BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR DRIVE CONTROLLED

BY MICRO CONTROLLER
Project report submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
For the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
By
MD.ABDUL BASID (08241A0256)
K.DHANASEKHAR REDDY (08241A0265)
B.RAMAKRISHNA (08241A0289)
P.SRAVAN KUMAR (08241A02A3)

Under the guidance of

E.Venkateswarlu
Assistant Professor

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

GOKARAJU RANGARAJU INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY,
BACHUPALLY, HYDERABAD-72
2012

GOKARAJU RANGARAJU INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY
Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh.
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project report entitled BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR DRIVE
CONTROLLED BY MICROCONTROLLER that is being submitted by Mr. MD.
ABDUL BASID, K.DHANASEKHAR REDDY, B.RAMAKRISHNA and P.SRAVAN
KUMAR in partial fulfillment for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of Technology in
Electrical and Electronics Engineering to the Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University is a
record of bonafide work carried out by him under my guidance and supervision. The results embodied in
this project report have not been submitted to any other University or Institute for the award of any
graduation degree.

Mr.P.M.Sarma
HOD, EEE
GRIET, Hyderabad

Mr. E.Venkateswarlu
Assistant Professor.
GRIET, Hyderabad
(Internal Guide)

Acknowledgement
This is to place on record my appreciation and deep gratitude to the persons without whose
support this project would never seen the light of day.

I have immense pleasure in expressing my thanks and deep sense of gratitude to my guide
MR. E.VENKATESWARLU, Assistant Professor Department of Electrical Engineering,
and G.R.I.E.T for his guidance throughout this project.

I also express my sincere thanks to Mr.P.M.Sarma, Head of the Department, and

Mr.M.Chakravarthy Associate Proffessor G.R.I.E.T for extending his help.

I express my gratitude to The Dr.S.N.Saxena, Project Supervisor G.R.I.E.T for his valuable
recommendations and for accepting this project report.

Finally I express my sincere gratitude to all the members of faculty and my friends who
contributed their valuable advice and helped to complete the project successfully.

MD.ABDUL BASID
K.DHANASEKHAR REDDY
B.RAMAKRISHNA
P.SRAVAN KUMAR

Abstract
A DC Brushless Motor uses a permanent magnet external rotor, three phases of driving coils, one
or more Hall effect devices to sense the position of the rotor, and the associated drive electronics.
The coils are activated, one phase after the other, by the drive electronics as cued by the signals
from the Hall effect sensors, they act as three-phase synchronous motors containing their
own variable frequency drive electronics.
The following are properties of BLDC Motor

Electronic commutation based on Hall position sensors

Less required maintenance due to absence of brushes
Speed/Torque- flat, enables operation at all speeds with rated load
High efficiency, no voltage drop across brushes
High output power/frame size.
Reduced size due to superior thermal characteristics. Because BLDC has the windings on
the stator, which is connected to the case, the heat disipation is better
Higher speed range - no mechanical limitation imposed by brushes/commutator
Low electric noise generation

ii

Abbreviations
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

BLDC: Brushless Direct Current

PMSM: Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor
ASD: Adjustable Speed Drive
VSI: Voltage Source Inverter
CSI: Current Source Inverter
UPS: Uninterrupted Power Supply
LED: Light Emitting Diode
VSM: Virtual State Machine

iii

CONTENTS
S.NO TITLE

Page No.

a)

Acknowledgement

vi

b)

Abstract

vi

c)

Abbreviations

vi

d)

List of Figures

e)

List of Tables

vi

1.

INTRODUCTION
1.1 BLDC MOTORS
1.2 COMPARISION OF BLDC AND PMSM
1.3 BLDC MOTOR CONTROL

1
2
3

2.

ELECTRIC MOTOR
2.1 DC MOTOR
2.2 AC MOTOR
2.3 MOTOR SELECTION

5
5
6
6

3.

HALL SENSORS
3.1 HALL EFFECT
3.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM AND WORKING
3.3 HALL EFFECT SENSOR INTERFACE
3.4 HALL PROBE

9
10
10
11
11

4.

MICROCONTOLLER
4.1 HISTORY
4.1.1 Volumes
4.2 IMPORTANT FEATURES AND APPLICATIONS
4.3 MEMORY ARCHITECHTURE
4.4 PROGRAMMING
4.5 INSTRUCTION SET
4.6 RELATED PROCESSORS
4.7 USE AS INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
INVERTER
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 THREE PHASE INVERTERS
5.3POWER MOSFETS
5.3.1 MOSFET STRUCTURE
5.3.2 ON-STATE RESISTANCE
5.3.3 MOSFET OPERATION
5.4MOSFET DRIVER

12
12
13
13
15
16
16
17
18
19
19
20
22
24
24
25
26

5.

6.

SIMULATION
6.1 SOFTWARE USED
6.2 KEIL VISION
6.2.1 Features
6.3 PROGRAM FOR MICROCONTROLLER
6.4 PROTEUS
6.4.1 INTRODUCTION
6.4.2 SCHEMATIC ENTRY
6.4.3 CIRCUIT SIMULATION
6.4.4ADVANTAGES OF PROTEUS
6.5 PSIM
6.6 KEY FEATURES OF PSIM
6.6.1 EASY TO USE
6.6.2Fast Simulation
6.6.3 Flexible Control Representation
6.6.4 COSIMULATION WITH MATLAB/SIMULINK
6.6.5 FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS
6.7 SIMULATION CIRCUIT
6.7.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
6.7.2 OUTPUT WAVEFORMS
HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION
7.1 CIRCUIT SPECIFICATION
7.2 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
7.2.1 STARTING POWER SUPPLY
7.2.2WORKING OF HALL SENSORS
7.2.3 MICROCONTOLLER CIRCUIT
7.2.4 BLDC MOTOR DEMONSTRATION
7.2.5 MOSFET DRIVER AND INVERTER
7.2.6 TOTAL CIRCUIT
7.3 HARDWARE OUTPUT WAVEFORMS

27
27
27
28
28
30
30
31
31
32
32
33
33
33
33
33
33
34
34
35
36
36
36
36
36
37
37
37
39
40

8.

CONCLUSION AND SCOPE OF FUTURE

8.1 FUTURE SCOPE

41
41

9.

Appendix-A
Appendix-B
Appendix-C
Appendix-D

43
45
56
64

7.

iv

LIST OF FIGURES
1. Figure.1.1 A three-phase synchronous motor with a one permanent magnet pair pole rotor
2. Figure 1.2 Electrical Waveforms in the Two Phase ON Operation and Torque Ripple
3. Figure.1.3 Torque Ripple in a Sinusoidal Motor Controlled as a BLDC
4. Figure.3.1 Hall sensor
5. Figure.3.2 Block diagram of hall sensor
6. Figure.4.1 8051 Microcontroller
7. Figure 4.2 Block diagram of Microcontroller
8. Figure 4.3: Intel 8031 processors
9. Figure 5.1 Basic inverter circuit
10. Figure 5.2: Three Phase VSI Topology
11. Figure5.3: Waveforms of Three Phase Inverter with 120 degrees of operation
12. Figure5.4 Device symbols:(a)n-channel enhancement mode;
(b)p-channel enhancement mode
(c)n-channel depletion mode;
(d) p-channel depletion mode
13. Figure 5.5 Mosfet characteristics
14. Figure 5.6: vertical cross sectional view of Power Mosfet
15. Figure 6.1: simulation circuit of microcontroller.
16. Figure 6.2: Three phase Inverter with 120 degrees of operation
17. Figure 6.3 output waveforms
18. Figure 7.1 BLDC demonstration
19. Figure 7.2: Mosfet driver and inverter

20. Figure 7.3 : Total hardware

LIST OF TABLES
1. Table-1.1 Comparison of BLDC and PMSM motors
2.Table-2.1:Advantages and Disadvantages of different types of motor
3. Table-2.2: Characteristic between a DC, BLDC and an Induction motor
4. Table -5.1 Valid Switch states for a three phase VSI

vi

1. INTRODUCTION
The economic constraints and new standards legislated by governments place increasingly stringent
requirements on electrical systems. New generations of equipment must have higher performance
parameters such as better efficiency and reduced electromagnetic interference. System flexibility must
be high to facilitate market modifications and to reduce development time. All these improvements
must be achieved while, at the same time, decreasing system cost.
Brushless motor technology makes it possible to achieve these specifications. Such motors combine
high reliability with high efficiency, and for a lower cost in comparison with brush motors. This paper
describes the use of a Brushless DC Motor (BLDC). Although the brushless characteristic can be apply
to several kinds of motors AC synchronous motors, stepper motors, switched reluctance motors, AC
induction motors - the BLDC motor is conventionally defined as a permanent magnet synchronous
motor with a trapezoidal Back EMF waveform shape. Permanent magnet synchronous machines with
trapezoidal Back-EMF and (120 electrical degrees wide) rectangular stator currents are widely used as
they offer the following advantages first, assuming the motor has pure trapezoidal Back EMF and that
the stator phases commutation process is accurate, the mechanical torque developed by the motor is
constant; secondly, the Brushless DC drives show a very high mechanical power density

1.1 BLDC MOTORS:

The BLDC motor is an AC synchronous motor with permanent magnets on the rotor (moving part) and
windings on the stator (fix part). Permanent magnets create the rotor flux and the energized
stator windings create electromagnet poles. The rotor (equivalent to a bar magnet) is attracted by the
energized stator phase. By using the appropriate sequence to supply the stator phases, a rotating field
on the stator is created and maintained. This action of the rotor - chasing after the electromagnet poles
on the stator - is the fundamental action used in synchronous permanent magnet motors. The lead
between the rotor and the rotating field must be controlled to produce torque and this synchronization
implies knowledge of the rotor position.

Fig.1.1 A three-phase synchronous motor with a one permanent magnet pair pole rotor

On the stator side, three phase motors are the most common. These offer a good compromise between
precise control and the number of power electronic devices required to control the stator currents. For
the rotor, a greater number of poles usually create a greater torque for the same level of current. On the
other hand, by adding more magnets, a point is reached where, because of the space needed
between magnets, the torque no longer increases. The manufacturing cost also increases with the
number of poles. As a consequence, the number of poles is a compromise between cost, torque and
volume.
Permanent magnet synchronous motors can be classified in many ways, one of these that is of
particular interest to us is that depending on back-emf profiles: Brushless Direct Current Motor
(BLDC) and Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM). This terminology defines the shape of
the back-emf of the synchronous motor. Both BLDC and PMSM motors have permanent magnets on
the rotor but differ in the flux distributions and back-emf profiles. To get the best performance out of
the synchronous motor, it is important to identify the type of motor in order to apply the most
appropriate type of control as described in the next chapters.

1.2 COMPARISION OF BLDC AND PMSM:

Table 1.1 Comparison of BLDC and PMSM motors
BLDC
Synchronous machine
Fed with direct currents
Trapezoidal Bemf
Stator Flux position commutation each 60
degrees
Only two phases ON at the same time
Torque ripple at commutations
Low order current harmonics in the audible
range
Higher core losses due to harmonic content
Less switching losses
Control algorithms are relatively simple

PMSM
Synchronous machine
Fed with sinusoidal currents
Sinusoidal Bemf
Continuous stator flux position variation
Possible to have three phases ON at the same
time
No torque ripple at commutations
Less harmonics due to sinusoidal excitation
Lower core loss
Higher switching losses at the same switching
freq.
Control algorithms are mathematically intensive

motor types are synchronous machines. The only difference between them is the shape of the
induced voltage, resulting from two different manners of wiring the stator coils. The back-emf is
trapezoidal in the BLDC motor case, and sinusoidal in the PMSM motor case.
machines could be driven with sinusoidal currents and PMSM with direct currents, but for
better performance, PMSM motors should be excited by sinusoidal currents and BLDC machines by
direct currents.
can structure (hardware and software) of a sinusoidal motor required several current sensors
and sinusoidal phase currents were hard to achieve with analog techniques. Therefore many motors
(sinusoidal like trapezoidal) were driven with direct current for cost and simplicity reasons ,
compromising efficiency and dynamic behavior.

1.3 BLDC MOTOR CONTROL:

The BLDC motor is characterized by a two phase ON operation to control the inverter. In this
control
scheme, torque production follows the principle that current should flow in only two
of the three phases at a time and that there should be no torque production in the region of
Back
EMF zero crossings. The following figure describes the electrical wave forms in the BLDC motor in
the two phases ON operation.
This control structure has several advantages:

Only one current sensor is necessary

The positioning of the current sensor allows the use of low cost sensors as a shunt.
We have seen that the principle of the BLDC motor is, at all times, to energize the phase pair which
can produce the highest torque. To optimize this effect the Back EMF shape is trapezoidal. The
combination of a DC current with a trapezoidal Back EMF makes it theoretically possible to produce a
constant torque. In practice, the current cannot be established instantaneously in a motor phase; as a
consequence the torque ripple is present at each 60 degree phase commutation.

Fig 1.2 Electrical Waveforms in the Two Phase ON Operation and Torque Ripple

If the motor used has a sinusoidal Back EMF shape, this control can be applied but the produced
torque is:
Firstly, not constant but made up from portions of a sine wave. This is due to its being the
combination of a trapezoidal current control strategy and of a sinusoidal Back EMF. Bear in mind that a
sinusoidal Back EMF shape motor controlled with a sine wave strategy (three phase ON) produces a
constant
torque.
Secondly, the torque value produced is weaker.

Fig.1.3 Torque Ripple in a Sinusoidal Motor Controlled as a BLDC

2. ELECTRIC MOTOR
An electric motor is an electromechanical device that converts electrical energy into mechan-ical
energy.
Most electric motors operate through the interaction of magnetic fields and current-carrying conductors
to
generate force. The reverse process, producing electrical energy from mechanical energy, is
done by generators such as an alternator or a dynamo; some electric motors can also be used as
generators, for example, a traction motor on a vehicle may perform both tasks. Electric motors and
generators are commonly referred to as electric machines.
Electric motors are found in applications as diverse as industrial fans, blowers and pumps, machine
tools, household appliances, power tools, and disk drives. They may be powered by direct current, e.g., a
battery powered portable device or motor vehicle, or by alternating current from a central electrical
distribution grid or inverter. The smallest motors may be found in electric wristwatches. Medium-size
motors of highly standardized dimensions and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for
industrial uses. The very largest electric motors are used for propulsion of ships, pipeline compressors,
and water pumps with ratings in the millions of watts. Electric motors may be classified by the source of
electric power, by their internal construction, by their application, or by the type of motion they give.
The physical principle behind production of mechanical force by the interactions of an electric current
and a magnetic field, Faraday's law of induction, was discovered by Michael Faraday in 1831. Electric
motors of increasing efficiency were constructed from 1821 through the end of the 19th century, but
commercial exploitation of electric motors on a large scale required efficient electrical generators and
electrical distribution networks. The first commercially successful motors were made around 1873.
Some devices convert electricity into motion but do not generate usable mechanical power as a primary
objective, and so are not generally referred to as electric motors. For example, magnetic solenoids and
loudspeakers are usually described as actuators and transducers, respectively, instead of motors. Some
electric motors are used to produce torque or force.

2.1 DC MOTOR:
There are many different types of DC motor commonly used.
The first type is the Brushed DC electric motor. The brushed DC electric motor generates torque
directly from DC power supplied to the motor by using internal commutation, stationary magnets or
rotating electrical magnets.
There is also a brushless type known as Brushless DC motor which is a synchronous
electric motor that are electric motors powered by direct-current (DC) electricity and having electronic
commutation systems, rather than mechanical brushes and commutators.
A Stepper Motor is also a brushless, electric motor that can divide a full rotation into a large
number of steps. The motor's position can be controlled precisely without any feedback mechanism, as
long as the motor is carefully sized to the application. Signal pulses will drive the motor and the shaft
of the stepper motor moves between discrete positions proportional to the pulses. Steppers are
generally commutated open loop as the driver has no feedback on where the rotor actually is.
Lastly is the Servo motor. The servo motor is driven by a voltage value and the output shaft of
the servo motor is commanded to a particular angular position corresponding to the input voltage.
5

They are commonly used in radio controlled airplanes to control the wing flaps and also in RC radio
cars to control the steering of the car.

2.2 AC MOTOR:
An AC motor is an electric motor driven by an alternating current.
It commonly consists of two basic parts, an outside stationary stator having coils supplied with
alternating current to produce a rotating magnetic field, and an inside rotor attached to the output
shaft that is given a torque by the rotating field.
There are two main types of AC motors, depending on the type of rotor used.
The first type is the induction motor, which runs slightly slower than the supply
frequency. The magnetic field on the rotor of this motor is created by an induced current.
The second type is the synchronous motor, which does not rely on induction and as a result,
can rotate exactly at the supply frequency or a sub-multiple of the supply frequency.
The magnetic field on the rotor is either generated by current delivered through slip rings or by a
permanent magnet. Other types of motors include eddy current motors, and also AC/DC mechanically
commutated machines in which speed is dependent on voltage and winding connection.

2.3 MOTOR SELECTION:

This table will compare the advantages and disadvantages of each type of motor.
The Table summarizes the comparison between BLDC motor and other types of motor.
Table 2.1: Advantages and Disadvantages of different types of motor
Type

Advantages

AC Induction Least expensive

(Shaded Pole) Long life
High power
High power
AC Induction
High starting
(split-phase
torque
capacitor)
Brushed DC
Low initial cost
Simple speed
control

Brushless DC

Long lifespan
low maintenance
High efficiency

Disadvantages
Rotation slips from
Frequency
Low starting torque

Rotation slips from

frequency
Maintenance
(brushes)
Medium lifespan
High initial cost
Requires a controller

Typical Application
Fans

Appliance
Power Tools

Typical Drive
Uni/Poly-phase
AC

Uni/Poly-phase
AC

Direct DC or
Treadmill exercisers
PWM
Automotive motors
(seats, blowers, windows)
Hard drives
CD/DVD Rom
Electric vehicles

Direct DC or
PWM

Table-2.2: Characteristic between a DC, BLDC and an Induction motor

FEATURES

BLDC Motor

Brushed DC Motor

Commutation

Electronic commutation
based on Hall position
sensors.

Brushed commutation.

Maintenance

Less required due to

absence of brushes.

Periodic maintenance is
required.

Life

Long.

Speed/Torque Flat Enables operation at

Characteristics all speeds with rated load.

Shorter.

High Reduced size due

to superior thermal
characteristics. Because
BLDC has the windings on
the stator, which is
connected to the case, the
heat dissipation is better.

Rotor Inertia

Low, because it has

permanent magnets on the limits the dynamic
rotor. This improves the characteristics.
dynamic response.

Electric Noise
Generation
Cost Of Motor

Control
Control
Requirement

Higher No mechanical
limitation imposed by
brushes/commutator.
Low.

Lower Mechanical
limitations by the brushes.
Arcs in the brushes will
generate noise causing EMI
in the equipment nearby.

Medium Since it has

permanent magnets,
building costs are higher.
Complex and expensive.

Driven by EMF
created when an
alternating current
Less required due to
absence of brushes.
Long.

Moderately flat At higher Nonlinear Lower

torque at lower speeds.
speeds, brush friction
increases, thus reducing
useful torque.
Moderate/Low The heat Moderate Since both
produced by the armature is stator and rotor have
dissipated in the air gap,
windings, the output
thus increasing the
power to size is lower
temperature in
than BLDC.
the air gap and limiting specs
on the output power/frame
Higher rotor size.
inertia which
High Poor dynamic

Output Power/
Frame Size

Speed Range

Induction Motor

Low.

Simple and inexpensive.

characteristics.

Lower speeds.

High

High - As the phycial

design is more
Complex

Complex and
expensive.
A controller is always
No controller is required for No controller is
required to keep the motor fixed speed; a controller is require for fixed speed;
running. The same
required only if variable a controller is required
controller can be used for
speed is desired.
only if variable speed is
variable speed control.
desired.

Comparing brushed DC motors and induction motors to BLDC motors, BLDC motors have
many advantages over disadvantages. Brushless DC motors require less maintenance and
therefore have a longer life span as compared to brushed DC motors. BLDC motors produce
more output power per frame size than brushed DC motors and induction motors. Because the
rotor is made of permanent magnets, the rotor inertia is less, comparing with other types of
motors. This low rotor inertia improves acceleration and deceleration characteristics,
shortening operating cycles. Their linear speed/torque characteristics produce predictable speed
regulation. With brushless motors, brush inspection is eliminated, making them ideal for areas
with limited access and applications where servicing is difficult. BLDC motors operate much
more quietly than brushed DC motors, reducing Electromagnetic interference (EMI). Lowvoltage models are ideal for battery operation, portable equipment or medical applications. It
also reduces the risk of electric shock.
Based on the above findings, although a BLDC motor is more expensive and harder to control,
its overall advantage proves to be worthy of implementation. Therefore a BLDC motor is
selected for this project.

3. HALL SENSORS
A Hall Effect sensor is a transducer that varies its output voltage in response to a magnetic field. Hall
Effect sensors are used for proximity switching, positioning, speed detection, and current sensing
applications.
In its simplest form, the sensor operates as an analogue transducer, directly returning a voltage. With a
known magnetic field, its distance from the Hall plate can be determined. Using groups of sensors, the
relative position of the magnet can be deduced.

Figure 3.1: Hall sensor

Electricity carried through a conductor will produce a magnetic field that varies with current, and a Hall
sensor can be used to measure the current without interrupting the circuit. Typically, the sensor is
9

integrated with a wound core or permanent magnet that surrounds the conductor to be measured.
Frequently, a Hall sensor is combined with circuitry that allows the device to act in a digital (on/off)
mode, and may be called a switch in this configuration. Commonly seen in industrial applications such as
the pictured pneumatic cylinder, they are also used in consumer equipment; for example some computer
printers use them to detect missing paper and open covers. When high reliability is required, they are
used in keyboards.
Hall sensors are commonly used to time the speed of wheels and shafts, such as for internal combustion
engine ignition timing, tachometers and anti-lock braking systems. They are used in brushless DC
electric motors to detect the position of the permanent magnet. In the pictured wheel with two equally
spaced magnets, the voltage from the sensor will peak twice for each revolution. This arrangement is
commonly used to regulate the speed of disc drives

3.1 HALL EFFECT:

The Hall effect is the production of a voltage difference (the Hall voltage) across an electrical conductor,
transverse to an electric current in the conductor and a magnetic field perpendicular to the current. It was
discovered by Edwin Hall in 1879.
The Hall coefficient is defined as the ratio of the induced electric field to the product of the current
density and the applied magnetic field. It is a characteristic of the material from which the conductor is
made, since its value depends on the type, number, and properties of the charge carriers that constitute
the current.

3.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM AND WORKING:

Figure 3.2: Block diagram of hall sensor

10

From the figure 3.2 notice that sensor are three-wire sensor. This means that two wires, the + V, and the
ground provide dc voltage for the power supply portion of the sensor.
Terminal 0 and ground are used as the output terminals for the sensor. Since this is a three-wire sensor,
the ground terminal is part of the power supply and part of the output circuit. The power supply uses a
voltage regulator to provide the initial current for the Hall-effect element and voltage for the op amp. The
small sensor terminals are connected to the op amp input terminals.
When a magnetic field is sensed, a small voltage is sent to the op amp and the output of the op amp is
sent to a Schmitt trigger and then to the base of an NPN transistor. When the base of the transistor is
biased, it will go into saturation and current will flow through its emitter-collector circuit to provide a
digital (on/off) output signal. In the current-sinking circuit, notice that the transistor provides a path to
ground when the transistor is biased to saturation.

3.3 HALL EFFECT SENSOR INTERFACE:

Hall effect sensor may require analog circuitry to be interfaced to microprocessors. These interfaces may
include input diagnostics, fault protection for transient conditions, and short/open circuit detection. It
may also provide and monitor the current to the Hall Effect sensor itself. There are precision IC products
available to handle these features.

3.4 HALL PROBE:

A Hall probe contains an indium compound semiconductor crystal such as indium antimonite, mounted
on an aluminum backing plate, and encapsulated in the probe head. The plane of the crystal is
perpendicular to the probe handle. Connecting leads from the crystal are brought down through the
handle to the circuit box.
When the Hall Probe is held so that the magnetic field lines are passing at right angles through the sensor
of the probe, the meter gives a reading of the value of magnetic flux density (B). A current is passed
through the crystal which, when placed in a magnetic field has a Hall effect voltage developed across
it. The Hall Effect is seen when a conductor is passed through a uniform magnetic field. The natural
electron drift of the charge carriers causes the magnetic field to apply a Lorentz force (the force exerted
on a charged particle in an electromagnetic field) to these charge carriers. The result is what is seen as a
charge separation, with a buildup of either positive or negative charges on the bottom or on the top of the
plate. The crystal measures 5 mm square. The probe handle, being made of a non-ferrous material, has no
disturbing effect on the field.
A Hall Probe is enough to measure the Earth's magnetic field. It must be held so that the Earth's field
lines are passing directly through it. It is then rotated quickly so the field lines pass through the sensor in
the opposite direction. The change in the flux density reading is double the Earth's magnetic flux density.
A hall probe must first be calibrated against a known value of magnetic field strength. For a solenoid the
hall probe is placed in the center.
11

4. MICROCONTOLLER
The Intel MCS-51(Commonly referred to as 8051) is Harvard architecture, single chip microcontroller
Series which was developed by Intel in 1980 for use in embedded systems. Intels original popular in the
1980s and early 1990s.While Intel no longer manufactures the MCS-51, binary compatible derivatives
Remain popular today. In addition to these physical devices, several companies also offer MCS -51
derivatives as IP cores for use in FPGAs or ASICs designs.

Figure 4.1 8051 Microcontroller

Intel's original MCS-51 family was developed using NMOS technology, but later versions, identified by
a letter C in their name (e.g., 80C51) used CMOS technology and consumed less power than their
NMOS predecessors. This made them more suitable for battery-powered devices.

4.1 HISTORY:
The first single-chip microprocessor was the 4-bit Intel 4004 released in 1971, with the Intel 8008 and
other more capable microprocessors becoming available over the next several years. However, both
processors required external chips to implement a working system, raising total system cost, and making
it impossible to economically computerize appliances.
The Smithsonian Institution says TI engineers Gary Boone and Michael Cochran succeeded in creating
the first microcontroller in 1971. The result of their work was the TMS 1000, which went commercial in
1974. It combined read-only memory, read/write memory, processor and clock on one chip and was
targeted at embedded systems.
Partly in response to the existence of the single-chip TMS 1000, Intel developed a computer system on a
chip optimized for control applications, the Intel 8048, with commercial parts first shipping in 1977. It
combined RAM and ROM on the same chip. This chip would find its way into over one billion PC
keyboards, and other numerous applications. At that time Intel's President, Luke J. Valenter, stated that
the microcontroller was one of the most successful in the company's history, and expanded the division's
budget over 25%.
Most microcontrollers at this time had two variants. One had an erasable EPROM program memory,
which was significantly more expensive than the PROM variant which was only programmable once.
Erasing the EPROM required exposure to ultraviolet light through a transparent quartz lid. One-time
12

parts could be made in lower-cost opaque plastic packages.

In 1993, the introduction of EEPROM memory allowed microcontrollers (beginning with the
Microchip PIC16x84) to be electrically erased quickly without an expensive package as required
for EPROM, allowing both rapid prototyping, and In System Programming.The same year, Atmel
introduced the first microcontroller using Flash memory. Other companies rapidly followed suit, with both memory types.
Cost has plummeted over time, with the cheapest 8-bit microcontrollers being available for under
$0.25 in quantity (thousands) in 2009, and some 32-bit microcontrollers around $1 for similar quantities.
Nowadays microcontrollers are cheap and readily available for hobbyists, with large online communities
around certain processors.
In the future, MRAM could potentially be used in microcontrollers as it has infinite endurance and its
incremental semiconductor wafer process cost is relatively low.

4.1.1 Volumes:
About 55% of all CPUs sold in the world are 8-bit microcontrollers and microprocessors. According to
Semico, over four billion 8-bit microcontrollers were sold in 2006.
A typical home in a developed country is likely to have only four general-purpose microprocessors but around three dozen microcontrollers. A typical mid-range automobile has as many as 30
Or more microcontrollers. They can also be found in many electrical devices such as washing
Machines, microwave ovens, and telephones.

4.2 IMPORTANT FEATURES AND APPLICATIONS:

The 8051 architecture provides many functions (CPU, RAM, ROM, I/O, interrupt logic, timer, etc.) in a
single package

8-bit ALU, Accumulator and 8-bit Registers; hence it is an 8-bit microcontroller

8-bit data bus It can access 8 bits of data in one operation

16-bit address bus It can access 216 memory locations 64 KB (65536 locations)

each of RAM and ROM

On-chip RAM 128 bytes (data memory)

On-chip ROM 4 Kbyte (program memory)

Four byte bi-directional input/output port

13

UART (serial port)

Two 16-bit Counter/timers

Two-level interrupt priority

Power saving mode (on some derivatives)

One particularly useful feature of the 8051 core was the inclusion of a Boolean processing engine
Which allows bit-level Boolean logic operations to be carried out directly and efficiently on select
internal registers and select RAM locations. This advantageous feature helped cement the 8051's
popularity in industrial control applications because it reduced code size by as much as 30%. Anot
her valued feature is the including of four bank selectable working register sets which greatly reduce
the amount of time required to complete an interrupt service routine. With a single instruction 8051
can switch register banks as opposed to the time consuming task of transferring the critical registers
to the stack or designated RAM locations. These registers also allowed the 8051 to quickly perform
a context switch which is essential for time sensitive real-time applications
.
The MCS-51 UARTs make it simple to use the chip as a serial communications interface. External pins
can be configured to connect to internal shift registers in a variety of ways, and the internal timers can
also be used, allowing serial communications in a number of modes, both synchronous and
asynchronous. Some modes allow communications with no external components. A mode compatible
with an RS-485 multi-point communications environment is achievable, but the 8051's real strength is
fitting in with existing ad-hoc protocols (e.g., when controlling serial-controlled devices).
Once a UART, and a timer if necessary, have been configured, the programmer needs only to write a
simple interrupt routine to refill the send shift register whenever the last bit is shifted out by the UART
and/or empty the full receive shift register (copy the data somewhere else). The main program then
performs serial reads and writes simply by reading and writing 8-bit data to stacks.
MCS-51 based microcontrollers typically include one or two UARTs, two or three timers, 128 or 256
bytes of internal data RAM (16 bytes of which are bit-addressable), up to 128 bytes of I/O, 512 bytes to
64 kB of internal program memory, and sometimes a quantity of extended data RAM (ERAM) located in
the external data space. The original 8051 core ran at 12 clock cycles per machine cycle, with most
instructions executing in one or two machine cycles. With a 12 MHz clock frequency, the 8051 could
thus execute 1 million one-cycle instructions per second or 500,000 two-cycle instructions per second.
Enhanced 8051 cores are now commonly used which run at six, four, two, or even one clock per machine
cycle, and have clock frequencies of up to 100 MHz, and are thus capable of an even greater number of
instructions per second. All SILabs, some Dallas and a few Atmel devices have single cycle cores.

14

Features of the modern 8051 include built-in reset timers with brown-out detection, on-chip oscillators,
self-programmable Flash ROM program memory, built-in external RAM, extra internal program storage,
bootloader code in ROM, EEPROM non-volatile data storage, IC, SPI, and USB host
interfaces, CAN or LIN bus, PWM generators, analog comparators, A/D and D/A converters, RTCs,

extra counters and timers, in-circuit debugging facilities, more interrupt sources, and extra power
saving modes.

Figure 4.2 Block diagram of microcontroller

4.3 MEMORY ARCHITECHTURE:

The MCS-51 has four distinct types of memory internal RAM, special function registers, program
memory, and external data memory.
Internal RAM (IRAM) is located from address 0 to address 0xFF. IRAM from 0x00 to 0x7F can be
accessed directly, and the bytes from 0x20 to 0x2F are also bit-addressable. IRAM from 0x80 to
0xFF must be accessed indirectly, using the @R0 or @R1 syntax, with the address to access loaded
in R0 or R1.
Special function registers (SFR) are located from address 0x80 to 0xFF, and are accessed directly using
the same instructions as for the lower half of IRAM. Some of the SFR's are also bit-addressable.
Program memory (PMEM, though less common in usage than IRAM and XRAM) is located starting
at address 0. It may be on- or off-chip, depending on the particular model of chip being used. Program
15

memory is read-only, though somevariants of the 8051 use on-chip flash memory and provide a method
of re-programming the memory in-system or in-application. Aside from storing code, program memory
can also store tables of constants that can be accessed by MOVC A, @DPTR, using the 16-bit special
function register DPTR.
External data memory (XRAM) also starts at address 0. It can also be on- or off-chip; what makes it
"external" is that it must be accessed using the MOVX (Move external) instruction. Many variants of
the 8051 include the standard 256 bytes of IRAM plus a few KB of XRAM on the chip. If more XRAM
is required by an application, the internal XRAM can be disabled, and all MOVX instructions will fetch
from the external bus.

4.4 PROGRAMMING:
There are various high-level programming language compilers for the 8051. Several C compilers are
available for the 8051, most of which feature extensions that allow the programmer to specify where
each variable should be stored in its six types of memory, and provide access to 8051 specific hardware
features such as the multiple register banks and bit manipulation instructions. There are many
commercial compilers. SDCC is a popular open source C compiler. Other high level languages such
as Forth, BASIC, Pascal/Object Pascal, PL/M and Modula-2 are available for the 8051, but they are less
widely used than C and assembly.
Because IRAM, XRAM, and PMEM(read only) all have an address 0, C compilers for the 8051
architecture provide compiler-specific pragmas or other extensions to indicate where a particular piece of
data should be stored (i.e. constants in PMEM or variables needing fast access in IRAM). Since data
could be in one of three memory spaces, a mechanism is usually provided to allow determining to which
memory a pointer refers, either by constraining the pointer type to include the memory space, or by
storing metadata with the pointer.

4.5 INSTRUCTION SET:

The MCS-51 instruction set offers several addressing modes, including

direct register, using ACC (the accumulator) and R0-R7

direct memory, which access the internal RAM or the SFR's, depending on the address

indirect memory, using R0, R1, or DPTR to hold the memory address. The instruction used may

vary to access internal RAM, external RAM, or program memory.

individual bits of a range of IRAM and some of the SFR's

Many of the operations allow any addressing mode for the source or the destination, for example, MOV
020h, 03fh will copy the value in memory location 0x3f in the internal RAM to the memory location
0x20, also in internal RAM.
16

Because the 8051 is an accumulator-based architecture, all arithmetic operations must use the
accumulator, e.g. ADD A, 020h will add the value in memory location 0x20 in the internal RAM to the
accumulator.
One does not need to master these instructions to program the 8051. With the availability of good quality
C compilers, including open source SDCC, virtually all programs can be written with high-level
language.

4.6 RELATED PROCESSORS:

The 8051's predecessor, the 8048, was used in the keyboard of the first IBM PC, where it converted
keypresses into the serial data stream which is sent to the main unit of the computer. The 8048 and
derivatives are still used today for basic model keyboards.
The 8031 was a cut down version of the original Intel 8051 that did not contain any internal program
memory (ROM). To use this chip, external ROM had to be added containing the program that the 8031
would fetch and execute. An 8051 chip could be sold as a ROM-less 8031, as the 8051's internal ROM is
disabled by the normal state of the EA pin in an 8031-based design. A vendor might sell an 8051 as an
8031 for any number of reasons, such as faulty code in the 8051's ROM, or simply an oversupply of
8051's and undersupply of 8031's.

Figure 4.3 :Intel 8031 processors

The 8052 was an enhanced version of the original 8051 that featured 256 bytes of internal RAM instead
of 128 bytes, 8 KB of ROM instead of 4 KB, and a third 16-bit timer. The 8032 had these same features
except for the internal ROM program memory. The 8052 and 8032 are largely considered to be obsolete
because these features and more are included in nearly all modern 8051 based microcontrollers.

17

Intel discontinued its MCS-51 product line in March 2007, however there are plenty of enhanced 8051
products or silicon intellectual property added regularly from other vendors. Current vendors of MCS-51
compatible processors include more than 20 independent manufacturers including Atmel, Infineon
Technologies (formerly Siemens AG), Maxim Integrated Products (via its Dallas
Semiconductor subsidiary), NXP (formerly Philips Semiconductor), Microchip Technology, Nuvoton
(formerly Winbond), ST Microelectronics, Silicon Laboratories (formerly Cygnal), Texas
Instruments, Ramtron International, Silicon Storage Technology, Cypress Semiconductor and Analog
Devices.
The 80C537 and 80C517 are CMOS versions, designed for the automotive industry. Enhancements
mostly new peripheral features and expanded arithmetic instructions. The 80C517 has fail save
mechanisms, analog signal processing facilities and timer capabilities and 8 KB on-chip program
memory. Other features include:

256 byte on-chip RAM

256 directly addressable bits

External program and data memory expandable up to 64 KB

8-bit A/D converter with 12 multiplexed inputs

Arithmetic unit can make division, multiplication, shift and normalize operations

Eight data pointers instead of one for indirect addressing of program and external data memory

Extended watchdog facilities

Nine ports

Two full-duplex serial interfaces with own baud rate generators

Four priority level interrupt systems, 14 interrupt vectors

Three power saving modes

4.7 USE AS INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY:

Today, 8051s are still available as discrete parts, but they are mostly used as silicon intellectual
property cores. Available in high-level language source code (VHDL or Verilog) or FPGA netlist forms,
these cores are typically integrated within embedded systems, in products ranging from USB flash
drives to washing machines to complex wireless communication systems on a chip. Designers use 8051
silicon IP cores, because of the smaller size, and lower power, compared to 32 bit processors like ARM
M series, MIPS and BA22. Modern 8051 cores are faster than earlier packaged versions. Design
improvements have increased 8051 performance while retaining compatibility with the original MCS 51
instruction set. The original Intel 8051 ran at 12 clock cycles per machine cycle, and most instructions
executed in one or two machine cycles. A typical maximum clock frequency of 12 MHz meant these old
8051s could execute one million single-cycle instructions, or 500,000 two-cycle instructions, per second.
In contrast, enhanced 8051 silicon IP cores now run at one clock cycle per machine cycle, and have clock
frequencies of up to 450 MHz. That means an 8051-compatible processor can now execute 450 million
instructions per second.
18

5. INVERTER
5.1 INTRODUCTION:
The main objective of inverters is to produce an ac output waveform from a dc power supply. These are
the types of waveforms required in adjustable speed drives (ASDs), uninterruptible power supplies
(UPS), static var compensators, active filters, flexible ac transmission systems , and voltage
compensators, which are only a few applications. For sinusoidal ac outputs, the magnitude,
frequency, and phase should be controllable. According to the type of ac output waveform, these
topologies can be considered as voltage source inverters (VSIs), where the independently controlled ac
output is a voltage waveform. These structures are the most widely used because they naturally behave as
voltage sources as required by many industrial applications, such as adjustable speed drives (ASDs),
which are the most popular application of inverters; see Fig.5.1

Figure 5.1 Basic inverter circuit

Similarly, these topologies can be found as current source inverters (CSIs), where the independently
controlled ac output is a current waveform. These structures are still widely used in medium-voltage
industrial applications,
where high-quality voltage waveforms are required. Static power converters, specifically inverters, are
constructed from power switches and the ac output waveforms are therefore made up of discrete values.
This leads to the generation of waveforms that feature fast transitions rather than smooth ones. For
instance, the ac output voltage produced by the VSI of a standard ASD is a three-levelwaveform (Fig.
14.1c). Although this waveform is not sinusoidal as expected (Fig. 14.1b), its fundamental component
behaves as such. This behavior should be ensured by a modulating technique that controls the amount of
time and the sequence used to switch the power valves on and off. The modulating techniques most used
are the carrier-based technique (e.g., sinusoidal pulse width modulation, SPWM), the space-vector
technique, and the selective-harmonic-elimination (SHE) technique. The discrete shape of the ac output
waveforms generated by these topologies imposes basic restrictions on the applications of inverters. The
VSI generates an ac output voltage waveform composed of discrete values (highd v =dt ); therefore, the
19

load should be inductive at the harmonic frequencies in order to produce a smooth current waveform. A
capacitive load in the VSIs will generate large current spikes. If this is the case, an inductive filter
between the VSI ac side and the load should be used. On the other hand, the CSI generates an ac output
current waveform composed of discrete values (highdi = dt ); therefore, the load should be capacitive at
the harmonic frequencies in order to produce a smooth voltage waveform.An inductive load in CSIs will
generate large voltage spikes. If this is the case, a capacitive filter between the CSI ac side and
the load should be used. A three-level voltage waveform is not recommended for
medium voltage ASDs due to the high d v =dt that would apply to the motor terminals. Several negative
side effects of this approach have been reported (bearing and isolation problems). As alternatives to
improve the ac output waveforms in VSIs are the multistage topologies (multilevel and multicell). The
basic principle is to construct the required ac output waveform from various voltage levels, which
achieves medium-voltage waveforms at reduced d v = dt . Although these topologies are well developed
in ASDs, they are also suitable for static var compensators, active filters, and voltage compensators.
Specialized modulating techniques have been developed to switch the higher number of power valves
involved in these topologies. Among others, the carrier-based (SPWM) and SV-based techniques have
been naturally extended to these applications. In many applications, it is required to take energy from the
ac side of the inverter and send it back into the dc side. For instance, whenever ASDs need to either
brake or slow down the motor speed, the kinetic energy is sent into the voltage dc link (Fig. 14.1a). This
is known as the regenerative mode operation and, in contrast to the motoring mode, the dc link current
direction is reversed due to the fact that the dc link voltage is fixed. If a capacitor is used to maintain the
dc link voltage (as in standard ASDs) the energy must either be dissipated or fed back into the
distribution system, otherwise, the dc link voltage gradually increases. The first approach requires the dc
link capacitor be connected in parallel with a resistor, which must be properly switched only when the
energy flows from the motor load into the dc link. A better alternative is to feed back such energy into
the distribution system. However, this alternative requires a reversible-current topology connected
between the distribution system and the dc link capacitor. A modern approach to such a requirement is
to use the active front-end rectifier technologies, where the regeneration mode is a natural operating
mode of the system.

5.2 THREE PHASE INVERTERS:

Single-phase VSIs cover low-range power applications and three-phase VSIs cover the medium- to highpower applications. The main purpose of these topologies is to provide a three-phase voltage source,
where the amplitude, phase, and frequency of the voltages should always be controllable. Although most
of the applications require sinusoidal voltage waveforms (e.g., ASDs, UPSs, var compensators), arbitrary
voltages are also required in some emerging applications (e.g., active filters, voltage compensators).
20

The standard three-phase VSI topology is shown in Fig.14.13 and the eight valid switch states are given
in Table 14.3.

Figure 5.2:Three Phase VSI Topology

As in single-phase VSIs, the switches of any leg of the inverter ( S1and S4, S3 and S6,or S5 and S2)
cannot be switched on simultaneously because this would result in a short circuit across the dc link
voltage supply. Similarly, in order to avoid undefined states in the VSI, and thus undefined ac output line
voltages, the switches of any leg of the inverter cannot be switched off simultaneously as this will result
in voltages that will depend upon the respective line current polarity. Of the eight valid states, two of
them (7 and 8 in Table 5.1) produce zero ac line voltages. In this case, the ac line currents freewheel
through either the upper or lower components. The remaining states (1 to 6 in Table 5.1) produce
nonzero ac output voltages. In order to generate a given voltage wave-form, the inverter moves from one
state to another. Thus the resulting ac output line voltages consist of discrete values of voltages that are v
i, 0, and v i. The selection of the states in order to generate the given waveform is done by the
modulating technique that should ensure the use of only the valid states.

Table 5.1 Valid Switch states for a three phase VSI

21

Figure5.3: Waveforms of Three Phase Inverter with 120 degrees of operation

5.3POWER MOSFETS:
In three phase or single inverters Thyristor or Mosfet or IGBTs are used in general ,but due to
commutation circuit present in Thyristors are not used in inverters . So Mosfets are used because of no
commutation circuit is present so power Mosfets are used for high frequency switching applications like
inverters and choppers.
Unlike the bipolar junction transistor (BJT), the MOSFET device belongs to the unipolar device family,
because it uses only the majority carriers in conduction . The development of metal- oxidesemiconductor (MOS) technology for microelectronic circuits opened the way for development of the
power metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET) device in 1975. Selecting the most
appropriate device for a given application is not an easy task because it requires knowledge about the
device characteristics, their unique features, innovation, and engineering design experience. Unlike lowpower (signal devices), high-power devices are more complicated in structure, driver design, and their
operational i -v characteristics are difficult to understand. This knowledge is very important for power
electronics engineers when designing circuits that will make these devices close to ideal. The device
symbol for a p - and n-channel enhancement and depletion types are shown in Fig. 5.1. Figure 5.2 shows
the i -v characteristics for the n -channel enhancement-type MOSFET. It is the fastest power switching
device, with switching frequency >MHz, and with voltage power ratings up to 600 V and current rating
as high as 40 A. Regions of operations for MOSFET will be studied.

22

Figure 5.4 Device symbols: (a) n-channel enhancement mode; (b) p-channel enhancement mode
(c)n-channel depletion mode;
(d) p-channel depletion mode

23

Figure 5.5 Mosfet characteristics

5.3.1 MOSFET STRUCTURE:

Unlike the lateral channel MOSET devices used in much of the IC technology in which the gate, source
and drain terminals are located at the same surface of the silicon wafer, power MOSFETs use vertical
channel structure in order to increase the device power rating . In the vertical channel structure,
the source and drain are on opposite side of the silicon wafer. Figure 6.7a shows a vertical cross-sectional
view for a power MOSFET. Figure 6.7b shows a more simplified representation. There are several
discrete types of the vertical structure power MOSFET available commercially today, including VMOSFET,U-MOSFET, D-MOSFET, and S-MOSFET [1, 2]. The p n junction between the p -base (also
referred to as body or bulk region) and the n -drift region provide the forward voltage blocking
capabilities. The source metal contact is connected directly to the p -base region through a break in
the n-source region in order to allow for a fixed potential to the p -base region during normal device
operation. When the gate and source terminal are set to the same potential( VGS 0), no channel is
established in the p -base region, that is, the channel region remains un modulated. The lower
doping in the n -drift region is needed in order to achieve higher drain voltage blocking capabilities. For
the drain-source current I D to flow, a conductive path must be established between the n- and n
-regions through the p -base diffusion region.

5.3.2 ON-STATE RESISTANCE:

When the MOSFET is in the on-state (triode region), the channel of the device behaves like a constant
resistance R DS on that is linearly proportional to the change between v DS and i D as given by the
following relation:

The total conduction (on-state) power loss for a given MOSFET with forward current I
D and on-resistance R DS on is given by

24

Figure 5.6: vertical cross sectional view of Power Mosfet

The value of R DS oncan be significant and varies between tens of milliohms and a few ohms for
low-voltage and high-voltage MOSFETS, respectively. The on-state resistance is an important data sheet
parameter, because it determines the forward voltage drop across the device and its total power losses.
Unlike the current-controlled bipolar device, which requires base current to allow the current to flow in
the collector, the power MOSFET device is a voltage-controlled unipolar device and requires only a
small amount of input (gate) current. As a result, it requires less drive power than the BJT. However, it is
a nonlatching current like the BJT, that is, a gate source voltage must be maintained. Moreover, as only
majority carriers contribute to the current flow, MOSFETs surpass all other devices in switching speed,
which switching speeds can exceed a few megahertz. Comparing the BJT and the MOSFET, the BJT has
greater power handling capabilities and smaller switching speed, while the MOSFET device has less
power handling capabilities and relatively fast switching speed. The MOSFET device has a higher onstate resistor than the bipolar transistor. Another difference is that the BJT parameters are more sensitive
to junction temperature when compared to the MOSFET and, unlike the BJT,MOSFET devices do not
suffer from second breakdown voltages and sharing current in parallel devices is possible

5.3.3 MOSFET OPERATION:

Most MOSFET devices used in power electronics applications are of the n -channel, enhancement type,
like that shown in Fig. 6.6a. For the MOSFET to carry drain current, a channel between the drain and the
source must be created. This occurs when the gate-to-source voltage exceeds the device threshold voltage
V Th. For v GS > V Th , the device can be either in thetriode region, which is also called constant
resistance region, or in the saturation region, depending on the value of v DS .Forgiven v GS , with
small v DS( v DS< v GS V Th), the device operates in the triode region (saturation region in the BJT),
and forlarger v DS vDS> v GS V Th), the device enters the saturation region (active region in the
BJT). For v GS < V Th, the device turns off, with drain current almost equal to zero. Under both regions
of operation, the gate current is almost zero. This is why the MOSFET is known as a voltage-driven
device and, therefore, requires simple gate control circuit.The characteristic curves in Fig. 6.6b show that
25

there are three distinct regions of operation labeled as triode region, saturation region, and cut-off region.
When used as a switching device, only triode and cut-off regions are used, whereas, when it is used as an
amplifier, the MOSFET must operate in the saturation region, which corresponds to the active region in
the BJT. The device operates in the cut-off region (off-state) when V GS< v Th, resulting in no induced
channel. In order to operate the MOSFET in either the triode or saturation region, a channel must first be
induced. This can be accomplished by applying gate-to-source voltage that exceeds v Th, that is,.

5.4MOSFET DRIVER:
To turn a power MOSFET on, the gate terminal must be set to a voltage at least 10 volts greater than the
source terminal (about 4 volts for logic level MOSFETs). This is comfortably above the Vgs(th) parameter.
One feature of power MOSFETs is that they have a large stray capacitance between the gate and the
other terminals, Ciss. The effect of this is that when the pulse to the gate terminal arrives, it must first
charge this capacitance up before the gate voltage can reach the 10 volts required. The gate terminal then
effectively does take current. Therefore the circuit that drives the gate terminal should be capable of
supplying a reasonable current so the stray capacitance can be charged up as quickly as possible. The
best way to do this is to use a dedicated MOSFET driver chip.
Some require the MOSFET source terminal to be grounded (for the lower 2 MOSFETs in a full bridge or
just a simple switching circuit). Some can drive a MOSFET with the source at a higher voltage. These
have an on-chip charge pump, which means they can generate the 22 volts required to turn the upper
MOSFET in a full bridge on.
Often you will see a low value resistor between the MOSFET driver and the MOSFET gate terminal.
This is to dampen down any ringing oscillations caused by the lead inductance and gate capacitance
which can otherwise exceed the maximum voltage allowed on the gate terminal. It also slows down the
rate at which the MOSFET turns on and off. This can be useful if the intrinsic diodes in the MOSFET do
not turn on fast enough

26

6. SIMULATION
6.1 SOFTWARE USED:
In the micro controller based equipment, the hardware works only when the relevant software is
written into the ROM area of the micro controller. Whenever the power is switched on to the micro
controller, the CPU runs the specified program and generates the relevant outputs to control the internal
and external peripheral devices to accomplish the required task.

6.2 KEIL VISION:

The Keil C51 C Compiler for the 8051 microcontroller is the most popular 8051 C compiler in the world.
It provides more features than any other 8051 C compiler available today.
The C51 Compiler allows to write 8051 microcontroller applications in C that, once compiled, have the
efficiency and speed of assembly language. Language extensions in the C51 Compiler give full access to
all resources of the 8051.
The C51 Compiler translates C source files into relocatable object modules which contain full symbolic
information for debugging with the Vision Debugger or an in-circuit emulator. In addition to the object
file, the compiler generates a listing file which may optionally include symbol table and cross reference
information.
The Keil 8051 Development Tools are designed to solve the complex problems facing embedded
software developers.

When starting a new project, simply select the microcontroller from the Device Database and
the Vision IDE sets all compiler, assembler, linker, and memory options.

Numerous example programs are included to help

get started with the most popular

embedded 8051 devices.

The Keil Vision Debugger accurately simulates on-chip peripherals (IC, CAN, UART, SPI,
Interrupts, I/O Ports, A/D Converter, D/A Converter, and PWM Modules) of 8051 device.
Simulation helps to understand hardware configurations and avoids time wasted on setup
27

problems. Additionally, with simulation, can be written and test applications before target
hardware is available.

6.2.1 Features:

Nine basic data types, including 32-bit IEEE floating-point,

Flexible variable allocation with bit, data, bdata, idata, xdata, and pdata memory types,

Interrupt functions may be written in C,

Full use of the 8051 register banks,

Complete symbol and type information for source-level debugging,

Use of AJMP and ACALL instructions,

Bit-addressable data objects,

Built-in interface for the RTX51 Real-Time Kernel,

Support for dual data pointers on Atmel, AMD, Cypress, Dallas Semiconductor, Infineon,
Philips, and Triscend microcontrollers,

Support for the Philips 8xC750, 8xC751, and 8xC752 limited instruction sets,

Support for the Infineon 80C517 arithmetic unit.

6.3 PROGRAM FOR MICROCONTROLLER:

#include <REGX51.H>
sbit P20=P2^0;
sbit P21=P2^1;
sbit P22=P2^2;
sbit P10=P1^0;
sbit P11=P1^1;
sbit P12=P1^2;
sbit P13=P1^3;
sbit P14=P1^4;
28

sbit P15=P1^5;
sbit P16=P1^6;

void main()
{
P20=P21=P22=1;
P10=1;
P11=0;
P12=0;
P13=1;
P14=0;
P15=0;
while(1)
{
if(P20==0&&P21==0&&P22==0)
{
P10=0;
P11=1;
}
if(P20==0&&P21==0&&P22==1)
{
P13=0;
P15=1;
}
if(P20==0&&P21==1&&P22==0)
{
P11=0;
29

P12=1;
}
if(P20==0&&P21==1&&P22==1)
{
P15=0;
P14=1;
}
if(P20==1&&P21==0&&P22==0)
{
P12=0;
P10=1;
}
if(P20==1&&P21==0&&P22==1)
{
P14=0;
P13=1;
}
}
}

6.4 PROTEUS:
6.4.1 INTRODUCTION:
Proteus for 8051 contains everything you need to develop test and virtually prototype your embedded
System designs based around the popular 8051 series of microcontrollers. The unique nature of
schematic based microcontroller simulation with Proteus facilitates rapid ,flexible and

parallel

development of both the system hardware and the system firmware. This design synergy allows
engineers to evolve their projects more quickly empowering them with the flexibility to make hardware
or firmware changes at will and reducing the time to market.
30

Proteus Virtual System Modeling (VSM) combines mixed mode SPICE circuit simulation, animated
components and microprocessor models to facilitate co-simulation of complete microcontroller based
designs. For the first time ever, it is possible to develop and test such designs before a physical prototype
is constructed.
This is possible because you can interact with the design using on screen indicators such as LED and
LCD displays and actuators such as switches and buttons. The simulation takes place in real time (or near
enough to it): a 1GMHz Pentium III can simulate a basic 8051 system clocking at over 12MHz. Proteus
VSM also provides extensive debugging facilities including breakpoints, single stepping and variable
display for both assembly code and high level language source.
.

6.4.2 SCHEMATIC ENTRY:

Proteus VSM uses our proven Schematic Capture software to provide the environment for design entry
and development. ISIS is a long established product and combines ease of use with powerful editing
tools. It is capable of supporting schematic capture for both simulation and PCB design. Designs entered
in to Proteus VSM for testing can be netlisted for PCB layout either with our own PCB Design products
or with third party PCB layout tools. ISIS also provides a very high degree of control over the drawing
appearance, in terms of line widths, fill styles, fonts, etc. These capabilities are used to the full in
providing the graphics necessary for circuit animation.

6.4.3 CIRCUIT SIMULATION:

Figure 6.1: simulation circuit of microcontroller

31

PROTEUS Software is used for simulating the microcontroller circuit .In this project supply to the stator
winding depending up on rotor position. The rotor position is sensed by Hall sensors. The hall sensor
output is given as input to microcontroller. For simulation purpose the hall sensors are replaced by
switches. In BLDC motors three phase inverter with six step pulses are used for stator supply. The gate
pulses are taken from micocontroller. Depending upon the output of the hall sensor we generate six
pulses from microcontroller which are observed by placing LEDs as shown in above figure

6.4.4ADVANTAGES OF PROTEUS:
The Proteus Design Suite is wholly unique in offering the ability to co-simulate both high and low-level
micro-controller code in the context of a mixed-mode SPICE circuit simulation. With this Virtual System
Modeling facility, you can transform your product design cycle, reaping huge rewards in terms of
reduced time to market and lower costs of development.
If one person designs both the hardware and the software then that person benefits as the hardware
design may be changed just as easily as the software design. In larger organizations where the two roles
are separated, the software designers can begin work as soon as the schematic is completed; there is no
need for them to wait until a physical prototype exists.
In short, Proteus improves efficiency, quality and flexibility throughout the design process.

6.5 PSIM:
PSIM is a simulation software specifically designed for power electronics and motor control. With fast
simulation and friendly user interface, PSIM provides a powerful simulation environment to address your
simulation needs.
PSIM provides an intuitive and easy-to-use graphic user interface for schematic editing. A circuit can be
easily created and edited. Extensive on-line help is available for each component. To handle large
systems, PSIM provides the sub circuit function which allows part of a circuit to be represented by a sub
circuit block.
PSIM simulator is the engine of the simulation environment. It uses efficient algorithms to overcome the
convergence problem and long simulation time existing in many other simulation software. The fast
simulation allows repetitive simulation runs and significantly shortens the design cycle.
Simulation results are displayed and evaluated in Simview. Various waveform processing functions, such
as multiple screens and line styles, are provided. Post-processing functions such as addition/subtraction
and average/rms value calculation are also provided.

32

6.6 KEY FEATURES OF PSIM :

6.6.1 EASY TO USE:
PSIM is so easy to use that one hardly needs the User Manual to use the software. Even without prior
experience with CAD software, one could start building a circuit and obtaining results in minutes.

6.6.2 Fast Simulation:

PSIM is one of the fastest simulators for power electronics simulation. It achieves fast
simulation while retaining excellent simulation accuracy. This makes it particularly efficient in
simulating converter systems of any size, and performing multiple-cycle simulation.
6.6.3 Flexible Control Representation:
PSIM can simulate control circuit in various forms: in analog circuit, s-domain transfer function block
diagram, z-domain transfer function block diagram, custom C code, or in Matlab/Simulink. PSIM's
control library provides a comprehensive list of components and function blocks, and makes it possible
to build virtually any control scheme quickly and conveniently.

6.6.4 COSIMULATION WITH MATLAB/SIMULINK:

PSIM can perform co-simulation with Matlab/Simulink. This feature (available with the Sim Coupler
Module) allows users to make full use of PSIM and Matlab/Simulink in a complementary way.

6.6.5 FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS:

While almost all the simulation software require that a switchmode circuit be represented by an average
model first before performing ac analysis, PSIM can perform ac analysis even if the circuit is in switch
mode. This feature greatly reduces the time required to obtain frequency response.

33

6.7 SIMULATION CIRCUIT:

6.7.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Figure 6.2: Three phase Inverter with 120 degrees of operation

34

6.7.2 OUTPUT WAVEFORMS:

Figure 6.3 output waveforms

35

7. HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION
7.1 CIRCUIT SPECIFICATION
This section covers a BLDC motor drive controlled by microcontroller with the following specifications.

Input
: 24 volts to 3 phase inverter

Power supplies: 5V to microcontroller and Hall sensors

5V and 15 V to MOSFET Driver

Output
:

Microcontroller:AT89C51

Hall Sensors :281

Protection
: None

7.2 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

7.2.1 Starting Power Supply
A power supply is a device that supplies electrical energy to one or more electric loads.
Every power supply must obtain the energy it supplies to its load, as well as any energy it
consumes while performing that task, from an energy source depending on its design.
The power supply circuit will required to provide +5Vdc, +15Vdc and +24Vdc to the whole
system. The table below explains the voltage supply needed for each component.
Components
Microcontroller

Voltage Required
+5V

Hall Sensors

+5V

Motor Drive

+15V and +24V

Function
Used to power up the
device
+15V DC is used for the
control the power supply
Used to power up the
device

Table 7.1: Power Supply

7.2.2WORKING OF HALL SENSORS:

Hall Sensors senses the magnetic field means when North pole of a magnet is nearer to the sensor it
gives output is high and when south pole of a magnet is nearer to the sensor it gives output is low
We connect resistor between input and output terminal as shown in figure and output is shown with the
help of LED and output value is measured with the help of multimeter
In BLDC motor , supply given to the stator depend upon the rotor position and rotor position is sensed
by the hall sensor and the output of the hall sensor output is given as input to the microcontroller.
We use three hall sensors and the outputs of the three hall sensors are given as input to microcontroller

36

7.2.3 MICROCONTOLLER CIRCUIT:

With the help of microcontroller we generate six waveforms for the three phase inverter circuit in 120
degrees of mode of operation (output is six stepped waveform). Depends upon the rotor position
microcontroller gives two pulses only means when one pulse is going to be OFF, at the same time
another pulse is ON.
7.2.4 BLDC MOTOR DEMONSTRATION:
We demonstrate the BLDC motor by the following procedure. We can take two circular plate and are
fixed on a stand .we can place permanent magnets on one circular plate and hall sensors on the another
Plate. In BLDC motor hall sensors are placed in stator and permanent magnets are placed in rotor. In the
same way we can place a hall sensor on circular plate which can be stationary and permanent magnets
are placed in another circular place which can be rotating part and shown in the figure. Hall sensors are
placed electrically 120 degrees apart means mechanically 60 degrees apart. Magnets are placed 90
degrees apart. When rotating circular plate is rotated by hand manually and hall sensors outputs are given
to the microcontroller. Depending upon the position of hall sensors we generate the pulses from the
microcontroller.

Figure 7.1 BLDC demonstration

7.2.5 MOSFET DRIVER AND INVERTER:

The output pulses from the microcontroller is 5V and it is not sufficient to drive the MOSFET gate so we
need to place the driver circuit for increasing the magnitude and to maintain the constant value in higher
magnitude because gate pulse is maintained constant for the full time. when gate pulse is removed mosfet
turns off. In 3phase inverter we use 6 mosfets and 3 mosfet drivers are used. One mosfet driver IR2110
37

gives 2 pulses for mosfets so we use three mosfet drivers. The circuit diagram of mosfet driver and
inverter shown in figure. The output of the inverter is a six stepped waveform. In BLDC motor the
supply to the stator is the six stepped waveform ( not sinusoidal ).The wave forms can be observed by
connecting three resistors in star and observed the phase voltages with respect to common point of star
connected resistors.

Figure 7.2: MOSFET DRIVER AND INVERTER

38

7.2.6 Total Circuit

Now joining all the circuits described above form the total circuit of BLDC motor drive controlled by
microcontroller is shown as below.

Figure 7.3 : Total hardware

39

7.3 HARDWARE OUTPUT WAVEFORMS

The waveforms obtained from the hardware circuit are shown below,

40

8. CONCLUSION AND SCOPE FOR FUTURE WORK

By this project, we have shown the working of BLDC motor which is controlled by microcontroller.
By rotating the circular plate with permanent magnets and obtain the output from the hall sensors and
inverter with six stepped waveforms. BLDC motors possess high efficiency. In BLDC motor PM are on
the rotor & electromagnets are on the stator controlled by software

8.1 FUTURE SCOPE:

Brushless motor technology makes it possible to achieve specifications. Such motors combine high
reliability with high efficiency, and for a lower cost in comparison with brush motor. In future
applications of DC motors in appliances like hard disks, wheel chairs and toys are replaced by BLDC
motors due to their low maintenance cost and high efficiency

41

REFERENCES
1. Dr. P.S.Bimbhra, Power Electronics, Khanna publications.
2. Muhammad H.Rashid, Power Electronics: Circuits, Devices and applications
3. Gopal.K.Dubey Fundamentals of Electrical Drives
4. Wikepedia.org, Brushless DC electric motor ,
< http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brushless_DC_electric_motor >
5. www.microchip.com.
< ww1.microchip.com/downloads/en/AppNotes/00857a.pdf >

42

APPENDIX -A
MH281 LOW SENSITIVITY UNIPOLARHALL EFFECT SWITCH
MH 281 is an unipolar Hall effect sensor IC. It incorporates advanced chopper
stabilization technology to provide accurate and stable magnetic switch points. The design,
specifications and performance have been optimized for applications of solid state switches.
The output transistor will be switched on (BOP) in the presence of a sufficiently strong South
pole magnetic field facing the marked side of the package. Similarly, the output will be switched
off (BRP) in the presence of a weaker South field and remain off with 0 field.
The package type is in a Green version was verified by third party organization. Green
package is available by customers option.

Features and Benefits

CMOS Hall IC Technology

Solid-State Reliability
Chopper stabilized amplifier stage
Unipolar, output switches with absolute value of South pole from magnet
Operation down to 3.0V
High Sensitivity for direct reed switch replacement applications
100% tested at 125 for K Spec.
Custom sensitivity / Temperature selection are available.

Applications

Solid state switch

Limit switch
Current limit
Interrupter
Current sensing
Magnet proximity sensor for reed switch replacement

43

Absolute Maximum Ratings At (Ta=25C)

Characteristics

Values

Unit

Supply voltage,(VDD)

27

Out Voltage

27

Reverse Voltage , (VDD) (VOUT)

-0.3

Magnetic flux density

Unlimited

Gauss

Output current , (IOUT)

50

mA

E version

-40 to +85

K version

-40 to +125

Storage temperature range, (Ts)

-55 to +150

Maximum Junction Temp,(Tj)

150

(ja) UA / SO

206 / 543

C / W

(jc) UA / SO

148 / 410

C / W

606 / 230

mW

Operating Temperature Range, (Ta)

Thermal Resistance

Package Power Dissipation, (PD) UA / SO

Note: Do not apply reverse voltage to VDD and VOUT Pin, It may be caused for Miss function or damaged device.

44

Electrical Specifications
DC Operating Parameters TA=+25, VDD=12V (Unless otherwise specified)
Parameters
Test Conditions
Min
Type
Max
Supply Voltage

Operating

Supply Current

B<Bop

Output Saturation Voltage

3.0

Units

24.0

Volts

5.0

mA

IOUT = 20 mA, B>BOP

500.0

mV

Output Leakage Current

IOFF B<BRP, VOUT = 20V

10.0

uA

Output Rise Time

Output Fall Time

VDD = 12V, RL=1k, CL =20pF

2.5

uS
uS

0.04
0.18

RL=1k; CL=20pF

Typical application circuit

Vcc

D11N4148 or 100
C11000PF

D1
R2

C215PF

C1

Out

MH281 O

R210K

C2

MH 281 Magnetic Specifications

DC Operating Parameters

TA=25, VSUPPLY=12V

Parameter

Symbol

Operate Point

Bop

Release Point

Brp

Hysteresis

Bhys

Test condition

Min

Typ

Max

Unit

175

250

Gauss

95

Gauss
45

Gauss

Output Behavior versus Magnetic Pole

DC Operating Parameters Ta = -40 to 125, Vdd = 3.0 to 24V (unless otherwise specified)
Parameter
South pole
Null or weak magnetic field
North pole

Test condition

OUT(UA)

B>Bop[(250)~(175)]

Low

-Brp ~ +Brp

Open(Pull-up Voltage)

B< -Bop(-250~-175)

Open(Pull-up Voltage)

45

OUT(SO)
Open(Pull-up Voltage)
Open(Pull-up Voltage)
Low

ypical Temperature(TA) Versus Supply Current(IDD)

Typical Supply Voltage(VDD) Versus Supply Current(IDD)

5.0

3.5

4.5
3.0

Supply Current (mA)

Supply Current (mA)

4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5

2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0

1.0
0.5

0.5
0.0

0.0
40

20

25
125

50

75

100

5.0

12
24

15

18.0

20

Supply Voltage(V)

Typical Supply Voltage(VDD) Versus Output Voltage(VDSON)

Typical Temperature(TA) Versus Output Voltage(VDSON)

200.0

200.0

180.0

180.0

Output Saturation Voltage (mV)

Output Saturation Voltage (mV)

Temperature()

160.0
140.0
120.0
100.0
80.0
60.0
40.0
20.0
0.0

160.0
140.0
120.0
100.0
80.0
60.0
40.0
20.0
0.0

5.0

12
24

15

18.0

40

20

25
125

50

75

100

Temperature()

Supply Voltage(V)

Typical Supply Voltage(VDD) Versus Leakage Current(IOFF)

Power Dissipation versus Temperature(TA)

0.05

800

Package power Dissipation(mW)

Output Leakage Current(uA)

20

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01

700

UA Package

600

Rja = 206/w

500
400
300
200
100

SO Package
Rja = 543/w

0.00
3

5.0

12
24

15

18.0

20

-40

40

Temperature()

Supply Voltage(V)

43

80

120

160

Package Power Dissipation

The power dissipation of the Package is a function of the pad size. This can vary from the
minimum pad size for soldering to a pad size given for maximum power dissipation. Power
dissipation for a surface mount device is determined by TJ(max), the maximum rated junction
temperature of the die, RJA, the thermal resistance from the device junction to ambient, and the
operating temperature, Ta. Using the values provided on the data sheet for the Package, PD can
be calculated as follows:
T
-J(max)
Ta
P
D
R
ja
The values for the equation are found in the maximum ratings table on the data sheet.
Substituting these values into the equation for an ambient temperature Ta of 25C, one can
calculate the power dissipation of the device which in this case is 606 milliwatts.
150C - 25C
P D(UA)
606mW
206C/ W
The 206C/W for the UA package assumes the use of the recommended footprint on a glass
epoxy printed circuit board to achieve a power dissipation of 606 milliwatts. There are other
alternatives to achieving higher power dissipation from the Package. Another alternative would
be to use a ceramic substrate or an aluminum core board such as Thermal Clad. Using a board
material such as Thermal Clad, an aluminum core board, the power dissipation can be doubled
using the same footprint.

44

APPENDIX -B

8-Bit
Microcontroller
with 4K Bytes
Flash
AT89C51

45

APPENDIX -B
PDIP

Pin Configurations

41

39

38

36 34
37 35
33
32
31
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

13 15 17 19 21
12 14 16 18 20 22

P0. 4 (AD4)
P0.5 (AD5)
P0.6 (AD6)
P0. 7 (AD7)
EA/VPP
NC
ALE/PROG
PSEN
P2.7 (A15)
P2.6 (A14)
P2.5 (A13)

(AD0)
(AD1)
(AD2)
(AD3)
(AD4)
(AD5)
(AD6)
(AD7)

EA/VPP
ALE/PROG
PSEN
P2.7 (A15)
P2.6 (A14)
P2.5 (A13)
P2.4 (A12)
P2.3 (A11)
P2.2 (A10)
P2.1 (A9)
P 2.0 (A 8 )

PLCC
(AD0)
(AD1)
(AD2)
(AD3)

43

VCC
P0.0
P0.1
P0.2
P0.3
P0.4
P0.5
P0.6
P0.7

INDEX
CORNER

6
P1.5
P1.6
P1.7
RST
(RXD)

7
8
9
10
P3.0
NC
(TX D) P3.1(INT0) P3.2
(INT1 ) P3.3
(T0) P3.4(T1) P3 .5

4
3

44
1

42 40
4 3 4 13 9

36
35
11
12
34
13
33
14
32
15
31
16
30
1 7 1 9 2 1 2 3 2 5 2 72 9
18 20 22 24 26 28
P3.6
P3.7
X TA L 2
X TA L 1
GND
NC
(A8) P2.0
(A 9) P 2.1
(A10) P2.2
(A11) P2.3
(A12) P2.4

40

(WR )
(RD )

42

P1.5
P1.6
P1.7
RST(RXD) P
3.0
NC(TXD) P3.1
( INT0 ) P 3 .2 (
INT1 ) P 3. 3
(T0) P3.4
(T1) P3.5

(WR) P3.6
(RD) P3.7
X TA L 2
X TA L 1

44

GND
GND
(A8) P2.0
(A 9) P 2 .1
(A10) P2.2
(A11) P2.3
(A12) P2.4

INDEX
CORNER

40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

P1.4
P1.3
P1.2
P1.1
P1.0
NC
VCC
P0.0
P0.1
P0.2
P0.3

P1.4
P1.3
P1.2
P1.1
P1.0
NC
VCC
P0.0 (AD0)
P0.1 (AD1)
P0.2 (AD2)
P0.3 (AD3)

PQFP/TQFP

P1.0
P1.1
P1.2
P1.3
P1.4
P1.5
P1.6
P1.7
RST
(RX D ) P3.0
(TX D ) P3.1
(INT0 ) P 3 . 2
(INT1 ) P 3 . 3
(T0) P3.4
(T1) P3.5
(WR ) P 3.6
(RD ) P 3.7
X TA L 2
X TA L 1
GND

46

P0.4 (AD4)
P0.5 ( A D5)
P0.6 ( A D6)
P0.7 ( A D7)
EA/VPP
NC
ALE/PROG
PSEN
P2.7 (A15)
P2.6 (A14)
P2.5 (A13)

47

The AT89C51 provides the following standard features: 4K

bytes of Flash, 128 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, two 16-bit
timer/counters, a five vector two-level interrupt architecture, a
full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator and clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89C51 is designed with static logic
for operation down to zero frequency and supports two
software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode
stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters,
serial port and interrupt system to continue functioning. The
Power Down Mode saves the RAM contents but freezes
the oscillator disabling all other chip functions until the next
hardware reset.

when emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memory that use 8-bit addresses (MOVX @ RI), Port 2 emits the
contents of the P2 Special Function Register.
Port 2 also receives the high-order address bits and some
control signals during Flash programming and verification.
Port 3
Port 3 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pullups.
The Port 3 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs.
When 1s are written to Port 3 pins they are pulled high by
the internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs,
Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source
current (IIL) because of the pullups.
Port 3 also serves the functions of various special features
of the AT89C51 as listed below:

Pin Description
VCC
Supply voltage.
GND
Ground.
Port 0
Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bidirectional I/O port. As an
output port each pin can sink eight TTL inputs. When 1s
are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as highimpedance inputs.
Port 0 may also be configured to be the multiplexed loworder address/data bus during accesses to external program and data memory. In this mode P0 has internal pullups.
Port 0 also receives the code bytes during Flash programming, and outputs the code bytes during program verification. External pullups are required during program verification.

Port Pin

Alternate Functions

P3.0

RXD (serial input port)

P3.1

TXD (serial output port)

P3.2

INT0 (external interrupt 0)

P3.3

INT1 (external interrupt 1)

P3.4

T0 (timer 0 external input)

P3.5

T1 (timer 1 external input)

P3.6

WR (external data memory write strobe)

P3.7

RD (external data memory read strobe)

Port 3 also receives some control signals for Flash programming and verification.
RST
Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while
the oscillator is running resets the device.

Port 1
Port 1 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pullups.
The Port 1 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs.
When 1s are written to Port 1 pins they are pulled high by
the internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs,
Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled low will source
current (IIL) because of the internal pullups.
Port 1 also receives the low-order address bytes during
Flash programming and verification.

ALE/PROG
Address Latch Enable output pulse for latching the low byte
of the address during accesses to external memory. This
pin is also the program pulse input (PROG) during Flash
programming.
In normal operation ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6
the oscillator frequency, and may be used for external timing or clocking purposes. Note, however, that one ALE
pulse is skipped during each access to external Data Memory.
If desired, ALE operation can be disabled by setting bit 0 of
SFR location 8EH. With the bit set, ALE is active only during a MOVX or MOVC instruction. Otherwise, the pin is
weakly pulled high. Setting the ALE-disable bit has no
effect if the microcontroller is in external execution mode.

Port 2
Port 2 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pullups.
The Port 2 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs.
When 1s are written to Port 2 pins they are pulled high by
the internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs,
Port 2 pins that are externally being pulled low will source
current (IIL) because of the internal pullups.
Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during fetches
from external program memory and during accesses to
external data memory that use 16-bit addresses (MOVX @
DPTR). In this application it uses strong internal pullups

PSEN
Program Store Enable is the read strobe to external program memory.

48

When the AT89C51 is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is activated twice each machine
cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during
each access to external data memory.

It should be noted that when idle is terminated by a hard

ware reset, the device normally resumes program execution, from where it left off, up to two machine cycles before
the internal reset algorithm takes control. On-chip hardware
inhibits access to internal RAM in this event, but access to
the port pins is not inhibited. To eliminate the possibility of
an unexpected write to a port pin when Idle is terminated by
reset, the instruction following the one that invokes Idle
should not be one that writes to a port pin or to external
memory.

EA/VPP
External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in
order to enable the device to fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH.
Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be
internally latched on reset.
EA should be strapped to VCC for internal program executions.
This pin also receives the 12-volt programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming, for parts that require
12-volt VPP.

Figure 1. Oscillator Connections

C2
XTAL2

XTAL1
Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the
internal clock operating circuit.

C1
XTAL1

XTAL2
Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.

GND

Oscillator Characteristics
XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively,
of an inverting amplifier which can be configured for use as
an on-chip oscillator, as shown in Figure 1. Either a quartz
crystal or ceramic resonator may be used. To drive the
device from an external clock source, XTAL2 should be left
unconnected while XTAL1 is driven as shown in Figure 2.
There are no requirements on the duty cycle of the external
clock signal, since the input to the internal clocking circuitry
is through a divide-by-two flip-flop, but minimum and maximum voltage high and low time specifications must be
observed.

Note:

C1, C2 = 30 pF
= 40 pF

10 pF for Crystals
10 pF for Ceramic Resonators

Figure 2. External Clock Drive Configuration

Idle Mode
In idle mode, the CPU puts itself to sleep while all the onchip peripherals remain active. The mode is invoked by
software. The content of the on-chip RAM and all the special functions registers remain unchanged during this
mode. The idle mode can be terminated by any enabled
interrupt or by a hardware reset.

Status of External Pins During Idle and Power Down Modes

Mode

Program Memory

ALE

Idle

Internal

Idle

External

Power Down
Power Down

PSEN

PORT0

PORT1

Data

Data

Float

Data

Internal

Data

Data

Data

Data

External

Float

Data

Data

Data

49

PORT2
Data
Address

PORT3
Data
Data

Power Down Mode

Program Memory Lock Bits

In the power down mode the oscillator is stopped, and the

instruction that invokes power down is the last instruction
executed. The on-chip RAM and Special Function Registers retain their values until the power down mode is terminated. The only exit from power down is a hardware reset.
Reset redefines the SFRs but does not change the on-chip
RAM. The reset should not be activated before V CC is
restored to its normal operating level and must be held
active long enough to allow the oscillator to restart and stabilize.

On the chip are three lock bits which can be left unprogrammed (U) or can be programmed (P) to obtain the additional features listed in the table below:
When lock bit 1 is programmed, the logic level at the EA pin
is sampled and latched during reset. If the device is powered up without a reset, the latch initializes to a random
value, and holds that value until reset is activated. It is necessary that the latched value of EA be in agreement with
the current logic level at that pin in order for the device to
function properly.

Lock Bit Protection Modes

Program Lock Bits

Protection Type

LB1

LB2

LB3

No program lock features.

MOVC instructions executed from external program memory are disabled from fetching code
bytes from internal memory, EA is sampled and latched on reset, and further programming of the
Flash is disabled.

Same as mode 2, also verify is disabled.

Same as mode 3, also external execution is disabled.

Programming the Flash

Programming Algorithm: Be fore pr ogr amm ing the

AT89C51, the address, data and control signals should be
set up according to the Flash programming mode table and
Figures 3 and 4. To program the AT89C51, take the following steps.
1. Input the desired memory location on the address
lines.
2. Input the appropriate data byte on the data lines.
3. Activate the correct combination of control signals.
4. Raise EA/VPP to 12V for the high-voltage programming
mode.
5. Pulse ALE/PROG once to program a byte in the Flash
array or the lock bits. The byte-write cycle is self-timed and
typically takes no more than 1.5 ms. Repeat steps
1 through 5, changing the address and data for the
entire array or until the end of the object file is reached.
Data Polling: The AT89C51 features Data Polling to indicate the end of a write cycle. During a write cycle, an
attempted read of the last byte written will result in the complement of the written datum on PO.7. Once the write cycle
has been completed, true data are valid on all outputs, and
the next cycle may begin. Data Polling may begin any time
after a write cycle has been initiated.
Ready/Busy: The progress of byte programming can also
be monitored by the RDY/BSY output signal. P3.4 is pulled
low after ALE goes high during programming to indicate
BUSY. P3.4 is pulled high again when programming is
done to indicate READY.

The AT89C51 is normally shipped with the on-chip Flash

memory array in the erased state (that is, contents = FFH)
and ready to be programmed. The programming interface
accepts either a high-voltage (12-volt) or a low-voltage
(V CC) program enable signal. The low voltage programming mode provides a convenient way to program the
AT89C51 inside the users system, while the high-voltage
programming mode is compatible with conventional third
party Flash or EPROM programmers.
The AT89C51 is shipped with either the high-voltage or
low-voltage programming mode enabled. The respective
top-side marking and device signature codes are listed in
the following table.
VPP = 12V

VPP = 5V

Top-Side Mark

AT89C51
xxxx yyww

AT89C51
xxxx-5
yyww

Signature

(030H)=1EH
(031H)=51H
(032H)=FFH

(030H)=1EH
(031H)=51H
(032H)=05H

The AT89C51 code memory array is programmed byte-bybyte in either programming mode. To program any nonblank byte in the on-chip Flash Memory, the entire memory
must be erased using the Chip Erase Mode.

50

AT89C51
Program Verify: If lock bits LB1 and LB2 have not been
programmed, the programmed code data can be read back
via the address and data lines for verification. The lock bits
cannot be verified directly. Verification of the lock bits is
achieved by observing that their features are enabled.
Chip Erase: The entire Flash array is erased electrically
by using the proper combination of control signals and by
holding ALE/PROG low for 10 ms. The code array is written
with all 1s. The chip erase operation must be executed
before the code memory can be re-programmed.
Reading the Signature Bytes: The signature bytes are
read by the same procedure as a normal verification of
locations 030H,
031H, and 032H, except that P3.6 and P3.7 must be pulled
to a logic low. The values returned are as follows.

(030H) = 1EH indicates manufactured by Atmel

(031H) = 51H indicates 89C51
(032H) = FFH indicates 12V programming
(032H) = 05H indicates 5V programming

Programming Interface
Every code byte in the Flash array can be written and the
entire array can be erased by using the appropriate combination of control signals. The write operation cycle is selftimed and once initiated, will automatically time itself to
completion.
All major programming vendors offer worldwide support for
the Atmel microcontroller series. Please contact your local
programming vendor for the appropriate software revision.

Flash Programming Modes

Mode

RST

PSEN

ALE/PROG

EA/VPP

P2.7

P3.6

P3.7

Write Code Data

Read Code Data

Bit - 1

H/12V

Bit - 2

H/12V

Bit - 3

H/12V

H/12V

Write Lock

Chip Erase

Read Signature Byte

H
L
Note:
1. Chip Erase requires a 10-ms PROG pulse.

H/12V

P2.6

(1)

51

AT89C51
Absolute Maximum Ratings*
*NOTICE:

Operating Temperature .................................. -55C to +125C

Maximum Ratings may cause permanent damStorage Temperature ..................................... -65C to +150C

Stresses beyond those listed under Absolute

age to the device. This is a stress rating only and
functional operation of the device at these or any
other conditions beyond those indicated in the
operational sections of this specification is not
implied. Exposure to absolute maximum rating
conditions for extended periods may affect device
reliability.

Voltage on Any Pin

with Respect to Ground .....................................-1.0V to +7.0V
Maximum Operating Voltage............................................. 6.6V
DC Output Current...................................................... 15.0 mA

DC Characteristics
TA = -40C to 85C, VCC = 5.0V

20% (unless otherwise noted)

Symbol

Parameter

Condition

Min

Max

VIL

Input Low Voltage

(Except EA)

-0.5

0.2 VCC - 0.1

VIL1

Input Low Voltage (EA)

-0.5

0.2 VCC - 0.3

VIH

Input High Voltage

(Except XTAL1, RST)

0.2 VCC + 0.9

VCC + 0.5

VIH1

Input High Voltage

(XTAL1, RST)

0.7 VCC

VCC + 0.5

VOL

Output Low

Voltage(1)

(Ports 1,2,3)

Voltage (1)

IOL = 1.6 Ma

0.45

0.45

VOL1

Output Low
(Port 0, ALE, PSEN)

IOL = 3.2 mA

VOH

Output High Voltage

(Ports 1,2,3, ALE, PSEN)

IOH = -60 A, VCC = 5V

VOH1

Output High Voltage

(Port 0 in External Bus Mode)

2.4

0.75 VCC

IOH = -10 A

0.9 VCC

2.4

IOH = -800 A, VCC = 5V

10%

IOH = -300 A

0.75 VCC

IOH = -80 A

0.9 VCC

Logical 0 Input Current (Ports 1,2,3)

VIN = 0.45V

ITL

Logical 1 to 0 Transition Current

(Ports 1,2,3)

VIN = 2V, VCC = 5V

ILI

Input Leakage Current (Port 0, EA)

0.45 < VIN < VCC

RRST

Reset Pulldown Resistor

CIO

Pin Capacitance

ICC

Power Supply Current

Power Down

10%

IOH = -25 A

IIL

Mode(2)

Units

10%

50

-50

-650

10

300

Test Freq. = 1 MHz, TA = 25C

10

pF

Active Mode, 12 MHz

20

mA

Idle Mode, 12 MHz

mA

VCC = 6V

100

VCC = 3V

40

Notes: 1. Under steady state (non-transient) conditions, IOL must be externally limited as follows:
Maximum IOL per port pin: 10 mA
Maximum IOL per 8-bit port: Port 0: 26 mA
Ports 1, 2, 3: 15 mA
Maximum total IOL for all output pins: 71 mA
If IOL exceeds the test condition, VOL may exceed the related specification. Pins are not guaranteed to sink current greater
than the listed test conditions.
2. Minimum VCC for Power Down is 2V.

52

AT89C51
AC Characteristics
(Under Operating Conditions; Load Capacitance for Port 0, ALE/PROG, and PSEN = 100 pF; Load Capacitance for all other
outputs = 80 pF)

External Program and Data Memory Characteristics

Symbol

Parameter

12 MHz Oscillator
Min

Max

16 to 24 MHz Oscillator
Min

Max

24

Units

1/tCLCL

Oscillator Frequency

tLHLL

ALE Pulse Width

127

2tCLCL-40

ns

tAVLL

Address Valid to ALE Low

43

tCLCL-13

ns

tLLAX

Address Hold After ALE Low

48

tCLCL-20

ns

tLLIV

ALE Low to Valid Instruction In

tLLPL

ALE Low to PSEN Low

43

tCLCL-13

ns

tPLPH

PSEN Pulse Width

205

3tCLCL-20

ns

tPLIV

PSEN Low to Valid Instruction In

tPXIX

Input Instruction Hold After PSEN

tPXIZ

Input Instruction Float After PSEN

tPXAV

PSEN to Address Valid

tAVIV

Address to Valid Instruction In

312

5tCLCL-55

ns

tPLAZ

PSEN Low to Address Float

10

10

ns

tRLRH

RD Pulse Width

400

6tCLCL-100

ns

tWLWH

WR Pulse Width

400

6tCLCL-100

ns

tRLDV

RD Low to Valid Data In

tRHDX

Data Hold After RD

tRHDZ

Data Float After RD

97

2tCLCL-28

ns

tLLDV

ALE Low to Valid Data In

517

8tCLCL-150

ns

tAVDV

Address to Valid Data In

585

9tCLCL-165

ns

tLLWL

ALE Low to RD or WR Low

200

3tCLCL+50

ns

tAVWL

Address to RD or WR Low

203

4tCLCL-75

ns

tQVWX

Data Valid to WR Transition

23

tCLCL-20

ns

tQVWH

Data Valid to WR High

433

7tCLCL-120

ns

tWHQX

Data Hold After WR

33

tCLCL-20

ns

tRLAZ

RD Low to Address Float

tWHLH

RD or WR High to ALE High

4tCLCL-65

233

3tCLCL-45

145
0

0
59

tCLCL-10

252
0

5tCLCL-90

3tCLCL-50

0
43

123

53

tCLCL-20

ns

ns
ns

300

ns

ns

tCLCL-8

75

MHz

ns
ns

ns

tCLCL+25

ns

AT89C51
External Program Memory Read Cycle
tLHLL
ALE PSEN
tAVLL

tLLPL

tPLIV
tPXAV

tPLAZ

tPXIZ

tLLAX

tPXIX
A0 - A7

PORT 0

tPLPH

tLLIV

INSTR IN

A0 - A7

tAVIV
A8 - A15

A8 - A15

PORT 2

External Data Memory Read Cycle

tLHLL
ALE
tWHLH
PSEN

tLLDV

tRLRH

tLLWL
RD

tLLAX
RLAZ

PORT 0

tAVLL

tRLDV

tRHDZ

tRHDX

A0 - A7 FROM RI OR DPL

DATA IN

A0 - A7 FROM PCL

INSTR IN

tAVWL
tAVDV
PORT 2

P2.0 - P2.7 OR A8 - A15 FROM DPH

A8 - A15 FROM PCH

54

AT89C51
External Data Memory Write Cycle
tLHLL
ALE PSEN
tWHLH

WR

tLLWL

tAVLL

tLLAX
tQVWX

A0 - A7 FROM RI OR DPL

PORT 0

tWLWH

tQVWH
DATA OUT

tWHQX
A0 - A7 FROM PCL

INSTR IN

tAVWL
PORT 2

A8 - A15 FROM PCH

P2.0 - P2.7 OR A8 - A15 FROM DPH

External Clock Drive Waveforms

tCHCX

tCHCX

tCLCH

VCC - 0.5V

tCHCL

0.7 VCC
0.2 VCC - 0.1V
0.45V

tCLCX
tCLCL

External Clock Drive

Symbol

Parameter

Min

Max

Units

1/tCLCL

Oscillator Frequency

24

MHz

tCLCL

Clock Period

41.6

ns

Tchcx

High Time

15

ns

tCLCX

Low Time

15

ns

Tclch

Rise Time

20

ns

Tchcl

Fall Time

20

ns

55

APPENDIX-C
IR2110
HIGH AND LOW SIDE DRIVER
Product Summary
Floating channel designed for
bootstrap operation
Fully operational to +500V or
+600V Tolerant to negative
transient
voltage
dV/dt
immune
Gate drive supply range from 10 to 20V
Undervoltage lockout for both channels
3.3V logic compatible
Separate logic supply range from
3.3V to 20V Logic and power ground
5V offset
CMOS Schmitt-triggered inputs with
pull-down
Cycle by cycle edge-triggered
shutdown logic
Matched propagation delay for both
channels
Outputs in phase with inputs

VOFFSET (IR2110)
(IR2113)
IO+/-

2A / 2A VOUT

10 - 20V ton/off (typ.)

120 &

94 ns
Delay Matching (IR2110)
(IR2113)

Packages

Description
The IR2110/IR2113 are high voltage, high speed
power MOSFET and IGBT drivers with independent
high and low side referenced output channels. .

Logic inputs are compatible with standard CMOS or

56

500V max.
600V max.

LSTTL
output,
down
to
3.3V
logic. The
output

10 ns max.
20ns max.

IR2110(-1-2)(S)PbF/IR2113(-1-2)(S)PbF
driver cross-conduction. Propagation delays are matched to simplify use in high
frequency applications. The floating channel can be used to drive an N-channel
power MOSFET or IGBT in the high side configuration which operates up to 500 or 600
volts.

Absolute Maximum Ratings

Absolute maximum ratings indicate sustained limits beyond which damage to the
device may occur. All voltage param- eters are absolute voltages referenced to
COM. The thermal resistance and power dissipation ratings are measured under
board mounted and still air conditions. Additional information is shown in Figures
28 through 35.
Symbol
VB
VS

Definition
High side floating supply voltage

Min.

(IR2110)

-0.3

(IR2113)

-0.3

Max.
525
625

High side floating supply offset voltage

VB - 25

VB + 0.3

VHO

High side floating output voltage

VS - 0.3

VB + 0.3

VCC

Low side fixed supply voltage

-0.3

25

Low side output voltage

-0.3

VCC + 0.3

VLO
VDD

Logic supply voltage

-0.3

VSS + 25

VSS

Logic supply offset voltage

VCC - 25

VCC + 0.3

Logic input voltage (HIN, LIN & SD)

VSS - 0.3

VDD + 0.3

VIN
dVs/dt
PD

Allowable offset supply voltage transient (figure 2)

50

Package power dissipation @ TA +25C

(14 lead DIP)

1.6

(16 lead SOIC)

1.25

57

Units

V/ns
W

IR2110(-1-2)(S)PbF/IR2113(-1-2)(S)PbF
RTHJA

Thermal resistance, junction to ambient

(14 lead DIP)

75

(16 lead SOIC)

100

TJ

Junction temperature

150

TS

Storage temperature

-55

150

TL

Lead temperature (soldering, 10 seconds)

300

C/W

Recommended Operating Conditions

The input/output logic timing diagram is shown in figure 1. For proper operation
the device should be used within the recommended conditions. The VS and VSS
offset ratings are tested with all supplies biased at 15V differential. Typical ratings
at other bias conditions are shown in figures 36 and 37.
Symbol

Definition

VB

High side floating supply absolute voltage

VS

High side floating supply offset voltage

Min.

Max.

VS + 10

VS + 20

(IR2110)

Note 1

500

(IR2113)

Note 1

600

VHO

High side floating output voltage

VS

VB

VCC

Low side fixed supply voltage

10

20

Low side output voltage

VCC

Logic supply voltage

VSS + 3

VSS + 20

VSS

Logic supply offset voltage

-5 (Note 2)

VIN

Logic input voltage (HIN, LIN & SD)

VLO
VDD

VSS

Units

5
VDD

-40
125
C
Ambient temperature
Note 1: Logic operational for VS of -4 to +500V. Logic state held for VS of -4V to
-VBS. (Please refer to the Design Tip
DT97-3 for more
details).
Note 2: When VDD < 5V, the minimum VSS
offset is limited to -VDD.
TA

58

IR2110(-1-2)(S)PbF/IR2113(-1-2)(S)PbF
Dynamic Electrical Characteristics
VBIAS (VCC, VBS, VDD) = 15V, CL = 1000 pF, TA = 25C and VSS = COM unless otherwise specified. The dynamic
electrical characteristics are measured using the test circuit shown in Figure 3.

Symbol

Definition

Figure Min. Typ. Max. Units Test Conditions

ton

Turn-on propagation delay

120

150

VS = 0V

toff

Turn-off propagation delay

94

125

VS = 500V/600V

tsd

Shutdown propagation delay

110

140

tr

Turn-on rise time

10

25

35

tf

Turn-off fall time

11

17

25

MT

Delay matching, HS & LS

turn-on/off

(IR2110)
(IR2113)

ns

VS = 500V/600V

10
20

Static Electrical Characteristics

VBIAS (VCC, VBS, VDD) = 15V, TA = 25C and VSS = COM unless otherwise specified. The VIN, VTH and IIN parameters
are referenced to VSS and are applicable to all three logic input leads: HIN, LIN and SD. The VO and IO parameters are
referenced to COM and are applicable to the respective output leads: HO or LO.

Symbol

Definition

Figure Min. Typ. Max. Units Test Conditions

Logic 1 input voltage

12

9.5

Logic 0 input voltage

13

6.0

VOH

High level output voltage, VBIAS - VO

14

1.2

VOL

Low level output voltage, VO

15

0.1

IO = 0A

Offset supply leakage current

16

50

VB=VS = 500V/600V

IQBS

Quiescent VBS supply current

17

125

230

VIN = 0V or VDD

IQCC

Quiescent VCC supply current

18

180

340

IQDD

Quiescent VDD supply current

19

15

30

VIN = 0V or VDD

IIN+

Logic 1 input bias current

20

20

40

VIN = VDD

Logic 0 input bias current

21
22

7.5

8.6

1.0
9.7

VIN = 0V

23

7.0

8.2

9.4

24

7.4

8.5

9.6

VIH
VIL

ILK

IINVBSUV+

IO+

VBS supply undervoltage positive going

Threshold
VBS supply undervoltage negative going
Threshold
VCC supply undervoltage positive going
Threshold
VCC supply undervoltage negative going
Threshold
Output high short circuit pulsed current

IO-

Output low short circuit pulsed current

VBSUVVCCUV+
VCCUV-

IO = 0A

VIN = 0V or VDD

V
25

7.0

8.2

9.4

26

2.0

2.5

27

2.0

2.5

59

VO = 0V, VIN = VDD

PW 10 s
VO = 15V, VIN = 0V
PW 10 s

IR2110(-1-2)(S)PbF/IR2113(-1-2)(S)PbF

Functional Block Diagram

Lead Definitions
Symbo Description
lVDD
Logic supply
HIN
SD
LIN
VSS
VB
HO
VS
VCC
LO
COM

Logic input for high side gate driver output (HO), in phase
Logic input for shutdown
Logic input for low side gate driver output (LO), in phase
Logic ground
High side floating supply
High side gate drive output
High side floating supply return
Low side supply
Low side gate drive output
Low side return

60

IR2110(-1-2)(S)PbF/IR2113(-1-2)(S)PbF
HV = 10 to 500V/600V

Vcc =15V
10KF6
10
F

0.1
F
9

200
H

0.1
F

10KF6

100F

10

11
12

HO
dVS
>50 V/ns
dt

1
10KF6
OUTPUT
MONITOR

13

2
IRF820

Figure 1. Input/Output Timing Diagram

Figure 2. Floating Supply Voltage Transient Test Circuit

Vcc =15V

10

0.1
F

F
9

HIN
LIN

SD

0.1
F

5
10

11

CL

HO

10
F

+
15V
-

V
S
(0 to 500V/600V)

LO

12

VB

""

"

$ #

10
F

$ #

CL
13

%#

Figure 3. Switching Time Test Circuit

%#

Figure 4. Switching Time Waveform Definition

'*
%#

$ #
$ #

Figure 5. Shutdown Waveform Definitions

Figure 6. Delay Matching Waveform Definitions

61

IR2110(-1-2)(S)PbF/IR2113(-1-2)(S)PbF

250

250

200

200
Turn-On Delay Time (ns)

Turn-On Delay Time (ns)

Max.

150
Max.

100

Typ.

50

0
-50

Typ.

150

100

50

-25

25

50

75

100

0
10

125

12

Figure 7A. Turn-On Time vs. Temperature

250

200
Turn-Off Delay Time (ns)

Turn-On Delay Time (ns)

20

250

Typ.

150
100

150

Max.

100
Typ.

50

0
-50

10 12 14 16 18 20

-25

250

200

200
Turn-Off Delay Time (ns)

250

Max.

150
Typ.

100

50

14

16

25

50

75

100

125

Figure 8A. Turn-Off Time vs. Temperature

Figure 7C. Turn-On Time vs. VDD Supply Voltage

12

Temperature (C)

VDD Supply Voltage (V)

Turn-Off Delay Time (ns)

18

Max.

0
10

16

Figure 7B. Turn-On Time vs. VCC/VBS Supply Voltage

200

50

14

VCC/VBS Supply Voltage (V)

Temperature (C)

18

100

Typ

50
0
0

20

Max.

150

10 12 14 16 18 20

VDD Supply Voltage (V)

VCC/VBS Supply Voltage (V)

Figure 8B. Turn-Off Time vs. VCC/VBS Supply Voltage

Figure 8C. Turn-Off Time vs. VDD Supply Voltage

62

IR2110(-1-2)(S)PbF/IR2113(-1-2)(S)PbF

250

250

200

200
Shutdown Delay time (ns)

Shutdown Delay Time (ns)

Max.

150

Max.

100

Typ.

50

150

Typ.

100

50

0
-50

-25

25

50

75

100

0
10

125

12

16

18

20

Figure 9B. Shutdown Time vs. VCC/VBS Supply Voltage

Figure 9A. Shutdown Time vs. Temperature

250
80

Max .

150

60

100

Typ

40

Turn-On Rise Time (ns)

Shutdown Delay Time (ns)

100

200

50

14

VCC/VBS Supply Voltage (V)

Temperature (C)

M ax.
Typ.

20

0
0

4
6
8 10 12
VDD Supply Voltage (V)

14

16

18

100

25

50

75

100

125

Figure 10A. Turn-On Rise Time vs. Temperature

30
Max.

20
Typ.

Turn-Off Fall Time (ns)

Turn-On Rise Time (ns)

40

20

0
10

50

80

40

-25

Temperature (C)

Figure 9C. Shutdown Time vs. VDD Supply Voltage

60

0
-50

20

Max.

Typ.

10

12

14

16

18

0
-50

20

-25

25

Temperature (C)

VBIAS Supply Voltage (V)

63

50

75

100

125

APPENDIX-D
N-channel enhancement mode
TrenchMOSTM transistor
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
N-channel
enhancement
mode
standard level field-effect power
transistor in a plastic envelope using
trench technology. The device
features very low on-state resistance
and has integral zener diodes giving
ESD protection up to 2kV. It is
intended for use in switched mode
power supplies and general purpose
switching applications.

PINNING - TO220AB
PIN

IRFZ44N

QUICK REFERENCE DATA

SYMBOL

PARAMETER

VDS
ID
Ptot
Tj
RDS(ON)

Drain-source voltage
Drain current (DC)
Total power dissipation
Junction temperature
Drain-source on-state
resistance
VGS = 10 V

PIN CONFIGURATION

MAX.

UNIT

55
49
110
175
22

V
A
W
C
m

SYMBOL

DESCRIPTION

tab

gate

drain

source tab

drain

g
s

1 23

LIMITING VALUES
Limiting values in accordance with the Absolute Maximum System (IEC 134)
SYMBOL

PARAMETER

CONDITIONS

VDS
VDGR
VGS
ID
ID
IDM Ptot
Tstg, Tj

Drain-source voltage
Drain-gate voltage
Gate-source voltage
Drain current (DC)
Drain current (DC)
Drain current (pulse peak value)
Total power dissipation
Storage & operating temperature

RGS = 20 k
Tmb = 25 C
Tmb = 100 C
Tmb = 25 C
Tmb = 25 C
-

MIN.
- 55

MAX.
55
55
20
49
35
160
110
175

UNIT
VVV
AAA
W
C

ESD LIMITING VALUE

SYMBOL

PARAMETER

CONDITIONS

VC

Electrostatic discharge capacitor

voltage, all pins

Human body model

(100 pF, 1.5 k )

MIN.
-

MAX.
2

UNIT
kV

THERMAL RESISTANCES
SYMBOL

PARAMETER

CONDITIONS

65

TYP.

MAX.

UNIT

Rth j-mb
Rth j-a

Thermal resistance junction to

mounting base
Thermal resistance junction to
ambient

1.4

K/W

in free air

60

K/W

66

N-channel enhancement mode

TrenchMOSTM transistor

IRFZ44N

STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
Tj= 25C unless otherwise specified
SYMBOL
V(BR)DSS
voltage
VGS(TO)
Tj = 175C
Tj = -55C
IDSS
Tj = 175C
IGSS
Tj = 175C
V(BR)GSS
RDS(ON)
resistance

PARAMETER

CONDITIONS

Drain-source breakdown

VGS = 0 V; ID = 0.25 mA;

Tj = -55C
VDS = VGS; ID = 1 mA

Gate threshold voltage

1.0
V
4.4
Zero gate voltage drain current VDS = 55 V; VGS = 0 V;
500
A
Gate source leakage current
VGS = 10 V; VDS = 0 V
20
A
Gate source breakdown voltage IG = 1 mA;
Drain-source on-state
VGS = 10 V; ID = 25 A
Tj = 175C

MIN.

TYP.

MAX.

UNIT

2.0

3.0

4.0

0.05

10

55
50

0.04

16
42

15

22

V
m
m

MIN.

TYP.

MAX.

UNIT
S

DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
Tmb = 25C unless otherwise specified
SYMBOL

PARAMETER

CONDITIONS

gfs

Forward transconductance

VDS = 25 V; ID = 25 A

Ciss
Coss
Crss

Input capacitance
Output capacitance
Feedback capacitance

VGS = 0 V; VDS = 25 V; f = 1 MHz

1350
330
155

1800
400
215

pF
pF
pF

Qg
Qgs
Qgd

Total gate charge

Gate-cource charge
Gate-drain (miller) charge

VDD = 44 V; ID = 50 A; VGS = 10 V

62
15
26

nC
nC
nC

td on
tr
td off
tf

Turn-on delay time

Turn-on rise time
Turn-off delay time
Turn-off fall time

VDD = 30 V; ID = 25 A;
VGS = 10 V; RG = 10
Resistive load

18
50
40
30

26
75
50
40

ns
ns
ns
ns

Ld

Internal drain inductance

3.5

nH

Ld

Internal drain inductance

4.5

nH

Ls

Internal source inductance

Measured from contact screw on

tab to centre of die
Measured from drain lead 6 mm
from package to centre of die
Measured from source lead 6 mm
from package to source bond pad

7.5

nH

REVERSE DIODE LIMITING VALUES AND CHARACTERISTICS

Tj = 25C unless otherwise specified
SYMBOL

PARAMETER

IDR
IDRM
VSD

Continuous reverse drain

current
Pulsed reverse drain current
Diode forward voltage

trr
Qrr

Reverse recovery time

Reverse recovery charge

CONDITIONS

MIN.

TYP.

MAX.

UNIT

49

IF = 25 A; VGS = 0 V
IF = 40 A; VGS = 0 V

0.95
1.0

160
1.2
-

A
V

IF = 40 A; -dIF/dt = 100 A/ s;
VGS = -10 V; VR = 30 V

47
0.15

ns
C

67

N-channel enhancement mode

TrenchMOSTM transistor

IRFZ44N

AVALANCHE LIMITING VALUE

SYMBOL

PARAMETER

CONDITIONS

WDSS

Drain-source non-repetitive
unclamped inductive turn-off
energy

ID = 45 A; VDD 25 V;
VGS = 10 V; RGS = 50 ; Tmb = 25 C

120

Normalised Power Derating

PD%

MIN.

TYP.

MAX.

UNIT

110

mJ

1000

110

ID/A

100
90

tp =

RDS(ON) =VDS/ID

80

1 us

100

10us

70
60

100 us

50
DC

40

10

1 ms

30
20

10ms
100ms

10
0

20

40
60
Tmb / C

80

100

120

140

160

180

Normalised Current Derating

ID%

10

100

VDS/V

Fig.3. Safe operating area. Tmb = 25 C

ID & IDM = f(VDS); IDM single pulse; parameter tp

Fig.1. Normalised power dissipation.

PD% = 100 PD/PD 25 C = f(Tmb)

120

10

Zth/(K/W)

110
100
1

90

0.5

80

0.2

70
60

0.1

50

0.1
0.05

PD

0.02

40
30

0.01 0

tp

D=
T

tp

20
10
0

ID%

0
20

40
60
Tmb / C

80

100

120

140

160

0.001

180

Fig.2. Normalised continuous drain current.

= 100 ID/ID 25 C = f(Tmb); conditions: VGS 10 V

1E-06
t/s

0.0001

0.01

Fig.4. Transient thermal impedance.

Zth j-mb = f(t); parameter D = t p/T

68

100

N-channel enhancement mode

TrenchMOSTM transistor

100

IRFZ44N

30

16

10

8.5

VGS/V =

ID/A

gfs/S

8.0

25

80

7.5
20
60

7.0
15
6.5

40

10

6.0
20

VDS/V

5.5

5.0
4.5
10 4.0

0
0

Fig.5. Typical output characteristics, Tj = 25 C.

ID = f(VDS); parameter VGS

20

40

60

80

100

Fig.8. Typical transconductance, T j = 25 C.

gfs = f(ID); conditions: VDS = 25 V

RDS(ON)/mOhm
40
VGS/V =

2.5

35

ID/A

BUK959-60

Rds(on) normlised to 25degC

2
30

6.5
7

1.5

25
8
9

20

10

1
15

10

10

20
30
ID/A

40

50

60

70

80

0.5
-100

90

Fig.6. Typical on-state resistance, Tj = 25 C.

RDS(ON) = f(ID); parameter VGS

-50
0
Tmb / degC

50

100

150

200

Fig.9. Normalised drain-source on-state resistance.

a = RDS(ON)/RDS(ON)25 C = f(Tj); ID = 25 A; VGS = 10 V

100

BUK759-60

VGS(TO) / V
5

ID/A

max.
80

4
typ.

60

40

min.

20
Tj/C =
0
0

175

25

6
VGS/V

10

-100

12

Fig.7. Typical transfer characteristics.

ID = f(VGS) ; conditions: VDS = 25 V; parameter Tj

-50

50
Tj / C

100

150

200

Fig.10. Gate threshold voltage.

VGS(TO) = f(Tj); conditions: ID = 1 mA; VDS = VGS

69

N-channel enhancement mode

TrenchMOSTM transistor

IRFZ44N

100

Sub-Threshold Conduction

1E-01

IF/A
80

1E-02
2%

1E-03

60

98%

typ

Tj/C =

175

25

40

1E-04
20

1E-05
0
0

1E-06

0.2

Fig.11. Sub-threshold drain current.

ID = f(VGS); conditions: Tj = 25 C; VDS = VGS

0.4
VSDS/V

0.6

0.8

1.2

1.4

Fig.14. Typical reverse diode current.

IF = f(VSDS); conditions: VGS = 0 V; parameter Tj

2.5

120

WDSS%

110
100

2
Thousands pF

90
80

1.5

70
Ciss

60
50

40
30
20

.5

0.01

0.1

VDS/V

10

Coss

10

Crss

20

100

Fig.12. Typical capacitances, Ciss, Coss, Crss.

C = f(VDS); conditions: VGS = 0 V; f = 1 MHz

40

60
80
Tmb / C

100

120

140

160

180

Fig.15. Normalised avalanche energy rating.

WDSS% = f(Tmb); conditions: ID = 49 A

12
VGS/V

10

VDD

VDS = 14V
8

VDS

VDS = 4 4V

VGS

-ID/100
0

RGS

0
0

T.U.T.

10

20

QG/nC

30

40

R 01
shunt

50

Fig.16. Avalanche energy test circuit.

WDSS 0.5 LID2 BVDSS BVDSS VDD

Fig.13. Typical turn-on gate-charge characteristics.

VGS = f(QG); conditions: ID = 50 A; parameter VDS

70

N-channel enhancement mode

TrenchMOSTM transistor

IRFZ44N

MECHANICAL DATA
Dimensions mm
Net Mass: 2 g

4,5
max
10,3
max
1,3

3,7
2,8

5,9
min

15,8 max

3,0 max not tinned

3,0

13,5
min

1,3 max
1 2 3

(2x)

0,9 max (3x)

2,54 2,54

0,6
2,4

Fig.18. SOT78 (TO220AB); pin 2 connected to mounting base.

Notes
1. Observe the general handling precautions for electrostatic-discharge sensitive devices (ESDs) to prevent
damage to MOS gate oxide.
2. Refer to mounting instructions for SOT78 (TO220) envelopes.
3. Epoxy meets UL94 V0 at 1/8".

71