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SOLAR
CELL
SOLAR CELL
(PART I)
2010
2014
Source : http://www.ren21.net/REN21Activities/GlobalStatusReport.aspx
PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS
10
PV effect :
the conversion of light (photon) into electrical energy
Types:
Inorganic Solar cell ( Single-crystal silicon, a-Si, GaAs)
Widespread
Efficiency : 15 20%
Expensive to manufacture
Organic solar cell
ultra thin, tunable colour
Efficiency : 12%
not yet to be commercialize
PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS
Electrochemical Dye- solar cell
Newer, less proven
Inexpensive to manufacture
Flexible
(-) : degradation issues
PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL
Various factors effect power output from
panels :
Shade or Clouds
Panel position or angle
Active panels can track the sun
Temperature and solar irradiance
variations
Air gap required for cooling
Partial shading will reduce performance
and can cause damage
SOLAR CELL
(PART II)
21
2.5
Black body radiation at 6000 K
2.0
AM0
Spectral
Intensity 1.5
W cm-2 (m)-1
AM1.5
1.0
0.5
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.8
1.6
Wavelength (m)
22
2.0
23
Earth
AM1
AM(s ec )
Tilted PV device
(a)
Direct
Diffus e
(b)
definitions of AM0, AM1 and AM(sec ). The angle between the sun beam and the horizon
is the solar latitude (b) Scattering reduces the intensity and gives rise to a diffused radiation
1999 S .O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
26
28
29
Example
30
solution
31
solution
32
33
n-type
semiconductor
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Depletion Zone
p-type
semiconductor
35
36
Bus electrode
for current collection
Finger electrodes
n
p
39
Photovoltaic device:
EHP by long wavelengths
EHPs photogenerated by long wavelength photons that are absorbed
in the neutral p-side can only diffuse in this region as there is no
electric field
If the recombination lifetime of the electron is e, it diffuses a mean
distance Le given by
Le
2De e
Photovoltaic device:
EHP by long wavelengths
Only EHPs photogenerated within the minority carrier diffusion length
Le to the depletion layer can contribute to the photovoltaic effect
Again the importance of the built-in field E0 is apparent
Once an electron diffuses to the depletion region it is swept over to
the n-side by E0 to give an additional negative charge there
Holes left behind in the p-side contribute a net positive charge to this
region
41
Photovoltaic device:
EHP by long wavelengths
Those photogenerated EHPs further away from depletion region than Le
are lost by recombination
It is therefore important to have the minority carrier diffusion length Le as
long as possible
This is the reason for choosing this side of a Si pn junction to be p-type
which makes electrons to be the minority carriers; the electron diffusion
length in Si is longer than the hole diffusion length
42
Photovoltaic device:
EHP by short wavelengths
The same ideas also apply to EHPs photogenerated by short-wavelength
photons absorbed in the n-side
Holes photogenerated within a diffusion length Lh can reach the depletion
layer and become swept across to the p-side
The photogeneration of EHPs that contribute to the photovoltaic effect
therefore occurs in a volume covering Lh + W + Le
If the terminals of the device are shorted, then the excess electron in the
n-side can flow through the external circuit to neutralize the excess hole
in the p-side
43
EHPs
exp(x)
x
Lh
Le
Iph
Photogenerated carriers within the volume Lh + W + L e give rise to a photocurrent I ph. The
variation in the photegenerated EHP concentration with distance is also shown where is the
absorption coefficient at the wavelength of interest.
1999 S .O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
44
Photovoltaic device
Current due to flow of photogenerated carriers is photocurrent
EHPs photogenerated by energetic photons absorbed in the n-side
near the surface region or outside the diffusion length Lh to the
depletion layer are lost by recombination as the lifetime in the n-side
is generally very short (due to heavy doping)
The n-side is therefore made very thin, typically less than 0.2 m or
less
45
Photovoltaic device
Indeed, the length ln of the n-side maybe shorter than the hole
diffusion length Lh
The EHP photogenerated very near the surface of the n-side however
disappear by recombination due to various surface defects acting as
recombination centers
46
Photovoltaic device
At long wavelengths, around 1-1.2 m, the absorption coefficient of
Si is small and the absorption depth (1/) is typically greater than 100
m
To capture these long wavelength photons we therefore need a thick
p-side and at the same time a long minority carrier diffusion length Le
Typically the p-side is 200-500 m and Le tends to be shorter than this
47
48
49
Short-wavelength
infrared
wavelength
Photon energy
1.4-3 m
0.40.9 eV
Mid-wavelength infrared 38 m
150400 meV
80150 meV
50
Guess what it is ??
I = Id Iph
Isc = Iph
Id
V
Iph V = 0
R
(a)
V
Iph
R
(b)
(c)
(a) The solar cell connected to an external load R and the convention for the definitions of
positive voltage and positive current. (b) The solar cell in short circuit. The current is the
photocurrent, Iph. (c) The solar cell driving an external load R. There is a voltage V and current
I in the circuit.
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
I = Id Iph
Isc = Iph
Id
V
Iph V = 0
R
(a)
V
Iph
R
(b)
(c)
(a) The solar cell connected to an external load R and the convention for the definitions of
positive voltage and positive current. (b) The solar cell in short circuit. The current is the
photocurrent, Iph. (c) The solar cell driving an external load R. There is a voltage V and current
I in the circuit.
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
The voltage V and current I above define the convention for the
direction of positive current and voltage.
PHOTOVOLTAIC
I-V
CHARACTERISTICS
PHOTOVOLTAIC I-V CHARACTERISTICS
Consider an ideal pn junction photovoltaic device connected to a
resistive load R.
I and V define the convention for the direction of positive current
and positive voltage.
Light
I = Id Ip
Isc = Iph
Iph V = 0
R
(c)
(a) The solar cell connected to an external load R and the convention for the definitions
positive voltage and positive current. (b) The solar cell in short circuit. The current is the
PHOTOVOLTAIC
I-V CHARACTERISTICS
Photovoltaic
I-V Characteristics
If I is the light intensity, then the short circuit current is
I sc I ph KI
ight
I = Id Iph
Isc = Iph
Id
V
Iph V = 0
V
Iph
Photovoltaic
I-V Characteristics
PHOTOVOLTAIC
I-V CHARACTERISTICS
Under short circuit conditions (figure b), the only
current in the circuit is the photocurrent Iph generated
by the incident light.
PHOTOVOLTAIC
I-VCharacteristics
CHARACTERISTICS
Photovoltaic I-V
If a load R is now inserted as in the figure (c), a positive voltage V
appears across the diode which forward biases the diode.
There is now minority carrier injection and the resulting diode
current.
PHOTOVOLTAIC
I-VCharacteristics
CHARACTERISTICS
Photovoltaic I-V
Thus, the total current (solar cell current),
I
characteristics
The I-V
solar cell (Fig.).
V
I = Id Iph
Isc = Iph
of a typical Si
Id
Iph V = 0
Iph
(b)
I (mA)
R
(c)
20
Dark
The
open
circuit
voltage,
V
,
is
given
by
oc
a) The solar cell connected to an external load R and the convention for the definitions of
pointand
where
thecurrent.
I-V curve
cuts
thecell
V-in short circuit. The current is the Voc
positivethe
voltage
positive
(b) The
solar
0 R. There is a voltage V and current
photocurrent,
(c) The solar cell driving an external load
axis (II=
ph.0).
0.6
0.2
0.4
in the circuit.
Iph
Light
Light
I
V
0
0.2
10
Isc= Iph
0.4
Voc
0.6
Slope = 1/R
Operating Point
20
(a)
(b)
(a) When a solar cell drives a load R, R has the same voltage as the solar cell
but the current through it is in the opposite direction to the convention that
current flows from high to low potential. (b) The current I and voltage V in
the circuit of (a) can be found from a load line construction. Point P is the
operating point (I, V). The load line is for R = 30 .
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
Voc 2 Voc1
ln
0.55
10.0259ln0.5
and
fabrication
e
I1
Isc2
2
I2
50
W
m
Isc1
50 mA
2
100 W m
I1
EXAMPLE
A Si solar cell of area 4 cm2 is connected to drive a load R as in Figure
1 . Suppose that the load is 20 and it is used under a light intensity
of 1 kW m-2(Figure 1). What are the current and voltage in the circuit?
What is the power delivered to the load? What is the efficiency of the
solar cell in this circuit?
What is FF?
EXAMPLE
Figure 1
EXAMPLE
Figure 2
Finger
electrode
Neutral
p-region
Back
electrode
Rs
Rp
RL
Iph
Id
Iph
Rp
RL
Solar cell
Load
EXAMPLE
Consider the equivalent circuit of a solar cell as shown in Figure below.
Show that;
V
eV
V
I I ph Id
I ph Io exp(
) Io
Rp
nkB T
Rp
EXAMPLE
Figure shows the equivalent circuit with the series resistance removed. The
currents flowing into node A sum to zero (Kirchoffs current law).
Currents into a node are positive and those leaving a node are negative.
Thus,
Vo c
0.2
0.4
0.6
Rs = 50
5
Is c
Ip h
Rs = 0
Rs = 20
10
I (mA)
The series resistance broadens theI-V curve and reduces the maximum
available power and hence the overall efficiency of the solar cell. The example
is a Si solar cell with n 1.5 and Io 310-6 mA. Illumination is such that
the photocurrentIph = 10 mA.
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
Power (mW)
4
2
Voltage (V)
0.2
0.4
0
5
0.6
1 cell
10
15
2 cells in parallel
20
Current (mA)
Current vs. Voltage and Power vs. Current characteristics of one cell and two
cells in parallel. The two parallel devices haveRs/2 and 2Iph.
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
Iph
I/2
Id
Iph
I/2
I
RL
Rs
Id
Iph
Two identical solar cells in parallel under the same illumination and
driving a load RL.
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
Example
Consider two identical solar cells with the properties
Io = 2510-6 mA, n = 1.5, Rs = 20 W, subjected to the
same illumination so that Iph = 10 mA. Derive the
corresponding current , I and voltage V.
6.4
Open circuit voltage A solar cell under an illumination of 100 W m-2 has a short circuit current
Isc of 50 mA and an open circuit output voltage Voc, of 0.55V. What are the short circuit current and
open circuit voltages when the light intensity is halved?
Solution
The short circuit current is the photocurrent so that at
Isc2
I2
50 W m2
Isc1
50 mA
2 = 25 mA
I1
100 W m
nk BT
I
Voc1
ln 2 0.55 10.0259ln0.5 = 0.508 V
e
I1
nk BT
I
Voc1
ln 2 0.55 20.0259 ln0.5 = 0.467 V
e
I1
Temperature Effects
Temperature decreases Output voltage and efficiency increase.
Solar cell operate best at lower temperature.
The output voltage Voc, when Voc >> nkBT/e,
nk BT I ph
Voc
ln
e
I0
I0 is reverse saturation current and strongly depend on
temperature, because it depends on square of ni.
If I is light intensity,
KI
eVoc
nk BT KI
or
Voc
ln
ln
e
nk BT
I0
I0
Temperature Effects
Assuming n = 1, at two different temperatures T1 and T2 but the
same illumination level, by subtraction,
KI
KI
I 01
ni21
eVoc 2 eVoc1
- ln
ln ln 2
ln
k BT2
k BT1
I 02
I 01
I 02
ni 2
2
Substitute, ni Nc Nv exp Eg k BT
Thus,
eVoc 2 eVoc1 Eg 1 1
k BT2
k BT1
k B T2 T1
Voc 2
T2
Voc1
T1
Eg T2
1
e T1
Temperature Effects
Example, Si solar cell has Voc1 = 0.55 V at 20 oC (T1 = 293 K), at 60 oC
(T2 = 333 K),
Voc 2
333
333
(0.55 V)
(1.1 V)1
0.475 V
293
293
Voc (0.6Eg)/(ekB)
FF0.85
Overall efficiency
21%