Abstract

Modern animal breeding relies on scientific methods to control production of

domesticated animals, both livestock and pets, which exhibit desired physical and
behavioral traits. Genetic technology aids animal breeders to attain nutritional,
medical, recreational, and fashion standards demanded by consumers for animal
products including meat, milk, eggs, leather, wool, and pharmaceuticals. Animals
are also genetically designed to meet labor and sporting requirements for speed
and endurance, conformation and beauty ideals to win show competitions, and
intelligence levels to perform obediently at tasks such as herding, hunting, and
tracking.
Gene therapy is the correction of a genetic disorder by replacing a defective gene
by a correct gene in the afflicted individual. This therapy has been tried on human
successfully in a number of cases. Despite the ethical issues, raised against the
practice, field trials are being carried out and clinical protocols are being
formulated. Beyond the doubts of many, this has all the potential of becoming the
therapy of the future.
This process has been tedious and time-consuming. Now, breeders are under an
increasing market pressure to produce animals, which grow faster, yield more milk,
lay bigger eggs and so on. An approach that combines breeding with molecular
genetics and recombinant DNA technology, has given better results within a short
span of time. It involves selecting and transferring a beneficial gene to the germ line
of an animal so that the gene perpetuates through generations in a stable manner.
The research and development made by amalgamating the aforementioned
branches of study is known as transgenic. It is a branch of genetic engineering that
encompasses the transfer of a gene from one organism to another, and integration
and expression of the gene in the recipient organism in a stable manner.
The organism that receives and expresses the gene is known as the transgenic and
the gene, transgenic. The entire process is known as transgenesis. Although the
process may sound simple, it requires an elaborate practice, skill and knowledge in
genetic engineering.

Introduction
Animal breeding is a branch of animal science that addresses the evaluation
(using best linear unbiased prediction and other methods) of the genetic value
(estimated breeding value, EBV) of livestock. Selecting for breeding animals with
superior EBV in growth rate, egg, meat, milk, or wool production, or with other
desirable traits has revolutionized livestock production throughout the world. The
scientific theory of animal breeding incorporates population genetics, quantitative
genetics, statistics, and recently molecular genomics and is based on the pioneering
work of Sewall Wright, Jay Lush, and Charles Henderson.
Animal breeding controlled propagation of domestic animals in order to improve
desirable qualities. Humanity has been modifying domesticated animals to better
suit human needs for centuries. Selective breeding involves using knowledge from
several branches of science. These include genetics, statistics, reproductive
physiology, computer science, and molecular genetics. This article discusses the
basic principles of how populations of animals can be changed by application of
these principles, and a brief discussion of molecular genetics, immunogenetics, and
newer reproductive technologies is included. The fundamental biological principles
underlying animal breeding are discussed in the articles heredity and animal
reproductive system.
Transgenic animals are animals that have had a foreign gene deliberately inserted
into their genome. Such animals are most commonly created by the micro-injection
of DNA into the pronuclei of a fertilized egg which is subsequently implanted into
the oviduct of a pseudo pregnant surrogate mother. This results in the recipient
animal giving birth to genetically modified offspring. The progeny are then bred with
other transgenic offspring to establish a transgenic line. Transgenic animals can also
be created by inserting DNA into embryonic stem cells which are then microinjected into an embryo which has developed for five or six days after fertilization,
or infecting an embryo with viruses that carry a DNA of interest. This final method is
commonly used to manipulate a single gene; in most cases this involves removing
or 'knocking out' a target gene. The end result is what is known as a knockout
animal.
There are various definitions for the term transgenic animal. The Federation of
European Laboratory Animal Associations defines the term as an animal in which
there has been a deliberate modification of its genome, the genetic makeup of an
organism responsible for inherited characteristics.

The nucleus of all cells in every living organism contains genes made up of DNA.
These genes store information that regulates how our bodies form and function.
Genes can be altered artificially, so that some characteristics of an animal are
changed. For example, an embryo can have an extra, functioning gene from another
source artificially introduced into it, or a gene introduced which can knock out the
functioning of another particular gene in the embryo. Animals that have their DNA
manipulated in this way are knows as transgenic animals.
Objectives

To be able to understand the economic use, benefits and importance of

animal breeding
To be able to understand the economic use, benefits and importance of
transgenic animals

Significance of the study

1. What is the importance of animal breeding?
2. What is the significance of transgenic animals in the 21st century?
3. What are the common misconceptions about animal breeding?
Related literature
Animal breeding
Prior to the twentieth century, humans carefully chose and managed animals with
desired qualities for breeding. Unaware of genetics, people relied for centuries on
observation, experience, and chance to breed selectively livestock and pets that
displayed valued traits such as sturdiness, gentle temperaments, and coat colors
and textures with the expectation that their offspring might also have those
characteristics. Breeding of specific lineages, which produced exceptionally vigorous
animals, was recorded by breeder associations as ideal specimens, honored with
awards, and promoted. Animals that lacked prized assets were removed from
breeding herds. Males were castrated. Sometimes culled animals were slaughtered.
In eighteenth century England, Robert Bakewell initiated many fundamental animalbreeding concepts such as keeping breeding records with accurate pedigrees,
evaluating young male animals with progeny tests, emphasizing family attributes
with careful inbreeding, and breeding only the best animals.
During the early twentieth century, geneticists recognized the potential of
agricultural genetics. Applying scientific principles from Mendelian plant breeding
experiments to animal breeding, scientists developed methodologies to manipulate
some of the 30,000 to 40,000 genes in farm animals to improve such factors as
growth rates, fur quality, and milk production. At Iowa State University in the U.S.,

animal husbandry professor Jay L. Lush (1896-1982) pioneered quantitative

biometrics techniques in the 1930s and 1940s. He is recognized globally as the
founder of modern animal breeding and genetics based on statistical analysis.
Because of Lush, an international animal breeding study center was established at
Iowa State. Such research initiated the transition of animal breeding from an
amateur to primarily professional activity.
Line-breeding programs for cattle began in the U.S. in 1934. Breeding strategies are
pursued because breeders aspire to develop high-quality animals, which earn higher
market prices, produce greater yields, receive larger sporting purses, or win more
prestigious competitions. These victories and performance tests, which assess
yields and growth rates, validate genetic breeding programs. Breeders strive to
create efficiently and consistently uniform types of animals that appeal to
consumers. Purebred line breeding enables breeders to develop and rely on
breeding stock from lineages known to produce certain characteristics such as
meatier beef cattle, faster horses, stronger oxen, or tastier swine. Sheep breeders
use genetics to achieve desired fleece pigment, weight, and fiber diameter,
curvature, and durability. These traits are reinforced when genetically similar
animals that share ancestors are bred. Inbreeding involves mating closely related
animals such as siblings in an effort to emphasize genetic traits in offspring.
However, recessive genes associated with undesired characteristics that breeders
cannot visually detect in the parents are sometimes paired during fertilization,
resulting in inferior offspring.
In contrast, out-crossing involves mating unrelated animals representing the same
breed. Breeders select animals that display specific qualities, hoping that the
offspring will demonstrate all of the targeted traits. Animals of different breeds
within a species are crossbred to enhance strengths associated with each breed.
Sometimes breeders cross animals representing varying species such as a goat and
sheep producing a geep. Most cross-species hybrids are artificially created, although
some occur in the wild. Mules, the offspring of a horse-donkey cross, are sterile and
considered more reliable and stronger workers than their parents.
Dog hybridization commonly occurs and historically accounts for the creation of
most modern breeds such as Yorkshire terriers, which were derived from an
amalgamation of breeds. Mongrels are the most familiar canine hybrids. Some
breeders intentionally cross breeds in an attempt to emphasize and improve breed
qualities in offspring. Hybrids usually inherit their parents' best physical, or
phenotype, characteristics and lack any genetic material that might cause
deficiencies. They are considered more vigorous and resistant to genetic defects
and diseases than purebred dogs and tend to be non-shedding, thus non-allergenic.
Cockapoos, a cross between Cocker Spaniels and Poodles, are popular because of
their gentle dispositions and attractive appearances. Some people purposefully
mate dogs with wolves or coyotes in an attempt to create aggressive hybrids for

protection. Some natural genetic mutations occur such as the Munchkin cat breed,
which has short legs as a result of a dwarfism gene.
Breeding agendas changed during the twentieth century due to industrialized
agriculture and cultural attitudes regarding nutrition. Through World War II, fatty
swine were valued for the lard they produced which had many practical
applications. Breeders cultivated hogs genetically prone to produce large amounts
of fat until the postwar urban market shifted to prefer lean pork. From the 1950s,
fatty swine were culled from breeding programs, and many pig breeds became
extinct. As breeding became more selective to meet consumer demands, animals
became physically and genetically more uniform. Such uniformity was also essential
for animals to be processed by automated slaughter machinery. Animals' genetic
diversity essential for sustainable agriculture was threatened as more breeds
became extinct. Groups such as the American Livestock Breeds Conservancy
formed with the aim of preserving animal breeds. Members are encouraged to
register their animals and store sperm in semen banks. Heirloom animals,
representing endangered breeds from past centuries, are protected on farms where
breeding efforts strived to replenish stock. Some consumers protest at the use of
genetics to control commercial animal reproduction and question how animal
welfare and product quality are affected.
By the late twentieth century, genetics and mathematical models were appropriated
to identify the potential of immature animals. DNA markers indicate how young
animals will mature, saving breeders money by not investing in animals lacking
genetic promise. Scientists also successfully transplanted sperm-producing stem
cells with the goal of restoring fertility to barren breeding animals. At the National
Animal Disease Center in Ames, Iowa, researchers created a gene-based test, which
uses a cloned gene of the organism that causes Johne's disease in cattle in order to
detect that disease to avert epidemics. Researchers also began mapping the dog
genome and developing molecular techniques to evaluate canine chromosomes in
the Quantitative Trait Loci (QTL). Bioinformatics incorporates computers to analyze
genetic material. Some tests were developed to diagnose many of several hundred
genetic canine diseases including hip dysplasia and progressive retinal atrophy
(PRA). A few breed organizations modified standards to discourage breeding of
genetically flawed animals and promote heterozygosis.
In-Breeding and other Breeding Methods
One of the most hotly talked about topics with regard to pure-bred dogs is the use
of in-breeding. This is a term that is often misused and is extremely misunderstood.
Part of the misunderstandings comes from differences in the way the terms are
used within the scientific/medical field, and how it is commonly used by breeders.

These are the most commonly accepted definitions used by serious dog breeders
and will be the definitions used within this article.

In-breeding - This is the breeding of closely related animals. Brother-Sister,

Parent-Offspring, brother - Sister.
Line-breeding - This is the breeding of animals that share common ancestors
but are not closely related. For example the dogs may share a common greatgrandparent.
Out-cross - This is generally considered the breeding of animals with no
common ancestors within the first 4 or 5 generations.

Common Misconceptions
In-breeding causes genetic diseases - Breeding closely related animals increases the
possibility that any bad genes in a line will show up. It does not 'cause' genetic
disease.
Out-crossed dogs are healthier - This is only partly true. There is a known
phenomenon called Hybrid Vigor. Two animals of unrelated strains breed and the
offspring is often bigger and grows faster than its purebred cousins. This method is
often used by farmers in order to get their animals to market sooner. But one of the
biggest misconceptions of hybrid vigor is that it applies to all animals of mixed
heritage. Hybrid Vigor only applies to the animals that are the direct offspring of the
crossing of the unrelated strains. In other words if you continue to breed animals of
different strains there generally will not be any additional increase in hybrid vigor. If
the unrelated strains share common genes for genetic disorders, hybrid vigor will
not over ride the risk of the disorder showing up. Out-crossing can also cause
problems if widely divergent physical types are mixed due to differences in growth
rates and bone and muscle sizes.
Benefits of Each Type of Breeding
By definition, purebred dogs have a smaller gene pool to draw on than mixed breed
dogs. That smaller gene pool gives the breed its individual characteristics, such as
physical appearance and temperament. It is what makes a poodle a Poodle and a
Golden Retriever a Golden Retriever. But there is considerable controversy with
regard to whether the gene pools of the modern pure-bred have become too small.
Inbreeding
In-breeding is more likely to help "set" or "fix" a particular trait within a breed or a
line by narrowing the gene pool to favor those traits. So if a breeder is looking to set
a particular desirable feature of their line then in-breeding and choosing the
offspring most strongly possessing that trait can be beneficial.

In-breeding can also help identify those bad genes that exist within a line. Dogs
possessing the bad genes can be eliminated from a breeding program and carriers
also identified.
Intermittent in-breeding within a line or breed is not damaging to the long term
health of the animals. However, in-breeding over successive generations can lead to
reduced fitness and fertility problems among the offspring, resulting in phenomena
known as In-breeding Depression. It can take many generations to show up
depending on the traits involved.
To use this method responsibly a breeder would not want to in-breed on animals
with known genetic disorders, temperaments not in keeping with it's given breed, or
known serious structural faults, or to in-breed frequently even on healthy-superior
specimens.
Line-Breeding
Line-breeding is another way to help "set" or "fix" desirable traits. With linebreeding you breed animals that are related, but you are also routinely introducing
genes from other lines into the genetic mix. It takes longer to fix the desirable traits
this way, but doing so lowers the risk of those problems associated with repeated
in-breeding. With a tight line-breeding you might find the same 3, 4 or more dogs
showing up numerous times in a 5 generation pedigree.
Loose line-breeding over successive generations will result in more variations of
physical appearance than would in-breeding or tight line-breeding, but will keep the
physical look and structure within the same general size and shape; it also carries
fewer long term risks.
According to geneticists, Line-breeding can be carried on for many generations
without deleterious effects on the line or breed as long as the individuals involved
have few hidden genetic disorders.
Out-Crossing
Out-crossing in terms of pure-bred dogs is the breeding of unrelated dogs. On a
pedigree no names will be repeated within the first 5 generations.
This type of breeding has both advantages and disadvantages. Which as it turns out
are flip sides of the same argument, With out-crossing you are maintaining
the greatest genetic diversity, but this also leads to the least consistency in terms of
physical appearance and other traits.

Out-crossing does not guarantee that the animals won't develop genetic disorders,
but it does tend to reduce the numbers of affected offspring. Your best chance of
getting an animal that is less prone to developing a genetic disorder comes more
from finding a conscientious breeder that screens their animals for hereditary
disorders and breeds for the betterment of the breed.
All three methods of breeding have their place in a long term, well thought out
breeding program. Talk to the breeder, ask questions as to what their goal is in
doing a particular breeding. Ask about the risks and what problems are known to
that line. And all lines have some because the perfect dog and the perfect lines are
still goals of the future for all breeders.
Additional complications arise from simultaneously trying to improve multiple traits
and the difficulty of determining what part of the variation for each trait is under
genetic control. In addition, some traits are genetically correlated, and this
correlation may be positive or negative; that is, the traits may be complementary or
antagonistic. Breeding methods depend on heritability and genetic correlations for
desirable traits.
Transgenic animals
The research and development made by amalgamating the aforementioned
branches of study is known as transgenic. It is a branch of genetic engineering that
encompasses the transfer of a gene from one organism to another, and integration
and expression of the gene in the recipient organism in a stable manner.
The organism that receives and expresses the gene is known as the transgenic and
the gene, transgenic. The entire process is known as transgenesis. Although the
process may sound simple, it requires an elaborate practice, skill and knowledge in
genetic engineering. It may be summed up in the following few points.

The identification of the beneficial character, its encoding gene and its cell
location in the donor organism.
The isolation of the cell carrying the beneficial gene.
The isolation of the beneficial gene of interest.
Delivery of the gene into the target cell.
Monitoring for the integration and expression of the gene.

The nucleus of all cells in every living organism contains genes made up of DNA.
These genes store information that regulates how our bodies form and function.
Genes can be altered artificially, so that some characteristics of an animal are
changed. For example, an embryo can have an extra, functioning gene from another
source artificially introduced into it, or a gene introduced which can knock out the

functioning of another particular gene in the embryo. Animals that have their DNA
manipulated in this way are knows as transgenic animals.
However, transgenesis would be successful, only if the inserted genes are inherited
by the offspring. Also, the success rate for transgenesis is very low and the
transgenic animal has to be mated or cloned for the required results. There are
three basic methods of producing transgenic animals: DNA micro injection,
retrovirus-mediated gene transfer and embryonic stem cell-mediated transfer .Gene
transfer by microinjection is the predominant method used to produce transgenic
farm animals. Since the insertion of DNA results in a random process, transgenic
animals are mated to ensure that their offspring acquire the desired transgene.
However, the success rate of producing transgenic animals individually by these
methods is very low and it may be more efficient to use cloning techniques to
increase their numbers. For example, gene transfer studies revealed that only 0.6%
of transgenic pigs were born with a desired gene after 7,000 eggs were injected
with a specific transgene.
There are mainly two reasons for these animals being produced. First, they are used
as disease models, for researching effective treatments for diseases in humans. E.g.
this cannot be done using normal mice, but genetically engineered ones, by
introducing the requisite genes in them. Second, for acquiring specific economic
traits, For instance, transgenic cattle were created to carry particular human
proteins that can be used to treat human emphysema.
Significantly, unlike the GM crops where India was a late starter and, thus, lagged
far behind other nations, in the case of GM and transgenic animals, the country has
managed to make some headway. Indeed, India has already developed transgenic
fish that grows several times faster than its natural counterpart. Some other Asian
countries are also engaged in such endeavors, making Asia the world leader in
producing transgenic fish.
Transgenic animals have a host of advantages in the fields of medicine, agriculture
and industry. In medicine, it can be used for organ transplant and hence save the
lives of many human beings, transgenic cows produce particular substances that
help increase red blood cells in men. In agriculture, it helps in improving the
quantity and quality of livestock. In industry also, it is used for material fabrication
and material safety testing. For e.g. in 2001, two scientists at Nexia Biotechnologies
in Canada spliced spider genes into the cells of lactating goats. The goats began to
manufacture silk along with their milk and secrete tiny silk strands from their body
by the bucketful. By extracting polymer strands from the milk and weaving them
into thread, the scientists can create a light, tough, flexible material that could be
used in such applications as military uniforms, medical microsutures, and tennis
racket strings.

However, the case of the transgenic animals has sparked off other issues as well.
Ethical concerns top this list of issues. These include the idea of lab animal welfare,
revolving around the notion that the health and welfare of other living creatures are
being neglected in giving prominence to the health and welfare of Man. It also has
other environmental concerns. Genetically engineered animals could pose a serious
threat to the environment if they escape and introduce their engineered genes into
wild populations. Genetically engineered insects, shellfish, fish and other animals
that can easily escape, are highly mobile, and that readily adapt to life in the wild
are of particular concern, particularly if they are more successful at reproduction
than their natural counterparts. Nonnative insects, fish, mussels, mice and rats
have all done extensive environmental damage, suggesting that engineered
varieties could have similar effects if they escaped from their breeding facilities.
Talking about the marmoset monkeys, the fluorescent proteins introduced into their
genes were responsible for the green glow. It is argued that monkeys would make
better models for human diseases, as they are closer to humans than mice and
could help in the search for deadly diseases such as Parkinsons. But this has raised
other concerns as well. It raises the prospect of deliberately breeding monkey
colonies with genetic defects that cause incurable diseases.
So the entire controversy surrounding transgenic animals ends with a question
mark. On one hand, lies the attractive proposition of designing animals to suit your
tastes, preferences and needs, including choosing the colour, texture, and even the
temperament of the animals. And who knows, first it was plants, then animals, next
it could be very well, human beings waiting next in line to be genetically modified.
The benefits of these animals to human welfare can be grouped into areas:

Agriculture
Medicine
Industry

The examples below are not intended to be complete but only to provide a sampling
of the benefits.

1. Agricultural Applications
A) Breeding
Farmers have always used selective breeding to produce animals that exhibit
desired traits (e.g., increased milk production, high growth rate).Traditional breeding
is a time-consuming, difficult task. When technology using molecular biology was

developed, it became possible to develop traits in animals in a shorter time and

with more precision. In addition, it offers the farmer an easy way to increase yields.
B) Quality
Transgenic cows exist that produce more milk or milk with less lactose or
cholesterol12, pigs and cattle that have more meat on them, and sheep that grow
more wool18. In the past, farmers used growth hormones to spur the development
of animals but this technique was problematic, especially since residue of the
hormones remained in the animal product.
c) Disease resistance
Scientists are attempting to produce disease-resistant animals, such as influenzaresistant pigs, but a very limited number of genes are currently known to be
responsible for resistance to diseases in farm animals.
2. Medical Applications
a) xenotransplantation
Patients die every year for lack of a replacement heart, liver, or kidney. For example,
about 5,000 organs are needed each year in the United Kingdom alone. Transgenic
pigs may provide the transplant organs needed to alleviate the shortfall. Currently,
xenotransplantation is hampered by a pig protein that can cause donor rejection but
research is underway to remove the pig protein and replace it with a human protein.
b) Nutritional supplements and pharmaceuticals
Products such as insulin, growth hormone, and blood anti-clotting factors may soon
be or have already been obtained from the milk of transgenic cows, sheep, or
goats. Research is also underway to manufacture milk through transgenesis for
treatment of debilitating diseases such as phenylketonuria (PKU), hereditary
emphysema, and cystic fibrosis.

c) Human gene therapy

Human gene therapy involves adding a normal copy of a gene (transgene) to the
genome of a person carrying defective copies of the gene. The potential for
treatments for the 5,000 named genetic diseases is huge and transgenic animals

could play a role. For example, the A. I. Virtanen Institute in Finland produced a calf
with a gene that makes the substance that promotes the growth of red cells in
humans.
3. Industrial Applications
In 2001, two scientists at Nexia Biotechnologies in Canada spliced spider genes into
the cells of lactating goats. The goats began to manufacture silk along with their
milk and secrete tiny silk strands from their body by the bucketful. By extracting
polymer strands from the milk and weaving them into thread, the scientists can
create a light, tough, flexible material that could be used in such applications as
military uniforms, medical microsutures, and tennis racket strings.
Toxicity-sensitive transgenic animals have been produced for chemical safety
testing. Microorganisms have been engineered to produce a wide variety of
proteins, which in turn can produce enzymes that can speed up industrial chemical
reactions.
Transgenic organisms are created for the benefit of the mankind. Products from
such organisms are already available in many countries. Despite the promising
benefits, serious concerns have been voiced from a large quarter of the population
as to creating these organisms.
Firstly and most importantly, these organisms should be confined and not released
to the nature. If these are released to the nature, there will be an exchange of the
gene pool with the wild varieties leading to a serious impairment of the genetic
diversity. Secondly, we do not have enough knowledge about the safety of the
products harvested from such organisms.
There are instances of viral contaminations of these products, which have forced the
abandonment of some projects. Thirdly and finally, the fact that transgenic plants
and animals will serve as model systems for genetic investigations, spells cruelty.
Presently, there is no regulation governing the transgenic organisms.
The quest for knowledge should not be marred on one plea or the other. Research
and development in this field should continue with an enforced regulation with
cooperation among governmental and non-government agencies of a country and
also countries of the world. Let the human civilization flourish and not perish.

Summary

Gene therapy is the correction of a genetic disorder by replacing a defective gene

by a correct gene in the afflicted individual. This therapy has been tried on human
successfully in a number of cases. Despite the ethical issues, raised against the
practice, field trials are being carried out and clinical protocols are being
formulated. Beyond the doubts of many, this has all the potential of becoming the
therapy of the future.
This process has been tedious and time-consuming. Now, breeders are under an
increasing market pressure to produce animals, which grow faster, yield more milk,
lay bigger eggs and so on. An approach that combines breeding with molecular
genetics and recombinant DNA technology, has given better results within a short
span of time. It involves selecting and transferring a beneficial gene to the germ line
of an animal so that the gene perpetuates through generations in a stable manner.
The research and development made by amalgamating the aforementioned
branches of study is known as transgenic. It is a branch of genetic engineering that
encompasses the transfer of a gene from one organism to another, and integration
and expression of the gene in the recipient organism in a stable manner.
The organism that receives and expresses the gene is known as the transgenic and
the gene, transgenic. The entire process is known as transgenesis. Although the
process may sound simple, it requires an elaborate practice, skill and knowledge in
genetic engineering.
Conclusion
Based on the summary and findings, the following conclusions were made:
1. What is the importance of animal breeding?
Ever since its origin, life has maintained itself on this planet because of its capacity
of self perpetuation or reproduction. Of the two types of reproduction known in
organisms namely asexual and sexual, generally the latter has a higher selective
value as it brings about genetic variety.
Reproduction takes place randomly or selectively in nature depending on various
circumstances. This act of nature of bringing together two individuals so as to
produce offspring has been imitated by man, by selectively mating two individuals
of desirable quality. This phenomenon wherein human beings interfere in the
process of reproduction to allow only selective mating with the idea of producing an
individual with required characters is called breeding (as against natural
reproduction)
Breeding in domesticated animals and cultivated crops has a history which perhaps
began with the changed habit of human beings from the hunter gatherer stage to

agricultural settlements. A continuous attempt is made since then and continuing

even now to obtain better quality animals (egg production, milk production, meat
quality and quantity etc) and better quality plants (increased yield, disease
resistance, early maturity etc). With the discovery of laws of inheritance by Mendel
and the development of Genetics as an important science, refined tools and
techniques have been made available to the plant and animal breeder. Earlier
techniques of plant and animal breeding were a touch and go affair. The
understanding provided by Genetics however has vastly changed the scenario. Plant
and animal breeders are sure of what they want to produce and how to produce the
desired type of progeny.
2. What is the significance of transgenic animals in the 21st century?
Some transgenic animals are produced for specific economic traits. For example,
transgenic cattle were created to produce milk containing particular human
proteins, which may help in the treatment of human emphysema.
Other transgenic animals are produced as disease models (animals genetically
manipulated to exhibit disease symptoms so that effective treatment can be
studied). For example, Harvard scientists made a major scientific breakthrough
when they received a U.S. patent (the company DuPont holds exclusive rights to its
use) for a genetically engineered mouse
Interestingly, the creation of transgenic animals has resulted in a shift in the use of
laboratory animals from the use of higher-order species such as dogs to lowerorder species such as mice and has decreased the number of animals used in
such experimentation,26 especially in the development of disease models. This is
certainly a good turn of events since transgenic technology holds great potential in
many fields, including agriculture, medicine, and industry.
3. What are the common misconceptions about animal breeding?
In-breeding causes genetic diseases - Breeding closely related animals increases the
possibility that any bad genes in a line will show up. It does not 'cause' genetic
disease.
Out-crossed animals are healthier - This is only partly true. There is a known
phenomenon called Hybrid Vigor. Two animals of unrelated strains breed and the
offspring is often bigger and grows faster than its purebred cousins. This method is
often used by farmers in order to get their animals to market sooner. But one of the
biggest misconceptions of hybrid vigor is that it applies to all animals of mixed
heritage. Hybrid Vigor only applies to the animals that are the direct offspring of the
crossing of the unrelated strains. In other words if you continue to breed animals of
different strains there generally will not be any additional increase in hybrid vigor. If

the unrelated strains share common genes for genetic disorders, hybrid vigor will
not over ride the risk of the disorder showing up. Out-crossing can also cause
problems if widely divergent physical types are mixed due to differences in growth
rates and bone and muscle sizes.

References
http://www.essayempire.com/customessay/sciencetechnologyresearchpapers/biotec
hnology-research-paper/7427.html
http://www.britannica.com/science/animal-breeding
http://www.preservearticles.com/2011100614863/here-is-your-free-sample-essayon-transgenic-animals.html
https://cseindiaportal.wordpress.com/2012/12/16/transgenic-animals-an-overview/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_breeding
http://members.tripod.com/~marge_s_2/nonframes/inbreeding.htm
http://www.actionbioscience.org/biotechnology/margawati.html
http://www.whatisbiotechnology.org/science/transgenic
http://people.ucalgary.ca/~browder/transgenic.html