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F

Vegetable Oils for Liquid-Filled


Transformers
Key Words: High oleic oils, biodegradable fluids, ester fluids, insulating fluids, transformers, environmental,
high-temperature fluids.

or over one-hundred years, petroleum-based mineral


oils purified to transformer oil grade have been used
in liquid-filled transformers. Synthetic hydrocarbon
fluids, silicone, and ester fluids were introduced in the latter
half of the twentieth century, but their use is limited to distribution transformers. Several billion liters of transformer oil
are used in transformers worldwide.
The popularity of mineral transformer oil is due to availability and low cost, as well as being an excellent dielectric and
cooling medium. Ever since the world oil reserves were
tapped in the 1940s, petroleum products have become widely
available. Petroleum-based products are so vital in todays
world that we cannot imagine a time we may not have them
easily available. Transformers and other oil-filled electrical
equipment use only a tiny fraction of the total petroleum consumption, yet even this fraction is almost irreplaceable.
There are two reasons why we should be seriously thinking of alternate natural sources of insulating fluids:
1. Transformer oil is poorly biodegradable. It could contaminate our soil and waterways if serious spills occur. Government regulatory agents are already looking into this
problem and are imposing stiff penalties for spills. Many
thousands of transformers are located in populated areas,
shopping centers, and near waterways. Figure 1 shows some
pole-mounted transformers near a coastal region, and
pad-mounted transformers in a public area.
2. Petroleum products are eventually going to run out,
and there could be serious shortages even by the
mid-twenty-first century. Conserving the petroleum reserves
and recycling are vital for petroleum-based productsplastics, pharmaceuticals, organic chemicals, and so on. Until we
develop economically viable alternate energy sources, there
is no easy replacement for gasoline, jet fuel, and heating oil.
Vegetable oils are natural products available in plenty. They
are used mostly for edible purposes, but special oils are used
for drying and cutting oils. The only significant electrical use
of vegetable oils suggested until the late 1990s were for
power capacitors. Even there, the use is more experimental
than commercial.
6

T.V. Oommen
Consultant, Raleigh, SC, U.S.A.

Several billion liters of transformer oil


are used in transformers worldwide.
Prior Use of Vegetable Oils in Capacitors
Capacitors were the only type of electrical equipment seriously considered for the use of vegetable oils. Clark, for example, mentions castor and cotton seed oils for use in
capacitors (with cellulose insulation) as early as 1962 [1].
The higher dielectric constants of these fluids provide a
better match with cellulose than mineral oil. In 1971, Indian
researchers reported testing of coconut oil and hydrogenated castor and groundnut oils for electrical use [2]. Later
on, in 1974, these authors reported their work on processed
castor and cottonseed oils and noted that castor oil was the
better choice for capacitors [3]. Further technical papers appeared in 1979 and 1983 by other Indian researchers [4],
[5]. A U.S. patent issued in 1985 describes possible use of
soybean oil with additives in capacitors [6]. Interest in castor
oil was shown by Brazilian researchers, who reported their
work in a CIGRE paper in 1987 [7]. Castor oil is mainly (80
percent) a hydroxy-acid ester, unlike other vegetable oils,
which are fatty acid esters. The acidic part is ricinoleic acid
and has the molecular formula
CH3 (CH2)5 CHOH CH2 CH=CH (CH2)7 COOH.
It is more viscous than most vegetable oils and has a higher
dielectric constant than most vegetable oils (4.7 versus 3.2).
The above-referenced papers reveal that castor oil, along
with polypropylene films in power capacitors, was seriously
considered. Yet, synthetic aromatic hydrocarbons are still
the fluid of choice for power capacitors.
In the 1990s rapeseed oil became the center of interest, as
shown by technical papers published in 1995 [8]. Rapeseed
oil, while not edible, was available in some countries and

0883-7554/02/$17.002002IEEE

IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine

needed commercial exploitation. Its main acidic part of the


fatty acid ester is erucic acid (50 percent or more), a C-22
acid with one double bond (the most common fatty acid in
vegetable oils is oleic acid, a C-18 acid with one double
bond). A methyl ester of rapeseed oil (MRSO) has also been
tested for possible use in power capacitors [9].

Chemical Composition of Vegetable Oils


Crude vegetable oils extracted from oil seeds have a dark
color and contain solid constituents such as proteins and fibers, and liquid (fats and oil). Both fats and oil are
triglyceride esters of fatty acids, but fats contain a relatively
high percentage of saturated triglycerides and would freeze
to solid below room temperature. The oily part usually remains as liquid above 0 oC; oils with high unsaturation may
remain as liquid at -15 to -30 oC. The triglyceride ester molecule may be represented as
CH2-OOCR1

CH-OOCR2

CH2-OOCR3
where R1, R2, and R3 are fatty acid chains of same or different
types. Saturated fatty acids with eight to 22 carbon atoms are
found in oils. Fatty acids with one unsaturated bond have
carbon atoms ranging from 10 to 22. Fatty acids with di-and
tri-unsaturation mostly contain 18 carbon atoms (these are
named Linoleic and Linolenic acids). The fatty acid composition of some vegetable oils is shown in Table I.

Development of Vegetable Oils


for Transformer Use
Liquid-filled transformers use billions of liters of insulating fluid. They come in various sizes: large, medium, and
small power as well as distribution, each one using as much
as forty thousand liters in each phase of a large power transformer to as small as eighty liters for a small distribution
transformer. The smaller units are more numerous than the
larger units because distribution is more widespread by definition, and hence the smaller units hold, in total, much more
fluid than the larger units. Mineral oil purified to transformer grade oil is the most commonly used transformer
fluid and has been in use for more than a century. Small units
used in confined areas like shopping centers may use fire-resistant fluids such as silicone, high-temperature mineral oil,
and synthetic ester fluids.
In recent years, environmental concerns have been raised
on the use of poorly biodegradable fluids in electrical apparatus in regions where spills from leaks and equipment failure could contaminate the surroundings. Contamination of
the water supply is considered much more serious than contamination of the soil.
Due to the utility interest in biodegradable insulating fluids, research efforts were started in the mid 1990s to develop
a fully biodegradable insulating fluid. This effort was started
January/February 2002 Vol. 18, No. 1

Distribution Transformers
Pole-mounted

Pad-mounted

Fig. 1.

by R&D labs that initiated oil development work. Vegetable


oil was considered the most likely candidate for a fully biodegradable insulating fluid. Vegetable oil is a natural resource available in plenty; it is a fairly good insulator, and is
fully biodegradable.
The researchers soon recognized that vegetable oils needed
further improvement to be used as a transformer fluid. The
fluid in a sealed transformer remains in the unit for many years
(as many as 30 to 40 years, unless the oil is changed in between). Only in the larger units is the fluid periodically refreshed. Long-term stability is of critical importance. Vegetable
oils inherently have components that degrade in a relatively
short time. The degree of unsaturation is an indicator of thermal instability, becoming more unstable as the degree of
unsaturation progresses from mono- to tri-unsaturation. The
relative instability to oxidation is roughly 1:10:100:200 for
saturated, mono-, di-, and tri unsaturated C-18 triglycerides
[11]. In transformers, the presence of copper (as a conductor)
enhances tendency for oxidation. Powerful oxidation inhibitors are needed for the oils used in transformers. Another factor
Table I. Typical Fatty Acid Composition of Some Vegetable Oils [10].
Vegetable Oil

Saturated Fatty Acids, %

Unsaturated Fatty Acids, %


Mono-

Di-

Tri-

Canola oil*

7.9

55.9

22.1

11.1

Corn oil

12.7

24.2

58

0.7

Cottonseed oil

25.8

17.8

51.8

0.2

Peanut oil

13.6

17.8

51.8

0.2

Olive oil

13.2

73.3

7.9

0.6

Safflower oil

8.5

12.1

74.1

0.4

Safflower oil, high oleic

6.1

75.3

14.2

Soybean oil

14.2

22.5

51

6.8

Sunflower oil

10.5

19.6

65.7

Sunflower oil, high oleic

9.2

80.8

8.4

0.2

*Low erucic acid variety of rapeseed oil; more recently canola oil containing over 75%
monounsaturate content has been developed.

is the purity of the oil. The oil has to be free of conducting ionic
impurities to acceptable levels, and commercial-grade oils are
not of this purity.
Only recently have transformer-grade vegetable oils become available. The first commercial product was
BIOTEMP, patented in the U.S. in September 1999 by ABB
and developed at its Raleigh, NC-based transformer lab
[12]. The base fluid was high oleic oil with over 80 percent
oleic content. These oils are produced mostly from seeds
that have been developed by selective breeding; more recently, gene manipulation techniques have been used. Partial
hydrogenation is an added step that may be used to minimize
the very unstable tri-unsaturates. The high mono- unsaturate
oils are in demand in the food and lubrication industries.
The BIOTEMP fluid, also from high oleic oils, is now used
in some distribution and network transformers in critical areas. Another U.S. patent was issued later, in September
1999, for a transformer oil from regular soybean oil, obtained by Waverly Light & Power in Iowa, though this product is not yet commercially used [13]. It is not a high oleic oil.

Sunflower

Canola/Rapeseed
Oil Seeds

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

Soybean

In March 2000, another U.S. patent was granted to Cooper


Industries, Inc in Milwaukee, WI under the trademark
Envirotemp FR3 [14]. This fluid also is from standard-grade oleic base oils, and is used commercially in some
distribution transformers. A second patent was issued to the
ABB inventors on the BIOTEMP fluid in August 2001 [12].
Figure 2 shows typical oil seeds used from which oils are extracted and processed for transformer use.
Fluid development details are not available except for the
BIOTEMP fluid, for which a dozen technical papers have
been published. Commercial brochures are available for the
BIOTEMP and Envirotemp FR3 fluids. For the
BIOTEMP fluid, the starting oil is a high oleic oil, such as
sunflower oil, containing 80 percent or more oleic content.
Canola oil upgraded to this level of oleic content has also
been tested for use. The commercially available RBD grade is
the starting material, where RBD stands for Refined,
Bleached, and Deodorized. These processes are well known
in the seed oil industry.
After separation of solid matter, the oil is treated with special solvents to remove many unwanted components.
Bleaching is usually done by clay filter presses, which further
purify the oil. Deodorization by steam removes volatiles that
produce odor. The RBD oil varies in electrical purity over a
wide range from marginal to impure, with conductivities
ranging from 5 to 50 pS/m. For transformer use, it is desirable to have a conductivity of 1 pS/m or below. To achieve
this, special clays are used with improved adsorbing power.
A conductivity meter, such as the Emcee meter described in
ASTM D4308, may be used to monitor the purity of the oil.
The final stage is the degassification and dehumidifying of
the oil. Vegetable oils are hygroscopic; hence, they may absorb water at as much as 1200 ppm or more, at saturation and
at room temperature. It is desirable to lower this to 100 ppm.
To stabilize the oil, it is necessary to add suitable antioxidants. Commonly used inhibitors such as DBPC and
food-grade antioxidants are not powerful enough to produce an oil that will pass the ASTM oxidation tests, such as
D-2440 and D-2112. A special antioxidant package that uses
complex phenols and amines is used in the BIOTEMP fluid.
Care should be taken not to add too much because the conductivity would rise to unacceptable levels. It is desirable to
keep the level of the additive component to below 1%. The
approach used for the Envirotemp FR3 fluid is to avoid
contact with air by careful sealing of the transformer and using an oxygen-scavenging powder above the oil level. The
FR3 fluid does not pass the ASTM oxidation test because of
its lower monounsaturate content, even with reasonable
amount of inhibitors. The oxidation stability of vegetable
oils is greatly dependent on the monounsaturate content,
which should be over 80% for long-term transformer use.
Proper inhibitors are still needed. The percentage of
tri-unsaturates should be negligible in these oils. Figure 3
shows how a poorly stabilized and inferior oil (3B) will gel
during a standard oxidation test, ASTM D 2440, while a
well-stabilized superior fluid (3A) will not [15]. The gel test
IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine

is perhaps much more meaningful than the acidity values for


vegetable oil after the oxidation test.

Under partial discharge (PD) conditions, the main products are hydrogen, methane, CO, and CO2. Again, the CO and
CO2 result from the breakdown of the carbonyl group. The
generation of methane and hydrogen are similar to their production from mineral oils, and result from extraction of hydrogen atoms from the molecular framework in the electric

Properties of Transformer-Grade
Vegetable Oil
Table II lists several physical, chemical, and electrical
properties of vegetable oil specifically develTable II: Properties of Transformer Fluids: Typical Values/Limits.
oped for transformer use. Comparison data
are given for high-temperature mineral oil
Veg. Oil
High Temp.
Silicone 561 Fluid
Mineral Oil
and silicone fluid used in transformers [15].
Physical

Biodegradability
The most accepted test is the CEC-L-33
test developed to test biodegradability of lubricating oils in an aquatic environment. The
test sample and a reference sample containing
poisoned (with mercury) material are both
inoculated with bacterium. After 21 days the
percentage of C-H hydrocarbon part left in
each set is determined by IR spectroscopy.
The percentage biodegradability is computed
as 100 (P-T)/P, where P is the residual content
of the poisoned flask and T is the residual
content of the test flask.
Figure 4 shows comparison chart of
biodegradability of vegetable oil and other
transformer fluids [16].
Another test for biodegradability is the biological oxygen demand (BOD) test. Published values for HMW mineral oil, silicone
fluid, and polyol ester for a 20-day period are
122, 3.6, and 377, respectively [11].
Decomposition Products
When used in transformers, the abovementioned fluids experience thermal and
electrical stress; hence it is important to determine the effect of these stresses. Gas generation is the most easily measured property,
and it is meaningful to study gas generation
after ageing in presence of copper for specific
periods. Figure 5 shows the percentage of
gases generated in a test conducted by the
Doble Engineering lab on the BIOTEMP
and the Envirotemp FR3 fluids for 22 days
at 250 oC [17].
The notable difference in the decomposition products, as compared to hydrocarbon
fluids, is in the large amount of CO and CO2
generated. This is because, unlike hydrocarbon fluids, ester fluids contain a carbonyl
group COO, which breaks down to give CO
and CO2. Hydrogen should not normally result from thermal decomposition, but certain
components or additives in the oil could produce hydrogen, as seen in the FR3 fluid.
January/February 2002 Vol. 18, No. 1

Appearance

Light yellow

Light yellow

Colorless

Specific Gravity at 25 C

0.91 - 0.92

0.89

0.96

0 C

170 250

2200

95

25 C

55 75

300

50

40 C

33 45

125

38

100 C

8 10

13

16

15 to 25

20 max.

50 max.

Kinematic viscosity, cSt

Pour point, C
Interfacial Tension (IFT), dynes/cm

25

40 45

25

Flash point, C

310 325

275 min.

300 min.

Fire point, C

354 360

160 180

340

Moisture content, ppm dry oil


(Water solubility at 25 C)

50 100

10 25

50

1200

60

200

0.50 0.57

0.488

0.363

Thermal constants
Heat capacity, cal/g. C

Thermal conductivity, W/m.K

0.17

0.13

0.15

Coefficient of expansion, / C

0.0007

0.00073

0.00104

Ester

Hydrocarbon

Organo-silicon

0.01

0.01

Pass

Pass

Chemical
Chemical type
Acidity, mg KOH/g
Oxidation stability - ASTM D 2440

0.06

Pass

Electrical
Dielectric constant at 25 C
Volume resistivity at 25 C, Ohm.cm

3.1

2.2

14

10

14

2.71
15

10 10

14

10

Breakdown voltage, kV
ASTM D 1816, 2 mm gap electrodes
Impulse breakdown voltage, kV (needle negative)

74

60

145

136

0.05 max.

-0.01

0.3 max

50

10 to +20

N/A

97 99

30

Very low

116

Dissipation factor, %
a

25 C

0.25

100 C

1.00

Gassing tendency ASTM D 2300

Biodegradability

CEC-L-33 (21 days)


Notes: a: For BIOTEMP fluid,
b: Varies with transformer rating,
c: See below.

field. Figure 6 shows the gases produced for the BIOTEMP


fluid and compares with transformer oil degradation [18].
Under arcing conditions, the gases produced are mainly
hydrogen and acetylene for mineral oil-based transformer
oil; but for vegetable oil, in addition, CO and CO2 are also

Percent Biodegradability

100

Veg. Oils

50
Mineral Oil

Silicone Fluid

% Gas Generated

60

CO2

CO

50

Biotemp

40

Temperature C

FR3

Time, h

160

2224

20

180

503

200

129

10

H2

C2H6

C2H4

CH4

Fig. 5.

Veg. Oil

Trans. Oil

Gas Content (ppm)

10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0

Hydrogen

CO

Methane

CO2

Ethane

Fig. 6.

Percent Gas in Gas Space

where is the hot spot temperature of the winding, oC.


This gives the following minimum periods at accelerated
hot spot temperatures.

30

10

Functional Life Test


Any new transformer fluid developed is subjected to a
functional life test in which the fluid is tested in the actual
transformer, under full load and voltage, but at an elevated
temperature to produce accelerated ageing, so that the ageing in many years lifetime can be tested in a limited time period of weeks. For distribution transformers, the life test
protocol specified in ANSI/IEEE C 57.100-1986 provides
the following life expectancy formula
Log10Life (h) = [6328.8/(273 + )] - 11.269

Fig. 4.

Fig. 7.

produced in large quantities due to the ester group present.


Figure 7 shows comparison of gas generation from vegetable
oil (BIOTEMP) and from regular transformer oil [18].
A significant finding has been that the total gas produced
was only one-fourth of the gas produced from regular
transformer oil. This shows the arc-quenching ability of
vegetable oils.

70
Hydrogen
60
50
40
30
CO
20
10
0

Since multiple tests are too expensive, either a single or a


duplicate test is carried out. To compensate for the statistical
uncertainty, it is specified that the life testing be conducted
five times the minimum period shown above. It is customary
to round off the final numbers to 10,000, 2500, and 720 h,
and this interval is divided into ten equal periods for the ten
end point tests.
For vegetable oils with high fire points, the 200 oC hot spot
temperature is acceptable, and this reduces the life test time
considerably. Sufficient cooling should be provided to keep
the oil temperature below 140 oC because the gaskets may
soften at high temperatures.
The vegetable oils mentioned above surpassed the normal life test period without the unit failing under short
circuit tests. Separate long-term ageing has shown that
these fluids prolong the life of the paper insulation considerably more than mineral oil when
used in transformers. It is possible that the great
affinity of vegetable oils for moisture will keep
Veg. Oil
the paper drier.
Trans. Oil

Acetylene
Ethylene

Methane
CO2

Fire Hazard Tests


Based on publicity literature from the oil developers, the new fluids have passed both the standard UL and Factory Mutual tests for certification
as a less flammable fluid for use in transformers.

IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine

Special Challenges

Cold Weather
The use of vegetable oils in transformers that are exposed
to cold weather has been an issue. The pour point of vegetable oils does not go below 30 oC, even after adding pour
point depressants. Without additives, the fluid could freeze
at subzero temperatures.
To address this issue, vegetable oil-filled transformers
were frozen to 50 oC or below in lab cooling chambers and
then energized. There have been no failures. Since vegetable
oil is a mixture of esters that freeze at different temperatures,
there is no sudden freezing or thawing. This helps prevent
the formation of cracks and air spaces, which could trigger
PD. Under operating conditions, the oil in the units would be
in the liquid state even if the ambient outside temperatures
were very low.

Exposure to Air

Vegetable oil-filled units should be sealed well to prevent


air and moisture from entering the unit. Sufficient antioxidant should be present even in sealed units because of possible entry of air and moisture during the life of the unit.

Conclusion
To meet the challenges posed by environmental concerns,
fully biodegradable vegetable oils have been developed for
use in electrical equipment, particularly in transformers.
Further exploitation of these fluids for use in capacitors and
cables need further study and tests.
Acknowledgment
The author wishes to thank Mr. Lance Lewand of Doble
Engineering Company, USA, referenced above, for the preparation of Figure 5.
T.V. Oommen worked for 24 years in the
transformer industry as an R&D scientist and
engineer. In October 2000, he became a consultant to the industry. Dr. Oommen is one of
the pioneers in developing an award-winning
biodegradable vegetable oil-based transformer
fluid from high oleic oils. He has been a regular presenter of technical papers for the E/EIC
for 20 years and he has taught short courses at the E/EIC on
Transformer Insulation Fundamentals and Insulating Fluids.
He may be contacted at tv.oomen@ieee.org.

References
1. F.M. Clark, Insulation Materials for Design and Engineering Practice.
New York: McGraw-Hill, 1962.

January/February 2002 Vol. 18, No. 1

2. K.M. Kamath, et al., Variation of dielectric properties of some vegetable


oils in the liquid-solid transition phase, Indian J. of Technology, pp.
312-313, August 1971.
3. K.M. Kamath, et al., Vegetable oils for electrical useProcessing and
application, Industrial Engineering (I) Journal-EL, vol. 56, pp.64-70,
October 1975.
4. T.S. Ramu, On the high frequency dielectric behavior of castor oil,
IEEE Trans. Elec. Insul., vol. EI-14, no. 3, pp. 136-141, 1979.
5. K.P. Mammootty and T.S. Ramu, Properties of castor oil impregnated
all-polypropylene and polypropylene-paper capacitors, IEEE Trans.
Elec. Insul., vol. EI-18, no. 5, pp. 541-550, 1983.
6. U.S. Patent 4,536,331, issued August 20, 1985, Non-toxic impregnat
for electrical capacitors (Inventor: Vandos Shedigian, Emhart
Industries, Inc. Indianapolis, IN).
7. A. Marinho, et al., Castor oil as an insulating fluid, International
Council on Large Electric Systems (CIGRE) Symposium Paper 500.06,
Symposium 05-87, Vienna, 1987.
8. I. Moumine, et al., Vegetable oil as an impregnant in HV ac capacitors,
in Proc. IEEE 5th Intl Conf. on Brkdn. in Sol. Dielec., pp. 611-615,
1995.
9. H.C. Keshavamurthy, et al., Rape seed oil derivative as a new capacitor
impregnant, Conf. Record of the 1994 IEEE International Symposium
on Electrical Insulation, Pittsburgh, PA, 1994, pp. 418-421.
10. E.W. Lucas and K.C. Rhee, Animal and vegetable fats, oils and waxes,
in Riegels Handbook if Industrial Chemistry, 9th ed., J.A. Kent, Ed. New
York: Van Nostrand-Reinhold, 1992, Ch. 8.
11. S.S. Lin, Introduction to fats and oils technology, AOCS Publication,
pp. 211-231, 1997.
12. U.S. Patent Nos. 5,949,017, September 7, 1999, 6,274,067, August 14,
2001, and 6,312,623, November 6, 2001, Electrical transformers
containing electrical insulation fluids comprising high oleic acid oil
compositions (Inventors: Oommen and Claiborne, ABB Power T&D
Company, Inc., Raleigh, NC).
13. U.S. Patent No. 5,958,851, September 28, 1999, Soybean based
transformer oil and transmission line fluid (Inventors: Cannon and
Honary, Waverly Light & Power, Waverly, IA).
14. U.S. Patent No. 6,037,537, March 14, 2000, Vegetable oil based
dielectric coolant (Inventors: McShane et al., Cooper Industries, Inc.,
Houston, TX).
15. T.V. Oommen, et al., A New vegetable oil based transformer fluid:
Development and verification, in Proc. CEIDP, Victoria, British
Columbia, Canada, 2000, pp. 308-312.
16. T.V. Oommen, et al., Biodegradable transformer fluid from high oleic
vegetable oils, Doble Conf. Paper, April 1999.
17. L.R. Lewand, Laboratory evaluation of several synthetic and
agricultural-based dielectric liquids, presented at the Doble Spring
Conference, April 2000.
18. T.V. Oommen and C.C. Claiborne, Biodegradable insulating fluid from
high oleic vegetable oils, presented at the International Council on
Large Electric Systems (CIGRE) Paris Session, 1998.

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