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BEARINGS
1.
INTRODUCTION
A rotating shaft in any item of machinery has to be supported and held in position
(located) so that;
the mass (load) of the shaft and any attached components is supported,
axial or radial forces (thrust) generated by rotation are absorbed,
the shaft can rotate freely with minimum wear to the shaft or its supports,
the shaft is located (held) in the correct operating position relative to other
components and the supports and
the minimum of effort (power/ energy) is needed to overcome the frictional forces on
the shaft.
In most machines bearings of some type or other are used to meet these requirements.
The type of bearings selected for a particular application will mainly depend on the
following:
Forces (Dynamic, Static, Axial, and radial loading) acting on the bearing
Speed at which the shaft is revolving
Operating environment
Frictional forces involved
Bearings are subject to a certain degree to rolling or sliding friction. Lubricants are used
to reduce this friction to a minimum.
completely because of the friction within the lubricating fluid itself. This fluid friction,
which directly relates to the viscosity, is substantially less than either rolling friction or
sliding friction. However, lubrication is an important factor in bearing operation,
particularly at high speeds and under heavy loads.
2.
PURPOSE OF BEARINGS
To effectively locate rotating shafts and machine components in both vertical and
horizontal positions during operation.
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3.
SAFETY
3.1
Personal safety
It is important to exercise particular caution when working in the vicinity of
rotating equipment and machinery. The following safety rules must be adhered to
at all times:
Do not wear loose hanging clothes
Do not climb over rotating machines
Horse playing is not allowed near rotating machinery
Always beware of hot surfaces which may cause severe burns
Always exercise surgical conditions when working with bearings (lubrication)
NEVER use rags, cotton waste or metal scrapers to remove excess oil or
grease from revolving shafts. This is a dangerous practice and can lead to
serious injuries.
It is also important to make sure that any personal protective equipment that is
required to perform certain duties, are always available when needed.
4.
Dynamic loading
The dynamic load rating of a bearing is defined as the constant radial (or centric
axial) load which the bearing can theoretically endure for a basic life rating of one
million revolutions.
manufacturing process of all the different types of bearings that are available.
In single row angular contact bearings, the radial load relates directly to the radial
component of that load which causes only radial displacement of the bearing
rings.
4.2
Static loading
Static loading is the load acting on the bearing when the speed of rotation of its
rings in relation to each other is zero.
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All bearings are thus subjected to load under static conditions because they will
become stationary at some point during operational sequences. The safe static
load for each type of bearing is thus established during the manufacturing
process to ensure that the bearing does not sustain damage to the raceways and
rolling elements during static periods.
Axial forces can cause the complete rotating mass (shaft + attachments) to move
and damage other components.
contain axial forces (thrust) and locate the shaft in a fixed radial position.
5.
BEARING TYPES
Heavy industrial machines like those used in power stations use a wide variety of
bearings. All these however fall into one of two main categories, namely:
Fluid film bearings
Rolling contact bearings
5.1
around the shaft and is enclosed and held by a bearing housing. The part
of the shaft that turns within the bearing is called the journal.
In some machines the bearing housing is no more than a hole bored
through the casing with a thin metal sleeve between the casing and shaft.
This arrangement is sometimes called a bushing or bearing bush.
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With the upper half removed, the shaft only has to be raised
sufficiently to roll the lower bearing half into position below the shaft.
Large split steel shell journal bearings are normally found on jaw crushers,
large fans, turbines and generators. The bearing shell is a steel casting
that is split into an upper and lower half.
metal (tin/ antimony alloy) such a Babbitt metal. The shell is supported by
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The
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Jacking oil
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filled with oil. Seals are fitted between the shaft and housing to prevent oil
leakage.
reversal of thrust (e.g., during start up). The oil wedge also transmits the
axial forces imposed by the shaft journal, via the pads, to the housing. In
most installations the bearing housing is split so that it can be removed and
replaced without removing the shaft.
Tilting Thrust Pad Oil-wedge Formation
As with journal bearings, the tilting action of the pad is essential for the
formation of an oil wedge. As illustrated in Figure 6, the pressure in the
oil film reaches a peak approximately two thirds of the way across the
pad, and it is this pressure that enables the axial thrust forces to be
absorbed. As the pad is of a limited size, oil leaks from all the edges as
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illustrated. The effect of this is that the pressure distribution across the
pad varies from a maximum at the centre of the pad to a minimum at the
outside edge.
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These lands promote oil wedge formation between the surfaces to provide
lubrication and thrust transmission to the stationary housing.
5.1.5 Bearing Lubrication
The choice of oil characteristics for the fluid film type bearings has to take
account of the operating conditions. Key among these is the oil viscosity at
start and normal operating temperatures.
Oil with a low viscosity would be squeezed out between the surfaces by the
load, causing the film to rupture and result in metal-to-metal contact. Oil
with an excessively high viscosity would cause additional fluid frictional
losses and consequent heating of the oil and bearing. Similarly the ability
of the oil to wet the surfaces is important so that there is always a thin film
of oil, even at standstill.
In practice a compromise is made; the viscosity must be high enough to
maintain the oil film, with a margin of safety, even at the highest working
temperature, but must not be so high as to overheat the bearing. In many
forced lubrication installations the oil in the tank is maintained above a set
temperature to ensure that the viscosity remains above an acceptable level
so that it flows and forms a wedge easily.
5.2
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14
Deep Groove
Four point
Self-Aligning
Straight Thrust
Angular Contact
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- Tapered Roller
- Barrel Roller
- Spherical Roller
Thrust Roller
- Cylindrical Thrust
- Spherical Thrust
5.2.2 Roller Bearings
Roller bearings are constructed in much the same way as ball bearings.
They comprise a number of rollers that turn between two races or rings.
Roller bearings also have a cage or retainer that keeps the rollers equally
spaced around the bearing. This is to ensure that forces on the bearing are
equally distributed and that the proper shaft position is maintained.
As described previously, roller bearings are classified according to the
shape of the roller. The cheapest and most common is the cylindrical roller;
the races do not need a special shape to match the rollers.
Tapered Roller
The tapered roller bearing has rollers that are smaller at one end than at
the other. This design requires the race surface to be angled for it to
make full contact with the rollers (Figure 11). A tapered roller bearing will
carry some thrust force as well as radial force due to the tapered shape
of the race and cage.
Spherical Roller
Spherical roller bearings have rollers shaped like a barrel that is thick in
the middle and thin at the ends. The outer race is a segment of a
sphere, while the inner race is dished out so that it comes into contact
with the rollers. This construction allows for good force distribution even
when the bearing is slightly misaligned. Full contact can be maintained
even if the inner race is slightly twisted.
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Needle roller bearings are designed only for radial load and can not be
applied for axial loads, consequently they are not used to provide axial
location.
Full complement types are suitable for low speeds whereas caged types
will operate at moderate speeds.
Misalignment of needle roller bearings has a greater effect on needle roller
skewing and bearing life than for conventional roller bearings.
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5.3
Bearing Installation
Bearings are installed in a variety of ways depending on their duty, location within
the machine and any lubrication or cooling requirements. Typically, where a shaft
is to be supported, the outer bearing race is located within a bore in the machine
casing or held in a pedestal housing (Figure 13). The shaft passes through the
bearings inner race and may be a sliding or interference fit.
If a shaft is
supported by two in-line bearings, such as a fan shaft, the shaft is only fixed
(located) to one bearing leaving the other floating. This is done to accommodate
thermal expansion of the shaft. In many machines the fixed bearing is at the
drive-end of the shaft (Figure 13 a).
Bearing Lubrication
The bearing may be oil or grease lubricated. Pedestal bearing housings lend
them to oil filling, oil circulation (external cooling) or grease packing.
5.4.1 Greasing
Greased packed housings normally have a grease nipple and a grease
vent hole. Grease is then expelled from the vent during greasing. Where
the bearings are exposed to moisture, dirt or dust (e.g., conveyor tail shaft)
the housing/ shaft seal is arranged so that grease is expelled via the seal
such that greasing flushes the bearing housing.
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6.
As mentioned in
paragraph 1 the type of bearings selected for a particular application will mainly depend
on the following:
Forces (Dynamic, Static, Axial, and radial loading) acting on the bearing
Speed at which the shaft is revolving
Operating environment
Frictional forces involved
The following are typical examples of machines on which the various types of bearings
are used:
6.1
Journal bearings
Horizontally split journal bearings are widely used on machines which operate
under heavy loads such as Turbines, Induced Draught fans.
On Circulating
Water (CW) pumps where the bearings are mounted vertically, it is usually
combined with a thrust bearing to accommodate the vertical thrust exerted by the
weight of the shaft.
6.2
Thrust Bearings
During normal operation, Steam Turbine shafts are subjected to continuous axial
thrust due to the effect of the high pressure steam on the turbine blades. This
thrust must be limited to prevent contact between the moving Turbine blades and
the stationary diaphragms.
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All modern Turbines are therefore designed with their blading arranged in such a
way to largely counter-act the thrust (Figure 14a). This is however not sufficient
and it is thus also necessary to fit a thrust bearings to reduce axial movement to
an absolute minimum.
6.3
7.
CARE OF BEARINGS
There are very few machines on a power plant that do not have bearings in one form or
another. The failure of only one bearing can cause extensive damage and put a
complete generating unit out of service for several weeks.
Depending on the
circumstances this can cost the station millions of Rand for repair and loss revenue.
Bearing failure can often be prevented by ensuring that proper checks, inspections and
maintenance is done before a plant is started and while it is in operation. Depending
on the system typical running checks that MUST be done at least once a shift are:
Check the bearing oil pressures (pressure oil system). Any observed pressure that
is outside the specified limits must be reported immediately. A high pressure is also
cause for concern as it may be the result of a blocked filter or oil way.
Check bearing temperatures; they should be within the specified limits; particularly
below the maximum specified. Bearing temperature will rise quickly after the plant
has been started, and then reach its steady normal running value.
Where the
temperature continues to rise rapidly, report it immediately and have the plant shut
down.
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Check that the oil levels, both 'standing' and 'running' (where this is indicated) are
correct. The level may be visible on a dipstick, or in sight-glass type level gauge. It
must be remembered that an excessively oil level may overheat the machine and
bearing and will slow down or stop an oil ring lubricator.
Check for abnormal oil level rise or fall particularly where oil-cooling systems are
used. A rise in level could be caused by cooling water entering the system or
reservoir. Such water will cause the oil to emulsify (creamy appearance) and reduce
its lubricating properties. A fall in level may indicate oil entering the cooling water
With oil ring lubricated bearings, check the ring to see that it is in its correct position
and free to move or turn. When the plant is running, the ring must turn with the
shaft. If the ring has stopped turning contact your supervisor or the Maintenance
department. DO NOT attempt to get it moving using metal rods or fingers.
Oil flow must also be monitored on a continuous basis. If the oil flow to a bearing is
insufficient, make sure that the in line filters and strainers are clean. Where duplex
strainers are provided, change them over and defect the clogged strainer end follow
up to ensure that it gets cleaned as soon as possible.
Always be on the look out for emulsified oil. Emulsification will cause the oil to
become a milky white colour and foaming will occur. This usually occurs when
water is leaking into the oil in oil coolers. Inspect oil coolers for leaks.
Keep level gauge glass and breather clean. See that the small hole on the level
gauge glass is not blocked as it may give a false high oil level indication.
Check for and report any oil leaks immediately. If necessary, maintain the oil level
(top up) until the plant can be shut down. If the oil leak is severe shut down the
equipment immediately.
Check automatic bearing lubricating devices for correct operation; see that the
discharge rate of lubricant is adequate.
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DO NOT over grease bearings; too much grease will increase fluid friction and
generate excessive heat causing bearing overheating and subsequent failure.
Check that oil filler caps are fitted and secure, this is essential to prevent dirt
entering.
The Four Rs (Always keep them in mind!)
Always exercise caution when oiling a bearing. Always use the Right amount of the
Right oil in the Right place at the Right time.
8.
Noise
Damage to bearings normally manifests in a humming noise. Thus, by simply
listening to the sound of a running bearing, its physical condition can be
diagnosed. Should any abnormal sound be emitted from the bearing housing the
following must be checked:
Sufficient lubricating oil available
If it is ring lubricated, check that the ring is rotating
If the lubrication is in order, the bearing must be reported as defective without
delay.
8.2
Heat
A damaged bearing will run hot. By simply placing the palm of your hand on the
bearing housing can tell whether it is running abnormally hot. If the temperature
is such that a burning sensation is experienced within 4 to 5 seconds, it can be
accepted that it is running hot. Once again, the lubrication of the bearing can be
checked for satisfactory operation. If the lubrication is in order, and the bearing is
still running hot, report it immediately.
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NOTE:
8.3
Vibration
Although varying levels of slight vibration is very difficult to recognise it is a skill
that can be practiced and developed. Simply by placing a hand on the bearing
housing which is vibrating, a continuous shivering feeling will be felt. To develop
this skill, it is good practice to compare different bearings on the same machine.
Should any bearing be diagnosed as vibrating excessively, it must be reported
immediately.
8.4
Leaks
Lubricating oil leaks on bearings is not only a threat to the reliable operation of
the machine but it is also a safety threat and fire hazard. Leaking bearings must
be reported and repaired immediately. The oil that has leaked out of the bearing
must be cleaned immediately.
The bearing lubrication must be checked and maintained at its normal working
level until the machine can be taken off load for repairs.
9.
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In many cases,
recording instruments are provided in the control room where the vibrations of
each bearing on the machine are continuously recorded.
Any abnormal
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9.3
9.4
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10.
SELF ASSESSMENT
After having studied all the material, you can now request the Self Assessment from
your Facilitator. Make sure that you have mastered all the information contained in this
manual and attempt not to look for the correct answers in the text.
If you do not master the Self Assessment at the first attempt, re-study the material,
make notes of the topics that are not absolutely clear to you and approach your
Facilitator to explain these issues again.
When you feel confident that you have mastered this manual, you can then request to
write the Criterion Test.
GOOD LUCK!
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