a n d 1 . 4 3 ( c ) .
Example1.L0.3
Calculatethe equilibriumpositionsof the pendulumof Figure1.43.
form is givenby
Solution The pendulumequationin state-space
xt: rz
.6,/\
xz: -
7sm\jr1l
Sec.1.10
Example1.10.4
Comparethe responses
of the nonlinbarand linear pendulumequationsusingnumericalintegrationandthe value(gl {) : (0.1)'z,
for (a) the initialconditionsxo = 0.1rad and
oo : 0.1radT's,
and(b) the initial conditionsx0 : 1 rad and oo = L rad/s,by plottingthe
responses.
Here x and r,'are usedto denote0 and its derivative,respectively,
in order to
accommodatenotationavailablein computercodes.
Solution Dependingon which programis usedto integratethe solutionnumerically,
the equationsmustfirst be put into first-orderform andthen eitherEuler integrationor
Runge-Kutta routine may be irrrplementedand the solutionsplotted.Integrationsin
MerLee, Mathematica,and Mathcadare presented.More detailscan be found in Appendix F. Note that the responseto the linear systemis fairly closeto that of the full
nonlinearsystemin case(a) with slightlydifferentfrequency,
while case(b) with larger
initial conditionsis drasticallydifferent.The Mathcadsolutionfollows.
Finst enter the initial
ve:= 0.1
c o n d i t . i o n sf o r e a c h r e s p o n s e :
xo:= 0.1
v1o:= 0.1-
v1o:= 0.1
N e x t d e f i n e t h e f i ' e q u e n c ya n d t h e n u m b e ro f a n d s i z e o f t h e t i m e s t e p s :
o:=
0.1
N := 2000
i:=0..N
.
6'n
ot=r+
f * 1 , , r 1 .' -_ t
L v 1 , - ,I
v 1 ; . A + x 1 -I1
L - . t ( A ) . x 1 r+ v 1 1 J
74
Introduction
to Vibrationand the FreeResoonse
Here the da
s o ' lu t i o n s a
equilibrium
ne i s t h e l i n e a r s o l u t i o n . N e x t c o m p u t et h e s e
ing initial
conditions close to unstable
[''.'-]
Lvr+r l
Chao.1
v6 := 0.1
A+x1
s i n ( x i )' A + v 1 _ l
x1s := T
vlo
[xr1+rl
f v l 1+ 1 J
:=
._t
'-
0.t"
v 1 -.iA + x l 1
I
.
. x 1 r+ v 1 1I
L-(,)- ( A )
|
Xt
Iir
The Marlen code for running the solutions (using Runge-Kutta this time) and plotting
is obtained by first creating the appropriate M-files (named 1 i n*pend-dot. m and
NL-pend-dot. m,defining the linear and nonlinear pendulum equations, respectively):
function xdot = lin_pend_dot(t,x)
n / od e f i n e t h e n a t u r a l f n e q u e n c y
omega= 0.1;
xdot(1,1) = x(2);
x d o t ( 2 , 1 ) = - o m e g a , r 2 * x ( 1 ;)
function xdot = NL_pend_dot(t,x)
o m e g a= 0 . 1 ;
% define the natural frequency
xdot(1,1) = x(2);
x d o t ( 2 , 1 ) = - o m e 9 a , r 2 * s i n ( x ( 1 );)
In the command mode type the following:
'linear
% Overplot
& non'linear simulations of the free
% response of a pendulum.
x0 = 0.1; v0 = 0.1;
ti = 0;
tf = 200;
%
.l
i near
ltime-lin,sol-lin]=eis451'1in-pend-dot',
% nonl i near
[ t ' i m e - N L , s o l - N L ] = o d e 4 5 ( ' N L - p e n d - d o t[' t, i
[ti
Sec.1.'l0
...
Here the plots have been suppressedas they are similar to those from the Mathcad solution. Next consider the Mathematica code to solve the same problem.
First we load the Add-on package that will enable us to add a legend to our plot.
In [55] := <<Graphics' Legend'
Define the natural circular frequency, tr
.
In[3] := o=0.1;
The following cell solves the linear differential equation, then the non-lir.reardif'
ferential equation and then produces a plot containing both responses.
I n t 8 5 l : = x l i n = N D S ov' le [ { x ] " t t l + t o 2 " " x l[ t ] = = 9 , x 1 [ 0 ] = = . 1 , x ' l ' [ 0 ] = = ' 1 ] '
xl [t] , {t,0, 200}l
x n o n l i n = N D S o l v e [ { x n ] " [ t ] + r o z ' r $ - i n t x n l [ t ] l = = 0 , x n 1[ 0 ] = = . 1 , x n l ' [ 0 1 = = ' 1 1 '
xnl [t] , {t,0, 200}l
P'lot[{Evaluate[xl [t]/.xl inl , Eva'luatelxnl [t],/.xnon] inl] ' {t'0'200},
P l o t S t y ' l e - + D a s h in g [ { } ] , D a s h i n g [ { . 0 1 , . 0 I } ] , P l o t l a b e l - - +" L i n e a r a n d
Nonlinear Response, Stable Equ'ilibrium"'
A x e s L a b e l - + { " t i m e , s " , " " } , P l o t L e g e n d - - +{ " L i n e a r " , " N o n -L i n e a r " } ,
L e g e n d P o s ' i t i o n - - +{ 1 , 0 } , L e g e n d S i z e - +{ . 7 , . 3 } l ;
O u t [ 8 5 ] = { { x l i t J - - +I n t e r p o l a t ' i n g F u n c t io n [ { { 0 . , 2 0 0 .} } , + ] t t l } }
O u t [ 8 6 ] = { { x n ] [ t ] - + I n t e n p o l a t i n g F u n c t io n t { { 0 . , 2 0 0 . } i , < > l [ t ] ] ]
StableEquilibrium
Linear and NonlinearResponse,
Linear
Non-Linear
76
Introduction
to Vibrationand the FreeResponse
Chao.1
40
Linear
-'-----'
Nonlinear
time,s
Note from the plots in Example 1.10.4that even in the casewhere the initial conditions are small, the linear responseis not exactly the same as the full nonlinear system response. Ilowever, if the initial velocity is changed to zero, the solutions are
very similar. This is illustrated in Figure 1.44.
In summary, nonlinear systemshave severalinteresting aspectsthat linear systems do not. In particular, nonlinear systemshave multiple equilibrium positions
rather than just one, as in the linear case.Some of these extra equilibrium points may
be unstable and some stable.The stability of a response depends on the initial conditions, which can send the solution to different equilibrium positions and hence different types of response.Thus the behavior of the response depends on the initial
conditions, not just the parameters and form of the equation, as is the casefor the linear system.This is illustrated in Example 1.10.4.
Even though the responseof a nonlinear systemis much more complicated and
closed-form analytical solutions are not always available,the responsecan be simulated using numerical integration. In modeling real systems,the nonlinearity is always present. Whether or not it is important to include the nonlinear part of the
77
Problems
Y.
x1,
-0.1
-0.2
Figure 1.44 The response of both the linear (dashed line) and nonlinear system
(solid line) of Example 1.10.4with the initial velocities set to zero'
modelin computingthe responsedependson the initial conditions.If the initial conditions are suchthat the system'snonlinearitycomesinto play,then thesetermsshould
Somewhatthe same
be included.Otherwisea linearresponseis perfectlyacceptable.
can be said for includingdampingin a systemmodel.Which effectsto include and
which not to includewhen modelingand analyzingavibrating systemform one of the
important aspectsof engineeringpractice.
PROB LEMS
Thoseproblemsmarkedwith an asteriskareintendedto be solvedusingcomputationalsoftware or the Merlan Toolbox.
Section1.1
loadedwith massand the corresponding(static)
1.1. The springof Figure1.2is successively
displacementis recordedas follows.Plot the data and calculatethe spring'sstiffness.
Note that the datacontainsomeerror.Also calculatethe standarddeviation.
m(kd
10
1.1
12
L3
14
15
16
x(m)
1..I4
1.25
I.37
i.48
1.59
I.7r
I.82
L.2. Derive the solution of mi * kx : 0 and plot the result for at leasttwo periods for the
casewith @n: 2rad/s, xs : 1 mm, and oe : \6 m-/s.
1.3. Solvemi * kx : 0fork : 4Nlm,m : 1kg,x6: 1 mm,andoo: 0.Plotthesolution.
1.4. The amplitudeof vibrationof an undampedsystemis measuredto be 1 mm.The phase
shift from r : 0 is measuredtobe? rad and the frequencyis found to be 5 rad/s.Calculate the initial conditionsthat causedthis vibration to occur.
78
Introduction
to Vibrationand the FreeResponse
Chap.1
1.5. An undampedsystemvibrateswith a frequencyof 10 Hz and amplitude1 mm. Calculate the maximumamplitudeof the system'svelocityand acceleration.
L.6. Showby calculationthat -4sin(<,.r,t
+ $) can be represented
as -Bsinco,r* Ccosto,t
and calctilateC and B in terms of A and S.
L.7. Using the solutionof equation(1.2)in the form
x ( t ) : B s i n r o n*/ C c o s o , /
calculatethe valuesof B and C in termsof the initial conditionsrs and o6.
1.8' Using Figure 1.6,verify that equation(1.10)satisfiesthe initial-velocitycondition.
1.9. (a) A 0.5-kgmassis attachedto a linearspringof stiffness0.1N/m. Determinethe natural frequencyof the systemin hertz.(b) Repeatthis calculationfor a massof 50 kg and
a stiffnessof 10 N/m and compareyour resultto that of part (a).
1.10. Derive the solutionof the single-degree-of-freedom
systemof Egure 1.4by writing Newton's law,ma : -kx,in differentialform usinga dx = u du andintegratingtwice.
1.11. Determinethe naturalfrequencyof the two systemsillustratedin FigureP1.11.
(b)
(a)
FigureP1.11
* 1 . 1 2 .P l o t t h e s o l u t i o n g i v e n b y e q u a t i o n ( 1 . 1 0 ) f o r t h e c=a s1e0k0 0 N / ma n d m : 1 0 k g f o r
two completeperiodsfor eachof the following setsof initial conditions:(a) xo : 0,
'u6: 1 m/q(b) to = 0.01m,uo = 0,and(c) ro : 0.01m,tre: 1 m/s.
*1.13. Make a three-dimensional
surfaceplot of the amplitudeA of an undampedoscillator
given by equation (1.9) versusx0 and or for the rangeof initial conditionsgiven by
-1 < rn < 0.1mand-1 < ?.)0
< 1m/sforasystemwithnaturalfrequencyof
10rad/s.
1.14. Use a free-bodydiagramof the pendulumof Window 1.1and derive the equationof
motion givenin the windowby usingthe approximationsin(0) : 0 for small0.
1,.15. A pendulum haslength of 250 mm.What is the system'snatural frequency inHertz?
1.16. The pendulumin Window 1.1is requiredto oscillateonceeverysecond.What length
shouldit be?
L.17. The approximationof sin0 : 0 is reasonable
for 0 lessthan10'.If a pendulumof length
0.5m hasan initial positionof 0(0) : 0, what is the maximumvalueof the initial angular velocity that can be given to the pendulumwithout violatingthis small-angleapproximation?(Be sureto work in radians.)
Section 1.2
*1.1.8.Plotthesolutionofalinearspring-masssystemwithfrequencycon
= 2radfs,xo: 1mm,
and oo : 2.34mm/s,for at leasttwo periods.
Chap.1
Problems
79
80
Chap.1
L.34. Calculatethe constantsa1and a2in termsof the initial conditionsancithusverify equation (1.46)for the criticallydamDedcase.
1.35. Using the definitionof the dampingratio and the undampednaturalfrequency,derive
equation(1.48)from (1.47).
1.36. For a dampedsystem,m,c,andt areknowntobe nr = 1 kg,c : Zkg/s,k = 10N/m.
or critically
underdamped,
Is the systemoverdamped,
Calculatethe valuesof ( andcu,,.
damped?
*1.37. Plot x(r) for a dampedsystemof naturalfrequencyan = 2 rad/s and initial conditions
xo : 1 mm, : 0, for the followingvaluesof the dampingratio:( : 0.01,( : 0.2,
( : 0 . 6 , ( : "o
0 . 1 , L- 0 . 4 , a n d (: 9 . 3 .
*1.38. Plot the responsex(r) of an underdamped
andoo : 0
systemwith <,r
, : 2radf s'( : 0.1",
:
:
:
mm, and
10
5
mm,
ro
mm,
xs
xs
L
displacements:
initial
for the following
xo : 100mm'
landus:0forx(t)andsketchtheresPonse.
1 . 3 9 .S o l v ei - i + x : 0 w i t h x 6 :
systemhasmassof 100kg, stiffnessof 3000N/m, and damping
1.40. A spring-mass-damper
coefficientof 300kg/s.Calculatethe undampednaturalfrequenry,the dampingratio,and
Does the solutionoscillate?
the dampednaturalfrequency.
systemhasmassof 150kg, stiffnessof 1500N/m and damping
L.41. A spring-mass-damper
coefficientof 200 kg/s. Calculatethe undampednaturalfrequency,the dampingratio
Is the systemoverdamped,underdamped,or critically
and the dampednatural freqrrency.
damped?Does the solutionosciilate?
*1.42. "the systemof Problem 1.40is given a zero initial velocityand an initial displacement
of 0.1 m. Calculatethe form of the responseand plot it for as long as it takes to die
out.
*L.43. The systemof Problem 1.41is given an initial velocityof 10 mm/s and an initial displacementof -5 mm.Calculatethe form of the responseandplot it for aslong asit takes
to die out. FIow long doesit take to die out?
*1.44. Choosethe dampingcoefficientof a spring-mass-damper
systemwith massof 150kg
and stiffnessof 2000N/m suchthat its responsewill die out after about2 s,givena zero
initial positionand an initial velocityof 10 mm/s.
1.45. Derive the equationof motion of the systemin FigureP1.45and discussthe effectof gravity on the naturalfrequencyand the dampingratio.
t,
FigureP1'45
1.46. Derive the equationof motion of the systemin FigureP1.46and discussthe effectof gravity on the natural frequencyand the dampingratio.You may haveto make someapproximationsof the cosine.Assumethe bearingsprovidea viscousdampingforce only
/-hrn
Problems
8l
in the vertical direction. (From A Diaz-Jimenez, South African M echanical Engine er,
Yol. 26, pp. 65-69, I97 6.)
FigureP1.46
Section1.4
1.47. Calculatethe frequencyof the compoundpendulumof Figure 1.19(b)if a massm. is
addedto the tip, by usingthe energymethod.
1.48. Calculatethe total energyin a dampedsystemwith frequency2 rad/s anddampingratio
( : 0.01with mass10kg for the case"r0= 0.1andoo : 0.Plot the total energyversustime.
1.49. Use the energymethodto calculatethe equationof motion and naturalfrequencyof an
airplane'ssteering-gear
mechanismfor the nosewheelof its landinggear.The mechanism is modeledasthe single-degree-of-freedom
systemillustratedin FigureP1.49.
(Steering wheel)
(Tire-wheel
assembly)
FigureP1.49 Single-degree-of-freedom
modelof a steeringmechanism.
The steering-wheel and tire assembly are modeled as being fixed at ground for this
calculation. The steering-rod gear system is modeled as a linear spring-and-masssystem
(^, kt) oscillating in the -r direction. The shaft-gear mechanism is modeled as the disk
of inertia .I and torsional stiffnessk1.The gear / turns through the angle 0 such that the
disk does not slip on the mass.Obtain an equation in the linear motion.r.
82
Chap. 1
system
1.50. A control pedal of an aircraftcan be modeledas the single-degree-of-freedom
shaftand the pedalas a lumpedmass
of FigureP1.50.Considerthe leveras a massless
at the end of the shaft.Use the energymethodto determinethe equationof motion in
Assumethe springto be unstretched
0 andcalculatethe naturalfrequencyof the system.
atO:0.
Large pipe
Tiuck bed
(u)
Figure P1.51
pipe.
(b)
(a) Pipes stacked in a truck bed. (b) Vibration model of the inside
1.52. Considerthe exampleof a simplependulumgivenin Examplel.4.Z.Thependulummotion is observedto decaywith a dampingratio of ( : 0.001.Determinea dampingcoefficientand add a viscousdampingterm to the pendulumequation.
Llh:n
Problems
83
Figure P1.63
84
Chap' 1
Figure P1.64
(E : 2 x 1011N/m2) and sizes the
1.65. A manufacturer makes a leaf spring from a steel
Later, to save weight, the spring is
frequency.
.p""iti.
u
has
the
device
spring so that
'7.L
x ttito N7m2).assuming that the massoJ the spring is much
made of aluminum (E :
if the frequency insmaller then that oi th" device the spring is attached to, determine
creasesor ciecteasesand by how much'
Section 7.6
1.66. Show that the logarithmic decremetrt is equal to
a:Ltn!
fr
xn
^2n
Problems
85
Section7.9
*1.83. ReproduceFigure1.37for the varioustime stepsindicated.
*1.84. use numerical integrationto solvethe system
of Example 1.7.3with m : 1.36rkg,
k : 2-688x 105N/m, c : 3.81 x 103kgls subjectto th; initial conditionsx(0) = b
and o(0) : 0.01m/s. Compareyour resultusingnumericalintegrationto just plotting
the analyticalsolution (usingthe appropriateformula from Section1.3)by plotting both
on the samegraph.
*1.85. Consideragainthe dampedsystemof Problem
1.84and designa dampersuchthat the
oscillationdiesout after 2 seconds.
There are at leasttwo waysto do this.Here it is intendedto solvefor the responsenumerically,following Examples!.9.2,1.9.3,or 1.9.4,
usingdifferentvaluesof the dampingparameterc until the desiredresponseis achieved.
*L.86. Consideragainthe dampedsystemof Example7.9.2
anddesigna dampersuchthat the
oscillation dies out after 25 seconds.There are at least two ways to do this. Here it is
86
Chap.1
followingExamplest.9.2'1'.9.3,ot1.9.4,
intendedto solvefor the responsenumerically,
is achieved.Is
usingdifferentvaluesof the dampingparameterc until the desiredresponse
or criticallydamped?
underdamped,
your resultoverdamped,
*1.87. RepeatProblem1.85for the initial conditions'r(0) : 0.1m and ?r(0): 0.01mm/s'
*1.88. A springand damperare attachedto a massof 100kg in the arrangementgivenin Figure L.9.Thesystemis giventhe initial conditionsx(0) : 0.1m and?r(0)= 1 mm/s.Designthe springand damper(i.e.,chooseft and c) suchthat the systemwill cometc rest
Tiy to keep c as small as
in 2 secondsand not oscillatemore than two completecycles.
possible.Also compute(.
*1.89. RepeatExampleI.7.lby usingthe numericalapproachof the previousfive problems.
*1.90. RepeatExample1.7.1for the initial conditionsx(0) : 0.01m and r;(0) = I mm/s.
Sectionl.I0
1.91. A 2-kg massconnectedto a springof stiffness103N/m hasa dry-slidingfriction force
20 cm in 15 cycles.How long
(,f'r) of f N.As the massoscillates,
its amplitudedecreases
doesthis take?
x 103N/mwithafriction
m:Skgandk:9
1 . 9 2 . C o n s i d e r t h e s y s t e mFoifg u r e l . 4 0 w i t h
force of magnitude6 N. If the initial amplitudeis 4 cm, determinethe amplitudeone
cyclelater aswell as the dampedfrequency.
*1.93. Compute and plot the responseof the systemof Figure P1.93for the casewhere
t o = 0 . 1r l , o 0 : 0 . 1m / s ,$ : 0 . 0 5 , m : 2 5 0 k g , 0 : Z } " , a n d f t = 3 0 0 0 N / m ' H o w l o n g
doesit take for the vibrationto die out?
FigureP1.93
Chap.1
87
Problems
Fluid
ffi
kt2
AAf,\AA
vv\y\yv\v
kt2
FigureP1.95
*1.96. ConsiderthesystemofProbleml.g5(a)andcomputeanewdampingccefficient,c,that
will causethe vibrationto die out after one oscillation.
L.97. Computethe equilibriumpositionsof i + 62,,x* $x2 : 0. How many are there?
1.98. Computethe equilibriumpositionsof i + (t)2,r- Fzxt + 1x5 = 0.How many are there?
*1.99. Considerthe pendulumof Example1.10.3with a lengthof i. m and initial conditionsof
0o: rll1rad and do = 0. Comparethe differencebetweenthe responseof the linear
versionof the pendulumequation[i.e.,with sin(0) : 0] and the responseof the nonlinear
versionof the pendulumequationby plottingthe responseof both for four periods'
*1.100.RepeatProblem1.99if the initial displacementis 8s : T f 2 rad.
1.101..If the pendulumof Example1.10.3is givenan initial conditionnearthe equilibriumposition of 0o = n rad and d o : 0 doesit oscillatearoundthis equilibrium?
*1.102. Calculate the responseof the systemof Problem 1.98 for the initial conditions of
= g'
xo : 0.0LfiI,oo : 0 m/s,and a naturalfrequencyof 3 rad/s and for F : fOO,l
= 0)
*1.103.RepeatProblem1.L02andplottheresponseofthelinearversionofthesystem(p
versions
nonlinear
on the sameplot to comparethe differencebetweenthe linear and
of this equationof motion.
M n r L n g @E N G I N E E R I N G V I B R A T I O N T O O L B O X
Dr. JosephC. Slater of Wright State Llniversityhas authored a Mnrlas Toolbox
keyed to this text.The EngineeringVibrationToolbox(EVT) is organizedby chapter and may be usedto solvethe ToolboxProblemsfound at the end of eachchapter. In addition,the EVT may be usedto solvethosehomeworkproblemssuggested
for computerusagein Sections1.9and 1.L0,ratherthan usingM.cTI-aedirectly.MarLABand the EVT are interactiveand are intendedto assistin analysis,parametric
studiesand design,as well as in solvinghomeworkproblems.The EngineeringVibrationToolbox is licensedfree of chargefor educationaluse.For professionaluse,
usersshouldcontactthe EngineeringVibrationToolbox author directly.
The EVT is updatedand improvedregularlyand can be downloadedfor free.
To download,update,or obtain informationon usageor current revision,go to the
EngineeringVibration Toolboxhomepageat
edu/-vtoolbox
http://www.cs.wright.
earlier versionsof Menan, aswell
run
on
This siteincludeslinks to editionsthat
who use the EVT is maininstructors
as the most recentversion.An e-mail list of
updates.The EVT is delatest
tained so userscanreceivee-mailnotificationof the
(including
MacintoshandVMS)
signedto run on any platform supportedby Merlen
versionof Merthe
current
with
and is regularlyupdatedto maintaincompatibility
home page as
the
on
LAB.A brief introduction to Merles and UNIX is available
after
vtoolbox
help
type
to get startedand
well. Pleaseread the file Readme.txt
88
Chap' 1
curinstallation to obtain an overview. Once installed, typing vtbud will display the
revithe
current
download
to
and
attempt
your
installation
of
status
rent revision
sion status from the anonymous FTP site. Updates can then be downloaded
incrementally as desired. Please seeAppendix G for further information.
TOOLBOX PROBLEMS
: 1 mm] the values
T81.1. Fix [your choiceor usethe valuesfrom Example1.3.1with x(0)
of the initial veof
values
range
for
a
x(t)
plot
the
responses
and
.r(0)
c,k,
and
of m,
locity i(0) to seehow the responsedependson the initial velocity.Rememberto use
numberswith consistentunits.
x(l) for a range
TBl.2. Usingthe valuesfrom ProblemTBi..1andi(0) : 0, plot the response
ofvalues ofx(0) to seehow the responsedependson the initial displacement'
TB1.3. ReproduceFigures1.10,1'11,andl'.72.
. T81.4. ConsidersolvingProblemL.32andcomparethe time for eachresponseto reachand
staybelow0.01mm.
T81.5. SolveProblems1.88,1.89,and 1.90usingthe Engineeringvibration Toolbox.
T8,1.6. SolveProblems1.93,1.94,and 1.95usingthe EngineeringVibrationToolbox.
Response
to Hormonic
Excitotion
Thlschcpter focuseson the most
fundomentolconcept in vibroiion
onolysis,
Thisconcept isthot of
resononce.
Resoncnceoccurswhen
o periodicexternolforceisopplied
to o systemhovingo nolurol
frequencyequol to tfre driving
frequency.
Thisoflen hcppenswhen
the excitoiionforce isderivedfrom
some rototingpcrt sucl-ros the
helicopiershovyn
on the top left.The
rototingblode couseso hormonic
force to be opplied to the body of
the helicopter.
lf the frequencyof
the blode rotction correspondsto
the noturolfrequencyof the body,
resononcewilloccur os describedin
section2,L Resononcewillccuse
lorgedeflectionswhich moy exceed
the elosiiclimitsond cousethe
structureto foil,An exomplefomilior
to mostisthe resononcecousedby
on out of boloncetireon o cor
(bottom photo).Thespeed of tire
rotctionconespondsto the driving
frequency.
At o certoinspeed,the
out-of-boloncetire couses
resononce,
which mcy be felt os
shckingof the steering-wheel
column.lf ihe cor isdrivenslower,
or
foster,the frequencymovesowoy
fromthe resoncnceconditionof ihe
drivingfrequencybeingexocfly
equolto the noturolfrequencvond
the shokingslops.
89