(Edu - Joshuatly.com) Pahang STPM Trial 2011 Biology Paper 2 (W Ans)

PEPERIKSAAN PERCUBAAN
SIJIL TINGGI PERSEKOLAHAN MALAYSIA

NEGERI PAHANG DARUL MAKMUR
2011
BIOLOGY
PAPER 2
Two and a half hours
Instructions to candidates
DO NOT OPEN THIS QUESTION PAPER UNTIL
YOU ARE TOLD TO DO SO
For examiners use

Section A
1
Answer all questions in section A. Write your answers

in the spaces provided.
Answer any four questions in section B. Write you

answers on answer sheets provided.Begin each answer
on a fresh sheet of paper and arrange your answers in
numerical order.
Tie your answer sheets to this question paper.
3
4
5
Answers should be illustrated by large and clearly

labelled diagrams wherever suitable.
Section B
6
7
8
9
10
Total
This question paper consists of 12 printed pages .
964/2
* This question paper is confidential until the examination is over.
http://edu.joshuatly.com/
[Turn over
CONFIDENTIAL*
CONFIDENTIAL*
2
Section A [40 marks]
Answer all the questions in this section.
1 During research into the mechanism of DNA replication, bacteria were grown for
many generations in a medium containing only heavy isotop of nitrogen, 15N. This
resulted in all the DNA molecules containing only 15N.This is illustrated in Fig 1.1.
Fig 1.1
These bacteria were then grown in a medium containing only light nitrogen, 14N. After
the time taken for the DNA to replicate once, the DNA was analysed.The results are
shown in Fig 1.2
Fig 1.2
(a) Explain how these data support the semi-conservative hypothesis of DNA
replication.
...
[ 3 marks ]
964/2
This question paper is CONFIDENTIAL until the examination is over.
CONFIDENTIAL*
The bacteria continued to grow in the lightnitrogen, 14N, medium until the DNA had
replicate once more. The DNA molecules were analysed.
The result are shown in Fig 1.3.
Fig 1.3
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CONFIDENTIAL*
Fig 1.4 shows simple diagrams of DNA molecules,including the nitrogen content of
each.
Fig 1.4
(b) With reference to Fig 1.4,select the letter or letters which best represent the
bacterial DNA in Fig 1.1, Fig 1.2 and Fig 1.3
Fig 1.1.
Fig 1.2
Fig 1.3.
[ 3 marks ]
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CONFIDENTIAL*
The bacteria continued to grow in the lightnitrogen , 14N, medium until the DNA had
replicated once more. The DNA molecules were analysed
(c) Complete the bar chart below to indicate the expected results of the composition of
these DNA molecules
[ 3 marks ]
(d) Name the enzyme mainly responsible for the synthesis of a new strand of DNA.
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[ 1 mark ]
CONFIDENTIAL*
2 Figure 2.1 shows the possible pathways taken by water across the root of a plant.
Fig 2.1
(a) Name cell Q.
..
[ 1 mark ]
(b) Using only the information in the diagram,explain how cell Q is adapted for its
function.
..
[ 1 mark ]
(c) Name the process by which water enters cell Q from the soil.
..
[ 1 mark ]
(d) How could nitrate ions enter the root if the concentration of nitrate ions outside the
plant is less than the concentration inside cell Q?
..
[ 1 mark]
(e) Pathway 1 is known as the vascular pathway,as the water passes into and through
the cell vacuoles.Name pathway 2 and pathway 3
Pathway 2.
Pathway 3.
[ 2 marks]
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CONFIDENTIAL*
(f) What makes up the Casparian strip in cell type S and what is its function in water
transport ?
.
[2 marks]
(g) Describe two ways in which xylem vessels are adapted for their function
of water transport.
[2 marks ]
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CONFIDENTIAL*
3 In the banded snail (Cepaea nemoralis) the colour of the shell is either yellow
(appearing green with the live snail inside) or pink. In a sample of 300 snails from a
population in an area of sand dune near Magilligan strand, 192 had yellow shells.
The colour of the shell is genetically determined and pink is the expression of the
dominant allele.
(a) Calculate the proportion of the population that have yellow shells.
.
[1 mark ]
(b) Assuming the population to be in HardyWeinberg equilibrium for shell colour,
calculate the relative frequencies of the yellow and pink alleles, and the number in
the sample of 300 that might be expected to be heterozygous. (Show your working
in the space below.)
Relative frequency of the yellow allele .

Relative frequency of the pink allele
Number of heterozygous snails in the sample ..
[3 marks ]
(c)These snails are predated by song thrushes. The thrush, having captured a snail,
breaks open the shell by hammering it against a stone, so that examination of the
shells found at these anvil sites reveals the frequencies of the forms predated. Of
35 shells found at such sites, 28 were yellow.
(i) Calculate the proportion of the predated snails that have yellow shells.
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[1 mark]
CONFIDENTIAL*
(ii) Given this information about predation, can it be assumed that the population is in
HardyWeinberg equilibrium with respect to the shell colour? Explain your answer.
[ 2 marks ]
(d) Other studies have suggested that predators tend to take proportionally more of the
more common forms when faced with the choice of prey. Suggest how such
predation would maintain both forms (for example yellow and pink snails) in a
polymorphic population.
.
[ 3 marks]
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CONFIDENTIAL*
10
4 The following diagram is a simplified representation of a technique used in genetic

engineering .
(a) Give the name of

Enzyme A :.
Enzyme B : .
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[ 2 marks ]
CONFIDENTIAL*
11
(b) Suggest why the same enxyme ( enzyme A) is used to cut both the vector DNA and
the chromosomal DNA fragment .
.....
.....
.
[ 2 marks ]
(c) What is the function of enzyme B ?
.....
[ 1 mark]
(d) What name is normally given to the molecule C ?
.
[ 1 mark]
(e) Describe two ways in which the chromosomal DNA fragment can be obtained .
.....
.....
.....
.....
[ 2 marks]
(f) What can be added to molecule C to aid in selection and identification of the cells
that have successfully taken up the fragment?
.....
[ 1 mark]
(g) Suggest a possible medical use for this technology
.....
[ 1 mark]
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CONFIDENTIAL*
12
Section B [60 marks]
Answer any four questions in this section
5 (a) Describe the structure of the cell membrane and state the functions of the
component parts.
[9 marks]
(b) Write an account outlining the similarities and differences in the way that
mitochondria and chloroplasts generate a proton gradient and synthesis ATP.
[6 marks ]
6 (a) Plants are a diverse group of eukaryotic organisms. Describe the different
characteristics of the Bryophyta, Filicinophyta, Coniferophyta and
Angiospermophyta.
[ 8 marks ]
(b) With the aid of a diagram, explain fully the function of the loop of Henle and the
collecting duct in osmoregulation by the kidney.
[ 7 marks]
7
Describe the sequence of events which occurs as an impulse is

propagated along an axon and is subsequently transmitted across a synapse.
[15 marks]
Describe how the human body defends itself against infection with reference to
both humoral and cell mediated responses.
[15 marks ]
9 (a) Describe the development of the mammalian embryo from the zygote stage to
the formation of the extra embryonic membranes.State the functions of these
membranes
[ 9 marks ]
(b) Describe the role of hormones in ecdysis and metamorphosis in insects.
[ 6 marks ]
10 (a) Describe the energy transfer from the sun to producers
through the trophic levels.
[11 marks ]
(b) Describe and explain the shape of a bacterial population growth curve.
[4 marks]
964/2
PEPERIKSAAN PERCUBAAN
SIJIL TINGGI PERSEKOLAHAN MALAYSIA
NEGERI PAHANG DARUL MAKMUR
BIOLOGY
2011
MARKING SCHEME
PAPER TWO
2
Section A
Q1
(a)
1) 1 template/original/old, and 1 new ;
2) Complementary base pairing;
3) 2 isotopes in molecules;
4) half/1(original) strand with , heavy N/ 15N;
5) half/1(new) strand with ,light N/ 14N;
6) no molecules with only 1 isotope;
* any 3
1
1
1
1
1
1
max=3
1
1
1
(b)A;
C;
B and C;
(c) Bar drawn in 14N column and 14N/15N column;
75% for 14N ;
25% for 14N/15N;
(d) DNA polymerase
1
1
1
1
total =10
3
Q2
a) Root hair(cell)
b) Large /increase surface area
1
1
c) Osmosis
d) Active transport/uptake
(not: facilitated diffusion)
e)
2= symplast(pathway) / symplastic
3 = apoplast (pathway)/ apoplastic
f)
Contains waterproof material (suberin)/makes cell wall impervious

to water;
1) Diverts water from apoplast route to symplast route/
2) Offers plant some control over what enters pericycle/
3) Forces water to pass through semi-permeable membrane;
*any one
(g) i) Hollow lumen with no living cytoplasm reduces resistance to

water movement/
ii) Lignified walls prevent collapse/
iii) Small lumen to enhance capillarity
iv) Pits to allow lateral movement of water;
*any two
1+1
1
1
total = 10
Q3
(a) (i) 192 300 = 0.64 (64%);
(b) Relative frequency of the yellow allele (q) = 0.8 (80%)
1
1
[consequential to answer provided in (a)(i)];

Relative frequency of the pink allele (p) = 0.2 (20%)
[consequential to answer above];

Number of snails in the population heterozygous for shell colour
(2pq)N = (2 X0.2 X0.8) X 300 = 96
(c) (i) 28 35 = 0.8 (80%); [1]
(ii) (1) No, as the thrush is selecting proportionally more yellow (less
pink)/ only 0.64 of the population is yellow yet yellow shells make up
0.8 of the predated snails (0.36 pink though only 0.2 are predated);
(2) Selection pressure alters the allele frequency/the yellow form will
decrease (pink will increase); [2]
(d) (1)The more common form would decrease (e.g. yellow would
decrease);
(2) the less common form would increase (e.g.
pink would increase);
(3) until it becomes the more common form, when the cycle would
continue (e.g. pink would become more common in which
situation it would be more heavily predated);
1
1
total=10
Q4
(a) (i) restriction enzyme /(restriction) endonuclease (not: specific
example)
5
(ii)
DNA ligase
(b) (1)to give matching/the same(sticky) ends

(2) so that the vector/plasmid can join with the fragment;
(3) complimentary bases,(not codon)
*(Any two)
(c) catalyzes the covalent bonding of the DNA fragment
max=2
(d)Recombinant (DNA molecule)

(e) (1) Can be cut directly from the host DNA/ use of restriction
enzyme
(2)RNA can be extracted/use of messenger RNA and treated

with reverse transcriptase which turns RNA into DNA
(f) antibiotic resistance gene/sequences/(radioactive ) marker

genes.
1
(g) insulin production/production of factor viii/interferon production
/human growth hormone production
1
(not: liposomes/cystic fibrosis treatment)
1
Total 10
Q5(a)
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Singer Nicholson / fluid mosaic model;

Bilayer of phosplipids
Hydrophobic / water hating tails face each other;
Hydrophilic / water loving heads face water / outwards;
Integral /transmembrane protein firmly inserted in the lipid bilayer
1
1
1
1
1
6
6) Peripheral protein are not embedded in the lipid at all
7) Membrane carbohydrates found on the external surface of plasma
membrane
8) Glycolipids(carbohydrate are covalent bonded to lipids)
9) Glycoprotein (carbohydrate are covalent bonded to protein)
1
1
1
*Any five
max=5
10) Phospholipids / lipid bilayer;

Separate contents from outside / acts as barrier; /Phospholipid
allows fat soluble substances through / selective;
11) Carrier protein; Used for active transport; /Specific substances

transported;
12) Cholesterol affects fluidity;
13) Channel/carrier protein for facilitated diffusion;
14) Glycoprotein / glycolipid; For cell
recognition/signalling/hormonerecognition.
*Any four
1
1
1
1
max=4
5(a) 9
5(b)
ATP Synthesis
Similarities
Both need high energy electrons
Both need stalked particles/ATP synthetase
1
1
7
1
Both need proton pumps

Both involve a series of carriers/pumps in electron transport chain
Both need protons which are pumped into a cavity
Both are involved in creating an electrochemical/ chemiosmotic/Hion/H+/proton gradient
Both involve redox reactions
*Any three
max=3
Differences
1) Cristae/(folded) inner membrane carries stalked particles in
mitochondria Or Intermembrane cavity in mitochondria
Thylakoid membrane in chloroplasts carries stalked

particles Or Thylakoid cavity in chloroplasts
1
2) Water formed during ATP synthesis in mitochondria

Water broken down (in non-cyclic photophosphorylation) in
chloroplasts
3)Protons derived from glucose breakdown
Protons derived from water/photolysis produces H ions
4) High energy electrons are derived from chlorophyll in

chloroplasts
High energy electrons are derived from glucose/reduced
NAD/FAD in mitochondria
1
max=4
5(b) 7
6(a)
Bryophyta have no roots / only have rhizoids;
Bryophyta have simple leaves/stems / only a thallus;
Bryophyta produce spores in capsule;
Byrophyta are nonvascular;

Bryophyte exhibit (pronounced) alternation of generations / a significant
gametophyte generation;
1
1
8
max=2
*any two
Filicinophyta have roots, stems and leaves;
Filicinophyta (often) have divided/pinnate leaves;

Filicinophyta produce spores in sporangia/spores on the undersides of
leaves;
Filicinophyta exhibit alternation of generations;
1
1
Filicinophyta have primitive vascular tissue / no true xylem and phloem;
max=2
*any two
Coniferophyta have woody stems;
Coniferophyta (often) have narrow leaves/needles/scales;
1
1
Coniferophyta produce seeds in cones/unenclosed seeds;
max=2
*any two
Angiospermophyta have flowers;
Angiospermophyta have ovules in ovaries;
1
1
Angiospermophyta produce seeds (with hard coats) in fruits;
max=2
*any two
6(b) 8
6(b)
1) Loop of henle passes from cortex down into medulla
2) Where high salt concentration is maintained in the bathing fluid/ low

water potentia created
3) Increased concentration achieved by movement of salt/Na+/CIFrom ascending limb into surrounding fluid.
4) This is carried out by active transport

5) The ascending limb is impermeable to water (at bottom)
1
1
6) Osmotic movement of water/out of permeable descending limb
7) Diagram of loop with arrows showing movement ion and water

And relative concentration (ie numerical concentration changes)
8) Collecting duct passes from second tubule(in cortex) down through

medulla (may be on diagram)
1
1
9) Where salt levels concentration detected by osmoregulation cells in

the hypothalamus / hypothalamus monitor concentration in blood
10) Rise in osmotic pressure/ causes regulator cells to stimulate

increased release of ADH (or vice versa)
11) Hormone rise increases permeability of walls of collecting duct so

increasing water retention
1
max=7
Q7
Propagation along an axon:
1) at rest an axon membrane has a resting potential/polarised
membrane
1
1
2) whereby it is negative on the inside

3) when stimulated the potential difference is reversed/it becomes
positive on the inside/it becomes depolarized
4) an action potential is evoked
5) this causes a depolarisation of the neighbouring part of the axon
membrane/ local circuits
1
1
1
10
6) the original part of the axon recovers its resting potential/repolarised

7) during this period of recovery that part of the axon cannot be
stimulated/there is a refractory period
8) reference to absolute and relative refractory period
9) a transfer of action potentials represents an impulse/an impulse is a
self-perpetuating action potential
10) impulses are either fired or not fired/an all-or-nothing law
applies/ threshold level required for stimulation
11) impulses are speeded up if the axon has a large diameter (greater
surface area for ion exchange)
12) Impulses are also speeded up if the axon is myelinated
13 ) Due to the association of Schwann cells
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
14) Since transmission jumps from node to node (of

Ranvier)/transmission is salutatory
1
max=8
Transmission across a synapse:

1) synaptic knob contains vesicles
2) when an action potential reaches a synaptic knob Ca2+ ions enter
3) vesicles are caused to move towards and fuse with the pre-synaptic
membrane/resulting in exocytosis of a synaptic transmitter chemical
4) which in most peripheral nerves is acetylcholine (Ach)
5) the transmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft
6) the synaptic cleft is only about 20 nm in width
7) at the post-synaptic membrane the transmitter attaches to receptors
8) causing depolarisation of the post-synaptic membrane
1
1
1
1
1
11
9) at excitatory post-synaptic potential occurs
10) summation of synaptic knobs (spatial/temporal) may be needed to

promote an EPSP
1
1
11) If this is sufficient in magnitude an action potential is evoked

12) continued stimulation of the post-synaptic membrane is prevented
13) by the enzyme (e.g. cholinesterase) which causes breakdown of

the
transmitter substance/transmitter substance reabsorbed into the
synaptic knob
14) Reabsorbed breakdown products (e.g. choline and ethanoic acid)

synthesise transmitter substance using ATP [13]
max=7
8(a)
1)Antigen adhere to marcophage
2)Macrophage forms pseudopods that eventually engulf the antigen
3) Present fragment of antigen of membrane,acts as antigen presenter
4) Interleukin costimulated helper T cell

5) Humoral response involves production of proteins (globulins) called
antibodies
6) They are specific to the antigen
7) Antibodies are Y shaped / formed from 4 polypeptide chains
8) The antibody antigen complex inactivates the antigen
1
1
1
1
1
1
12
9) An example of how / identifying for phagocytosis / agglutination / lysis /
immobilisation / neutralisation
1
1
10) Humoral response involves (lymphoid tissue to form) B lymphocytes /

B cells
1
1
11) Each B cell (or T cell) has receptors for its specific antigen
12) Antigen stimulates proliferation of plasma cells and memory cells
13) Memory cells remain ready to divide if same antigen is encountered

again (i.e. increase number rather than output)
1
1
14) cell mediated response involves T lymphocytes / T cells

15) T cells develop / mature in thymus gland
16) There are 3 types of T cell/ref. To cytotoxic T cells /killer cells, helper
cells and memory or suppressor cells
17) Function of killer cells, directly kill pathogen/ bacterium cell infected by
virus
18) function of helper cells, stimulate phagocytosis / make T or B cells

competent / assist cytotoxic T cells /killer cells
19) role for suppressor cells - suppress B cells / lymphocyte action after
infection / switch off immune system when antigen not present
max=15
Q9(b)
1) Prothoracicotrophic hormone (PTTH) is secreted by the
neurosecretory cells ;
2) Stored in the corpora cardiaca/corpus cardiacum
3) Released and transported to corpora allata / corpus allatum and
prothoracic glands
4) PTTH signals the prothoracic gland to produce hormone ecdysone
1
1
1
1
1
5) secretion of ecdysone is episodic,each release will stimulates a moult.

6) when concentration of juvenile hormone(JH) is relatively high,each
moult only leads to a larger larva stages
7)when concentration of JH is very low/below threshold level,causes the
larva to moult to become pupa
1
1
13
8) when production of JH ceases and concentration of ecdysone is
high,the pupa metamorphoses to become an adult insect.
1
max=6
Q9(a)
1) the cells of the trophoblast secrete enzymes that enable the blastocyts
to implant in th endomentrial lining of the uterus.
2) the trophoblast cells proliferate and forms the trophoblastic villi which
grow into the endometrium
3)the trophoblast forms the chorion.
1
1
1
1
4) Function of chorion : form placenta
4)the inner cell mass of the blastocyst forms the three germ layers
5) the germ layers form three other extra-embroynic membranes called

amnion,yolk sac and allantois.
6) the amnion enclose the entire embryo and the space between the
embryo and amnion become filled with amniotic fluid secreted by the cell
of the amnion
7)function of amnion:
i) protects embryo form desiccation

ii)enable embryo to move freely in the early stages of development
iii)absorbs shock
*any one
8)function of yolk sac; form part of the gut(digestive tube) ; early red
blood cell formation
9)function of allantois : form umbilical cord.
14
10a)
Transfer of energy from the sun to producers:
Any five points
1) less than 1% of the total amount of incoming solar radiation is used
in photosynthesis/primary production
2) solar radiation refl ected or absorbed (and radiated back into space)
by ozone layer/dust particles/clouds
3) Most energy fails to strike green plants/absorbed by soil
4) of the solar radiation striking a leaf much is used in evaporating

water from the leaf
5)sunlight is absorbed by the chlorophyll (during which it is converted to

chemical energy) of green plants
6) some light striking the plant is not in the photosynthetically active

range/chlorophyll absorbs mostly red and blue wavelengths
7) the total amount of energy captured in newly synthesised
15
carbohydrate/during photosynthesis represents the gross primary
production (GPP)
8) a proportion of the GPP will be respired by the plant and will be lost
as respiratory heat [allow in section below if not presented here]
9) this represents assimilated material available to the next trophic
level/the difference between GPP and respiration is the net primary
production (NPP)
[allow in section below if not presented here]
Transfer of energy through the trophic levels:

Any five points
1) much of the producer material will die and enter the decomposer
trophic level
2) In fact, generally over 50% of the plant material enters the
decomposer food chain rather than the consumer food chain
3) some of the plant material eaten by primary consumers (herbivores)

will be egested as faeces and will (along with urine) be available to
decomposers
4) some of the plant material eaten and digested by primary consumers

(herbivores) will be assimilated
5) some of the energy assimilated will be respired and so lost as heat

(in all trophic levels)
6) some energy may be lost in urine
7) generally the biomass/productivity of one trophic level is less than

that of the previous trophic level/in fact, only about 10% of the energy
consumed by one trophic level is available for consumption by the next
8) this results in a limit in the number of trophic levels in an ecosystem

to four or five/by the fi fth trophic level there is not enough energy to
support another trophic level
10(b) (The following may be labelled on a graph but must include an

explanation to gain a mark.)
1
total =11
1
I. Lag phase period of preparation for growth / intense metabolic
activity, notably enzyme synthesis / numbers are low therefore
rate of multiplication is low.
II. Log / exponential phase no limiting factors / abundant
resources / rapid reproduction
1
1
16
III. Decelerating phase- population growth begin to slow down

IV. Stationary phase carrying capacity reached / rate cell division
= rate cell death / population has reached maximum size.
1
1
1
V. Competition for limited resources.
VI. due to a depletion of resources / accumulation of toxins.
max : 4
*Any 4
total
10(b)=4
17
18

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PEPERIKSAAN PERCUBAAN

SIJIL TINGGI PERSEKOLAHAN MALAYSIA

For examiners use

Answer all questions in section A. Write your answers

Answer any four questions in section B. Write you

Answers should be illustrated by large and clearly

This question paper consists of 12 printed pages .

Relative frequency of the yellow allele .

4 The following diagram is a simplified representation of a technique used in genetic

(a) Give the name of

Describe the sequence of events which occurs as an impulse is

b) Large /increase surface area

Contains waterproof material (suberin)/makes cell wall impervious

(g) i) Hollow lumen with no living cytoplasm reduces resistance to

(b) Relative frequency of the yellow allele (q) = 0.8 (80%)

[consequential to answer provided in (a)(i)];

[consequential to answer above];

(b) (1)to give matching/the same(sticky) ends

(3) complimentary bases,(not codon)

(c) catalyzes the covalent bonding of the DNA fragment

(d)Recombinant (DNA molecule)

(2)RNA can be extracted/use of messenger RNA and treated

(f) antibiotic resistance gene/sequences/(radioactive ) marker

(not: liposomes/cystic fibrosis treatment)

Singer Nicholson / fluid mosaic model;

10) Phospholipids / lipid bilayer;

11) Carrier protein; Used for active transport; /Specific substances

Both need proton pumps

Both need protons which are pumped into a cavity

Both are involved in creating an electrochemical/ chemiosmotic/Hion/H+/proton gradient

Both involve redox reactions

Thylakoid membrane in chloroplasts carries stalked

2) Water formed during ATP synthesis in mitochondria

4) High energy electrons are derived from chlorophyll in

Bryophyta have simple leaves/stems / only a thallus;

Bryophyta produce spores in capsule;

Byrophyta are nonvascular;

Filicinophyta have roots, stems and leaves;

Filicinophyta (often) have divided/pinnate leaves;

Filicinophyta exhibit alternation of generations;

Filicinophyta have primitive vascular tissue / no true xylem and phloem;

Coniferophyta (often) have narrow leaves/needles/scales;

Coniferophyta produce seeds in cones/unenclosed seeds;

Angiospermophyta have ovules in ovaries;

Angiospermophyta produce seeds (with hard coats) in fruits;

2) Where high salt concentration is maintained in the bathing fluid/ low

4) This is carried out by active transport

6) Osmotic movement of water/out of permeable descending limb

7) Diagram of loop with arrows showing movement ion and water

8) Collecting duct passes from second tubule(in cortex) down through

9) Where salt levels concentration detected by osmoregulation cells in

10) Rise in osmotic pressure/ causes regulator cells to stimulate

11) Hormone rise increases permeability of walls of collecting duct so

2) whereby it is negative on the inside

6) the original part of the axon recovers its resting potential/repolarised

14) Since transmission jumps from node to node (of

Transmission across a synapse:

10) summation of synaptic knobs (spatial/temporal) may be needed to

11) If this is sufficient in magnitude an action potential is evoked

13) by the enzyme (e.g. cholinesterase) which causes breakdown of

14) Reabsorbed breakdown products (e.g. choline and ethanoic acid)

2)Macrophage forms pseudopods that eventually engulf the antigen