Analysis and Implementation of Approximate Solution

Methods to the Equation of Radiative Transfer in

Participating Media

Dual Degree Project Final Report

By
V.Narender Reddy
10D010003

Under the guidance of

Prof. Kowsik Bodi

Department of Aerospace Engineering,

Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay
May, 2015

Acknowledgement

I am extremely thankful to Prof. Kowsik Bodi for having given me the opportunity to work
under him on this topic. He has shown a lot of confidence in me and encouraged me to think
on my own. He was always open to whatever ideas I had and at times when I faced
difficulties, he continuously mentored me giving me valuable suggestions and new lines to
think on. I am also thankful to the Department of Aerospace Engineering, IIT Bombay for
providing me with the resources to work on this project.
I would like to thank all of my friends and colleagues for their continuous assistance and
backing throughout the project.
Finally I would like to thank my Parents for their blessings and continuous motivation,
without which reaching at this stage would not have been possible.
Narender Reddy V
(10D010003)

Certificate

Abstract
Approximate Methods to solve the Equation of Radiative Transfer in Participating Medium
have been used to solve three types of Problems. 1-D Atmospheric Model is built to get
Atmospheric Spectrum which is solved by using Runge-Kutta (RK4) Numerical Method.
Using S N Approximation method heat transfer rates have been found within the medium
between two Surfaces. Finally a two Dimensional Cylindrical Enclosure (with heat Source/s
Enclaved in it) problem have been solved for Surface Heat Fluxes Using Monte Carlo
Methods. Improvements have been made to these approximation Methods to generalize the
problem for many cases which are presented in the report.

Table of Contents
List of Figures & Tables.............................................................................................. 6
Nomenclature........................................................................................................... 7
1.1

Motivation................................................................................................... 8

1.2

Objective of this work.................................................................................... 8

1.3

Organization of report................................................................................... 8

Thermal Radiation..................................................................................................... 9
2.1 Fundamentals of Thermal Radiation.....................................................................9
2.2 Equation of Radiative Transfer in Participating Media...........................................10
2.3 Exact Solutions................................................................................................ 11
2.4 Approximate Methods...................................................................................... 11
2.4.2 Discrete Ordinate Method............................................................................. 11
2.4.3 Finite Volume Method.................................................................................. 12
2.4.4 Spherical Harmonics................................................................................... 13
2.4.5Monte Carlo Method..................................................................................... 13
Atmosphere 1-D Radiation Model............................................................................... 15
3.1 Problem Statement........................................................................................... 15
3.2 Background.................................................................................................... 15
3.3 Governing Equation......................................................................................... 15
3.3.1 Absorption.................................................................................................... 15
3.3.2 Emission...................................................................................................... 16
3.4 Approach........................................................................................................ 16
3.5 Solving Steps................................................................................................... 16
3.6 Results & Verification....................................................................................... 18
3.6.1 Sun as Source............................................................................................ 18
3.6.2 Earth as Source.......................................................................................... 19
3.6.3 Standard plots & Verification.........................................................................20

One D ProblemSN Approximation ......................................................................23

4.1 Problem Statement........................................................................................... 23
4.2 Solution Method.............................................................................................. 23
4.3 Calculations.................................................................................................... 25
4.4 Results........................................................................................................... 30
Two-Dimensional Cylindrical Enclosure.......................................................................31
5.1 Problem Statement........................................................................................... 31
5.2 Introduction................................................................................................... 31

3.3 Description of Monte Carlo Method....................................................................32

3.4 Approach....................................................................................................... 32
3.6 Results........................................................................................................... 32
3.6 Error Analysis................................................................................................. 32
References.............................................................................................................. 32
Appendices............................................................................................................. 34

List of Figures

Nomenclature
2

I =Radiation Intensity kW /(m . sr )

, , =Direction Cosines
=emissivity
= Azimuth Angle
N=Number of packets
R=Random Number 0 1
=Wavelength
P=Probability
= Angular Polar angle measured Z axis
=Stephan Boltzmann Constant

k a , s= AbsorptionScatteringCoefficient
=Extinction coefficient
s^ =Direction vetor
w mn=WeightsDOM
=Scattering Phase Function
q^ =Radiative Heat Flux vector
=Solid Angle
r=Radial Coordinate

I b=Planck Body Function

=Optical Distance
Subscripts
w=wall
b=blackbody
o=Initial Value

i=I th Parameter

Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Motivation
Energy is Mystery and Thermal Radiation is more Mysterious. In modern era, analysis of
radiative heat transfer has been an important field of study. The reasons being

Energy Efficiency. With depleting energy sources it has been focus in many

engineering areas of heat transfer to carefully design systems to avoid heat losses.
High temperature Applications. In case of conduction & convection heat transfer is
directly proportional to temperature, but in radiation it is proportional fourth power of
temperature. So in higher temperature applications such as rocket nozzles, Jet Engines

etc., Radiative heat Transfer should be checked.

Environmental Damage. Studying depletion of Ozone Due to pollutant media. To get
estimation of temperatures, heat flux etc. at areas where temperatures cannot be
measured with equipments. To avoid high cost

1.2 Objective of this work

To study radiative heat transfer
1.3 Organization of report
Initial Part of the report is introduction to equation to Radiative transfer and Literature Survey
of major approximate methods to solve it. After that the Atmosphere 1-D Radiation Model is
analyzed using Equation of Radiative Transfer. Finally major problem of two Dimensional
cylindrical enclosure is analyzed using Monte Carlo Method.

Chapter 2

Thermal Radiation
2.1 Fundamentals of Thermal Radiation
In Simple terms Thermal Radiation is a mode of heat transfer caused by electromagnetic
waves. Anything which has mass and temperature greater than absolute zero continuously
emits/absorbs thermal radiation.
Emissive Power: Radiative Heat Flux Emitted from a surface.
Total Black Body Emissive Power:

Eb ( T ) =n T

=5.6710

W
mK4

Radiative Intensity: Radiative energy flow per unit solid angle and unit area normal to the
rays.
Radiative Heat Flux:

( q )net =( q ) + ( q )out = I ( s^ ) n^ . s^ d
4

q . n^ = ( q ) net . n^ . d
0

k
+ s ) S
Transmissivity: (
=e
k =absorption coefficient

where S thickness of gas and

And s=scattering coefficient

Absorptivity: =1

Extinction Coefficient:

+
(
s )
=

Radiative equilibrium means that thermodynamic equilibrium within the medium is achieved

by virtue of thermal radiation alone, neglecting conduction and convection.

Diffuse-gray surface: Diffuse word tells us that the directional emissivity and directional

absorptivity do not depend on direction. The term gray tells us that the spectral emissivity and
absorptivity do not depend on wavelength. They depend on temperature. The diffuse-gray
surface absorbs and also emits a fixed fraction of radiation from any direction and at any
wavelength.

The scattering phase function describes the probability that a ray from one direction s will be

scattered into a certain other direction, S. Linear anisotropic phase function and Rayleigh
phase function are two scattering phase function. Isotropic scattering and anisotropic
scattering are again two types in linear anisotropic phase function. Isotropic scattering
scatters energy equally into all directions. Anisotropic scattering can be further divided into
backward and forward scattering. Backward scatters more energy into the backward
direction, while forward scattering scatters more energy into the forward directions.
Optical thickness is a measure of transparency, and is defined as the negative logarithm of the

fraction of radiation that is not scattered or absorbed on a path. If put simply, it shows the
proportionality of radiation absorbed or scattered in partially transparent medium ; If an
object is very near then optical thickness is almost zero, if distance increases optical depth
increases.. If I0 is the intensity of radiation at the source and I is the observed intensity after a
I o
=e
given path, then optical depth is defined by the following equation
. If >>1, the
I
path in the medium is optically thick. If <<1, the path in the medium is optically thin and the
mean penetration distance is much larger than the path length; radiation can then pass entirely
through the path length without appreciable extinction.

2.2 Equation of Radiative Transfer in Participating Media

Radiative transfer equation is an integro-differential equation with seven independent
variables:
1. The wavelength of radiation
2. Three space coordinates.
3. 2 coordinates polar angle and azimuthal angle ( and ) to describe the direction of travel,
4. Time
Light beams loses energy while travelling through participating medium along direction s
from absorption and scattering away energy in other directions but at the same time they also
gain energy from other directions absorption and scattering phenomenon.
From an energy balance on the radiative energy traveling in the direction of s^ , the
Change in the intensity is found by summing all contribution from emission, absorption, out
scattering and in-scattering

1 I I

+ = I b I I +
I ( s^' ) ( ^s' , s^ ) d '

c t s
4 4

The above equation is known as radiative transfer equation.

Neglecting 1st term in above equation as the value of c (speed of light) is very large compared
to local time length scales. Hence,

= I b I I +
I ( s^' ) ( s^' , s^ ) d '

s
4 4

The above is equation of steady state radiative heat transfer.

2.3 Exact Solutions

As seen earlier in our report, governing equation for radiative transfer of absorbing, emitting
and scattering media is an 7 variable integro-differential equation. The problem becomes
even more complicated if medium is nongray and other modes of heat transfer are present.
Consequently, exact analytical solutions exist for only a few extremely simple situations .The
simplest case arises when one thermal radiation in a one dimensional plane-parallel gray
medium that is either at radiative equilibrium whose temperature field is known.
2.4 Approximate Methods
Approximate solution methods are used when the radiative properties are functions of
location, direction, and spectral variable at a given time. Accuracy, simplicity, and the
computation effort are the important parameters for approximate solution methods.
The solution methods can be classified into two families: 1) Ray Tracing methods, i.e.,
methods where photons/waves are tracked, important examples are zonal method and the
Monte Carlo method. 2) The methods where discretization or variation of the radiative
transfer equation (RTE) is done, important examples are the discrete-ordinates method
(DOM) the finite-volume method (FVM) and the finite-element method (FEM). The raytracing-based methods do not rely explicitly on the RTE. The simulation processes of these
methods are numerical stable and have clear physical meaning.
2.4.1 Zonal Method
The zonal method, originally developed by Hottel and Cohen, is an effective and rigorous
approach for estimating radiative heat transfer in a semitransparent media. In this method, the
problem domain (usually an enclosure) is divided into volume zones or a finite number of
isothermal surface areas. Now the emissive power and the mutual direct exchange areas
(DEA) determines the radiative heat transfer rate of each zone in the enclosure. The DEA
represents the geometrical and optical relationship of every zone with each other. Evaluation
of the DEA is the basis of the zonal method and it involves the calculation of four, five, and
six-dimensional integrals. The integrands have strong singularities when two zones are
adjacent, or overlap each other (self-irradiation). High accuracy numerical solution of these
multi-dimensional integrals is difficult to achieve [7].The zone method is very accurate and
can easily be adopted for problems involving scattering. However, the use of the zone method
can be computationally expensive. In addition, to simulate the radiation effect and

aerothermodynamics in a coupling manner, this method is not compatible with computational

fluid dynamics (CFD) approaches.
ZM is not suitable to solve the cases with complex boundary conditions. It also cannot deal
with non-gray body and the cases in which the radiant property is the function of temperature
2.4.2 Discrete Ordinate Method
The discrete ordinates method (DOM) has been developed by a number of researchers, and
lately it has become one of the most popular numerical methods to study radiative heat
transfer problems. In this method, the computational domain is discretized in both spatial and
angular domains to account for the spatial and directional variation of the radiation intensity.
The angular integration to obtain the total intensity is done by using numerical quadrature
over all of the angles. In a Sn discrete ordinates method, explained in detail by Fiveland [12],
numerical solutions are obtained by solving the RTE for a set of n *(n + 2) discrete directions,
discretizing the solid angle of 4p followed by the numerical quadrature. DOM can share the
same computational grid as that of the CFD approach for spatial discretization, and can be
easily coupled with CFD solvers. It needs less computational time compared to the methods
mentioned above. However, it is less accurate compared to the zone and Monte Carlo
methods. In addition, DOM does not have flexibility in angular discretization, so the radiative
intensity variation can only be accounted for in the predetermined directions. This leads to
inaccuracies in the numerical solution called the ray effect [10] the radiative source may
not be resolved properly if its angle is aligned with the pre-determined direction. The
numerical error arising from the ray effect becomes more acute in a non-scattering medium.
Furthermore, DOM does not ensure the conservation of radiation energy, and has problems of
numerical smearing and dispersion. Most of these issues have been addressed recently using
modified DOM method and significant progress has been reported in the literature
In this model the radiative heat transfer equation is solved for a discrete number of finite solid
angles
Advantages of the DOM model: As it is a conservative method it helps in coarse discretization of heat balance.
By tuning finer discretization we can get more accuracy,
It is the most inclusive radiation model: Accounts for specular surfaces scattering,
wavelength-dependent transmission using banded-gray option, and semi-transparent
media.
Similar solution methods as other conservation equations.
Limitations: Solving a problem with a large number of ordinates is CPU-intensive.
2.4.3 Finite Volume Method
The FVM for radiation is a kind of flux method with flexible applicability to a complex
geometry using an arbitrary control angle. In the FVM, the inflow and outflow of radiant
energy across control-volume faces are balanced with attenuation and augmentation of
radiant energy within a control volume and a control angle.
The finite volume method is a method where partial differential equation is solved by
converting them to algebraic equations. "Finite volume" refers to the small volume
surrounding each node point on a mesh. In this method, using the divergence theorem the

volume integrals in a partial differential equation (example RTE) that contain a divergence
term are converted to surface integrals. These terms are then evaluated as fluxes at the
surfaces of each finite volume. These methods are conservative as the flux entering one finite
volume goes through another adjacent finite volume.
Finite volume method can be easily formulated for unstructured meshes, which is an
important advantage.
The finite volume method is similar to DOM, which also requires spatial as well as angular
meshes, where its spatial grid can be the same as that used in the CFD approach. Thus, it can
be easily applied to structured meshes as well as unstructured meshes, and can be easily
coupled with CFD solvers. Like CFD, FVM is also based on the conservation principle. The
radiant energy is conserved within a control angle, a control volume, and also within the
solution domain. FVM can be made to agree with the exact solution to a desired tolerance by
refining the spatial and angular grids. Raithby and Chui compared FVM to DOM solution by
Fiveland and showed that the FVM was able to obtain a more accurate solution compared to
DOM. An assessment study by Kim and Huh also indicated that FVM performs better than
DOM in optically thin media, while DOM is slightly better than or comparable to FVM in
optically thick media. In addition, FVM does not have restrictions on discretization of the
angular domain and uniformity of the control angles like DOM, and thus can easily avoid the
ray effect. Chai et al. compared FVM to DOM and reported that FVM is as efficient as Sn
DOM in terms of the number of iterations. In terms of CPU times, FVM is as efficient as the
Sn DOM for non-scattering media. But in isotropically scattering media, FVM requires
anywhere between 1.4 and 2.0 times the CPU times of Sn DOM. Furthermore, FVM may
converge slowly when applied to the optically thick medium.
2.4.4 Spherical Harmonics
The essence of the spherical-harmonics method is the approximation of the angular
dependence of the radiance by a finite set of spherical harmonics, or Legendre polynomials,
for the geometries where a single variable is sufficient to describe the angular dependence
.The great advantage of this method is that the set of transformed partial differential equations
is simpler than the original RTE. Another advantage is that radiances can be calculated
accurately and analytically everywhere [9]. However, analytical smoothing for the calculated
radiances is lacking. The drawback of this method is that low-order approximations are
usually accurate only in optically thick media, and accuracy improves slowly for higher order
approximations. In addition, the mathematical complexity increases as the accuracy
improves.
The main assumption of this model is that the directional dependence in the radiative transfer
equation is integrated out, resulting in a diffusion equation for incident radiation.
Advantages of the Spherical Harmonics model:

Easy to solve RTE with less computer load,

Scattering is included and also Effects of particles, droplets, and soot,
Works better for large optical thickness

Limitations of the Spherical Harmonics model:

The assumption all surfaces are diffuse is limiting factor,

For small optical thickness accuracy is lost,

Over prediction of radiative fluxes from localized heat sources or sinks.

2.4.5Monte Carlo Method

The idea of MC simulation is to track the history of bundles of photons from start, as
emitted photons, to end when they are absorbed at a surface or within a participative
medium. Accuracy and precision of MC method are function properties of radiative surface
and number of photons. The accuracy in MC method is directly proportional and strongly
depends on Geometry and emissivity of problems.
This method becomes more prominent for coupled thermo-fluid or mixed-mode problems,
where the non-linearity, spectral characteristics and geometrical complexity cannot be solved
by usual deterministic methods.

The (MC) simulation uses the laws of probability where it samples the source bundles from
one surface and transports them to their final destination. Generally many number of
simulation histories are done and each simulation history consists of steps below
I. Specification of the source emissive power.
II. Selection of emission angles and .
III. Ray tracing in the direction of propagation.
IV. Determination of point of intersection, if any with the destination surface.
V. Determination of fate of history at the destination surface.
MCM can be applied in the fields with complex boundary and handle various wavelength
radiation conveniently. Its result fluctuates around the true solution. By increasing the number
of rays traced, it will get the actuate result eventually. But it will consume a lot of
computation time and may encounter strong challenges of converging difficulties

Chapter 3
Atmosphere 1-D Radiation Model
3.1 Problem Statement
To numerically model a one dimensional Earth Radiation Spectrum before and after
atmosphere using the radiation transfer equation
3.2 Background
Life on earth is possible due to its atmosphere .Gases present in it constantly absorb, emit and
scatter radiation .Incoming solar radiation consists of different wavelengths bands of which
only some bands are transmitted through it and rest are all absorbed by earth atmosphere.
Ozone layer to a region of Earth's stratosphere that absorbs most of the Sun's UV radiation
.Infrared radiation is greatly absorbed by water vapor present in troposphere.

3.3 Governing Equation

3.3.1 Absorption
Absorption observed to be directly proportional to incident energy and also the distance beam
travels through medium
||=k

I dx

( d I )

..(1)

Negative sign since intensity reduces

3.3.2 Emission
Rate of emission of a volume element is proportional to volume magnitude .Therefore; the
emitted intensity along any path again must be proportional to length of the path and also
proportional to local energy content in the medium.
At thermodynamic equilibrium, the intensity everywhere must be equal to blackbody
intensity, as shown in Modest book chapter 10, equation 10.16, proportionality constant for
emission is same as for absorption

( d I ) emsn=k I dx ..(2)
Combining (1) & (2) gives the complete equation of transfer for an absorbing emitting (but
not scattering) medium as

d I
=k ( I bI )
dx

3.4 Approach
Plane parallel model is considered for solving it in one dimensional where AM1 is taken.
The above equation is solved using Runge-Kutta method (RK4), which generally used in
temporal discretization for the approximation of solutions of ODE.
The above derived governing equation of radiation is an Initial Value Problem with Initial
value I (0) being the incoming solar radiation intensity.
The constant k in governing equation is absorption coefficient. For atmosphere k is
described as
k ( , x )= ni (x ) i ()

Where
ni ( x ) = particle density
It depends on the overall radial density dependence and mass fractions of different gases in
different atmospheric layers. i () =
Its the interaction probability of radiation (photons) with a certain wavelength with various
atmospheric gases.
The original data of ni (x ) and i () for atmosphere is only available with Hitran
software whose access is not provided ,so for getting various absorption coefficient a
graphical method is used which will be explained in later section.
3.5 Solving Steps
A simple algorithm is used.
1) Setting up the Master Equation with various functions in it, which are defined later. Setting
up the Blackbody equation .Initial Values are defined.

Tsun = 5777 k
Tatm = 288 k
Distance between sun and earth = 1.49 10^11 m
2) Setting up the Runge-Kutte function.RK4 algorithm is set up as a function .Whose steps
are shown below

Let an initial value problem be specified as follows.

y =f ( t , y ) , y ( t o )= y o
Here, y is an unknown function (scalar or vector) of time t which we would like to
approximate; we are told that y , the rate at which y changes, is a function of t and of y
itself. At the initial time t o the corresponding y-value is
y o ,t o

y o . The function f and the data

, are given.

Now pick a step-size h>0 and define

h
y n+1= y n+ ( k 1+ 2k 2+2 k 3+k 4 )
6
t n+1=t n +h
for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , using
k 1=f (t n , y n)
h
1
k 2=f (t n + , y n + k 1 h)
2
2
h
1
k 3 =f (t n + , y n + k 2 h)
2
2
k 4=f (t n+ h , y n+ k 3 h)
(Note: the above equations have different but equivalent definitions in different texts).
Here

y n+1 is the RK4 approximation of

determined by the present value

y (t n+1 ) , and the next value

y n+1 is

y n plus the weighted average of four increments, where

each increment is the product of the size of the interval, h, and an estimated slope specified
by function f on the right-hand side of the differential equation
k 1 is the increment based on the slope at the beginning of the interval, using

k 2 is the increment based on the slope at the midpoint of the interval, using

h
y + k 1
2

k 3 is again the increment based on the slope at the midpoint, but now using

h
y + k 2
2

k 4 is the increment based on the slope at the end of the interval, using

y +h k 3 .

3) Setting up function for absorption coefficient.

Absorption coefficient is a function of particle density and cross section which depend on
gases, wavelengths and height of atmosphere. Our atmosphere is very huge with large data
particle density and cross section at various heights .This data is not readily available .The
most reliable source is HITRAN which unfortunately couldnt be available during the project.
Hence a simple approach is taken. The approach is to calculate absorption coefficient at
different wavelength using analytical solution of ODE and absorption percentage available in
standard plots. The wavelength of absorption bands are taken carefully from below
wehttp://www.globalwarmingart.com/wiki/File:Atmospheric_Transmission_png
For spectrum starting from UV Radiation to Infrared radiation 50 Absorption coefficients are
calculated which are fed in to AC function.

4) Setting up function for getting width spectrum due to absorption bands.

This is a function which calculates the Absorption Coefficient for other wavelengths.

3.6 Results & Verification

3.6.1 Sun as Source
A Matlab Code is written with above steps mentioned. The results are obtained as shown
below as plots

Fig 1 Comparison Between extraterrestrial and surface spectrum as obtained by the Matlab Code.
Initial Source Solar radiation.

The results seem to be in good approximations at various spectral intensities when compared
with standard graphs shown in Fig 3.
The peak is seen at visible spectrum.

3.6.2 Earth as Source

In this model Earth is taken as Initial Radiating source with average temperature at surface
288 k and atmosphere temperature as 200 k.

Fig 2 Comparison Between extraterrestrial and surface spectrum as obtained by

the Matlab Code in earth Radiating Model. Initial Source Solar radiation

Again for atmosphere model for earth as radiating source, the plots obtained are in good
approximation with the original plots shown in Fig 3.

3.6.3 Standard plots & Verification

Fig 3Radiation Transmitted by earth

Note: Upgoing Thermal Radiation and Downgoing solar Radiation plots shown above are
normalized to compare, they do not have same intensities.

3.6.4 Verification
Standard Incoming solar flux per unit area is calculated first using Stefan-Boltzmann Law,
which is later used for verifying the solar flux numerically-integrated using the graph results
obtained in simulation.
Standard Calculation

q sol =

4 R s Eb (T s)
2

4 S Es

Where =6.968 Radius of sun

=1.49611 Distance Between sun & Earth
From Modest book (Ref 1) Eq 1.32

E b (T s)= I b (T s )
Substituting above relation in main equation

q sol =

4 R 2s Eb (T s)
4 S 2Es

= I b (T s )

R2s
S 2Es

= I b (T s )s=I b ( T s) s

Where =6.8 5
From Stephen-Boltzmann Law,
Eb (Ts)= T 4s
I b=

T 4s

Where
= 5.67e-8 watt/m^2 K^4
Now
T 4s
qsol=(
)(s)

= /^

Numerical calculations of solar flux for Results obtained.

We got our standard solar heat flux from calculations before which is -1367 W/m^2.
Using simple numerical techniques lets approximately find the values solar heat flux for
results obtained in simulation

1) Simpsons rule
b

a+b
[f ( a ) + 4 f (
+ f (b)]
f ( x ) dx ba
6
2 )
a

Our spectrum ranges from 200 nm to 2000 nm where most of its area is between 200 nm to
1000 nm .So calculating the solar flux for these range,
a = 200 nm
b = 1000 nm
f (x) = I()
From results
f (a) =I(200) = 1.5 e12
f(b) = I(1000) = 1 e 13
f((a+b)/2) = I(600) = 2.413 e 13
I b=

(1000200 ) e9
(1.5 e 12+1 e 13+ 2.413 e 13)
6
= ()
= . /^

2) Composite Simpson Rule

n
1
2

n
1
2

j=1

j=1

f (x)dx h3 [f ( x o ) +2 f ( x 2 j ) + 4 f ( x 2 j1 ) + f ( x n)]
Lets take n = 4 subintervals
Now lets take the max spectrum 200 nm to 2000 nm.
h = (2000-2000) /4 = 450 nm
a = 200 nm b =2000 nm ; xj = a + jh where j = 0 to n
From Results
f (a) =I(200) = 1.5 e12
f(x2) = I(1100) = 8.73 e 12
f((x1) = I(650) = 2.28 e 13
f(x3) = I(1550) = 3.34 e 12
f(b) = I(2000) = 1.69 e 12
I b=

( 450 ) e9
((1.5 e 12)+(28.73 e 12)+(42.28 e 13))+( 43.34 e 12)+(1.69 e 12)
63

= ()

= . /^
From the Numerical calculations we can see that we are getting approximate values which are
acceptable when compared to standard -1367 W/m^2,as we have taken less sub intervals.

Chapter 4
One D ProblemS N Approximation

4.1 Problem Statement

To Determine Heat Transfer Rates within medium between Two Surfaces.
4.2 Solution Method
Problem is approached using the method of discrete Ordinates. It is one of the widely used
approximation method for solving Radiation Transfer Equation in Participating medium. The
solution to the Equation is found by solving the set of simultaneous Partial Differential
Equations which are formed from discrete representation of directional variation of radiative
intensity.
Numerical quadrature is used to approximate Integrals.

The General Equation of Transfer Radiative Participating Medium as mentioned Earlier in the
Report is

= (r ) I b (r ) (r )I (r , s^ )+
I ( r , s^' ) ( r , s^' , s^ ) d '
s
4 4
With Boundary conditions
I ( r w , s^i )= ( r w ) I b ( r w )+

( r w )
I (r w , ^s' )^n . s^' d '

The integral parts over Direction are replaced by numerical quadratures, as

s (r ) n
I
= (r ) I b (r ) (r )I (r , s^ )+
w I ( r , ^s' ) ( r , ^s' , s^ )
s
4 j=1 j

Same thing can be done to boundary Conditions.

We will end up with n equations which need to be solved for

I i =I ( r , si )

The test problem given above is solved for one Dimension.

The general equation can be written in one dimension [Modest] as
i

d Ii
w
+ I i =( 1w ) I b +
(G+ A 1 q i)
d
4

i=1, 2.N

Where
G = Incident Radiation
q = Heat flux
A1 = Constant from scattering phase function
i=Ordinates (Diretion Cosine of s i)
In case of one dimensional Problem half intensities emanates from one direction
other half emanates from other direction
we can replace

Ii

i >0 and

i <0 . Following the Notation From Modest [4]

to

I N
2

, I
+I

+ , . , I N
2

+ , I 2

I1
Now we can rewrite the earlier one dimensional Equation as

+=( 1w ) I b +

w
(G+ A 1 q i)
4

I +
d i + I i
d
i
I = 1, 2,..N/2

=( 1w ) I b +

w
(GA 1 q i)
4

I +
i

d
+ Ii
d
i

I = 1, 2, .N/2
And Boundary Conditions
J1
1 1
=I b 1
q

1 1
=0 : I i

+=

J2
1 2
=I b 2
q

2 2
= L : I i

Where = optical Coordinate with d= ds

Radiative Heat q

+I
Ii
w 'i ui

N
2

q=
i=1

++ I
Ii
'
wi

N
2

G=
i=1

4.3 Calculations
Using the Above mentioned generalized methodology, calculations are made for Test
Problem.
Initially Considering the Boundary Conditions,

At
=0

+=

J1
1 1
=I b 1
q

1 1
I i

I = 1 2 .. N/2

+
+=I
Lets say
I i
=0

J2
1 2
=I b 2
q

2 2
I i

=I
Lets say
I i

+I i

Ii
'
w i ui
N
2

q=
i=1

N
2

+I w'i u i
i=1

I
q=
From Modest Table 16.2[4] ,for SN approximation
N
2

w'i u i=
i=1
N
2

w'i=2
i=1

I = 1 2 .N/2

Therefore

+I

I
q=

Similarly

++ I
Ii
w 'i

N
2

G=
i=1

I ++ I
w 'i

N
2

G=
i=1

'

From Before w summation

+ + I
I
G=2

Now Our Firs set of Differential Equations,

+=( 1w ) I b +
d

w
(G+ A 1 q i)
4

I +
i
+I
d i
i

At Radiating Equilibrium we have

I b=

G
4

1
(G+ w A 1 q i)
4
I +
d
+I
d
i

+=

Adding All the Equations from I = 1 to I = N/2

N
2

I + =

N
2

1
( G+w A 1 q i)
4 i=1
i =1
N
2

i d

I
+
d i=1
N
2

i=1

.(6)
The second Set of Differential Equations

=( 1w ) I b +
d

Radiating Equilibrium we have

I b=

w
(GA 1 q i)
4

I +
i

+I
d i
i

G
4

1
(Gw A 1 q i)
4
I
d
+I
d
i

Adding All the Equations from I = 1 to I = N/2

N
2

I =

N
2

1
( Gw A1 q i)
4 i=1
i=1
+

i d

N
2

I
+
d i=1
N
2

i=1

.(6)
Adding Equations 6 & 7 gives

N
2

I ++ I =

1
( 2G+ 0)
4 i=1

+I

N
2

N
2

i=1

i =1

i +
d

+ I

N
2

N /2

i +
i=1

i=1

N/2

G
G
=
2 i=1 2

N
2

1 d (q)
=0
d i=1 i
q=Constant .

Subtracting Equations 6 & 7 gives ,

(Which verifies the Radiative Equilibrium)

N
2

I +I =

1
( 0+ 2 A 1 wq i )
4 i=1

++I

N
2

N
2

i=1

i=1

i +
d

N
2

N
2

N
2

1 dG
+ q= 21 A 1 wq i
2 d i=1 i i=1
i=1
N
2

N
2

dG
Nq
i + = A 1 q i

d i=1
2
i=1
N
2

dG
=
d

( N Aw i)q
i=1

N
2

i
i=1

.(6)

Since q is constant, integrating eq 8

N
2

( N Aw i) q
G=C

i=1

N
2

i
i=1

The relation contains two unknowns q & C

This can be solved Using Boundary Conditions

+=

J1
1 1
=I b 1
q

1 1
I

J2
1 2
=I b 2
q

2 2
I

Now

+I
I
q=

+I
I
q
=

.(6)

+ + I
I
G=2

++ I
I
G
=
2
.(6)

+I
Solving For
I
+=

q
G
+
2 2

J1
=I

Similarly
=

q G
+
2 2

J2
=I

From Above we have

4 J 1=2 q+G
4 J 2=2q +G
.(6)
From equation 13 and G equation
=0
G=C
4 J 1=2 q+ C
4 J 12 q=C

= L
N
2

(N Aw i )q
G=( 4 J 12 q )(

i=1

N
2

i
i=1

N
2

(N Aw i )q
i=1

4 J 2=2 q+ ( 4 J 12 q )(

N
2

i
i=1

Now we can see

N
2

(N Aw i) q
4 J 14 J 2=4 q+(

i=1

N
2

i
i=1

q
=
J 1J 2

4
N
2

(N Aw i ) q
4+(

i=1

N
2

i
i=1

Final Expression in Non-Dimensional Form

Selecting the discrete ordinate directions and assigning the weights should be done carefully.
From Literature [17 lithrup] it is said that ordinates and weights should satisfy symmetry
requirement, moment equations , such weights are given by Lathrop and Carlson [17] which
are used in this case. Heat Fluxes within in the medium are calculated using Matlab , whose
results are shown below in Graphs for S 2 , S 4 , S6 S 8 approximation .

Similar calculations are performed for case of no scattering Whose Graphs are Also Plotted
Below.

Tables

q
J 1J 2

0
0.1
0.5
1
5

Exact
1
0.9157
0.704
0.5532
0.2077

Order of Approximation
s 2 (Symmetric )

S 2 (sym
)
1.1542
1.0627
0.8058
0.6188
0.2166

S 2 (nonsym)
1
0.901
0.667
0.5
0.1667

S4

S6

S8

1
0.9233
0.7066
0.5463
0.1940

1
0.9248
0.7109
0.5515
0.1974

1
0.9260
0.7145
0.5559
0.2002

Ordinates
0.5773503

Weights w
6.2831853

s 2 (nonSymmetric )

0.500000

6.2831853

s4

0.2958759
0.9082483
0.1838670
0.6950514
0.9656013
0.1422555
0.5773503

4.1887902
2.0943951
2.7382012
2.9011752
0.6438068
2.1637144
2.6406988

s6
s8

0.8040087
0.9795543
4.4 Results

Fig 4 Nondimensional heat Flux vs tauL For Medium With Scattering

0.7938272
0.6849436

Fig 5 Nondimensional heat Flux vs (tau/tauL) For Medium Without Scattering

Chapter 5
Two-Dimensional Enclosure with Heat Source/s & Medium
5.1 Problem Statement
Two Dimensional Enclosure with participating medium and undefined heat source/s
placement inside the enclosure need to be solved for finding heat flux through the enclosure
surface or heat flux at given area within the medium present inside the enclosure.

5.2 Introduction
In Day to day practical applications we see cylindrical enclosures such as boilers,
furnaces ,cooling towers , Pistons ,gas turbine combustors etc. whose thermal performance
are needed to be predicted before even building them and after building too . Hence
modelling reliable methods to solve radiation properties such as Intensity, heat flux etc., has
at most Importance.
Sometimes we also have systems who enclave heat sources in their enclosures. Accounting
for Such heat sources is highly desirable.
Monte Carlo Method is employed to solve this problem.

.
3.3 Description of Monte Carlo Method.
The problem is to solve for variable system geometries, hence using spatial discretization
methods will be tough as we have to setup a new system for even small changes. We also
have multiple obstacles as heat sources in the picture which are tough or sometimes
impossible to be dealt with usual discretization methods. Hence Monte Carlo Method is used
to solve this problem.
The main Target or Idea Behind these Method is to mimic the real Physical Process based on
its statistical Properties. Several Class of numerical Techniques are used To Do So.
Solving Mathematical problems with a statistical sampling technique is commonly referred to
as a Monte Carlo method. In Our radiation problems we use Monte Carlo method to trace the
history of a statistically meaningful random sample of photons from their points of emission
to their points of absorption.
The Governing Relation between Random Number and a known Probability
Distribution is

R=

dP ( )

This relation is often called the Fundamental Theorem of Monte Carlo.

3.4 Approach to our Problem

Small packets of radiation probabilistically from the radiation source present within the
system.
The photon is simulated through the world interacting with the media
(absorption/reflection/re-emission). Thousands of such photons are produced and simulated
giving us a good representation of the actual physics of the system. From the data obtained by

the photons, we can effectively calculate many of the thermodynamic quantities that may be
required for analysis.

Probabilistically determining various quantities

In an isotropic medium a photon has an equal chance of being absorbed for every unit
distance it travels. This leads to an exponential distribution of the expected distance the
photon travels
kx

P (l> x )=e

From this distribution we can produce a random number

R x which would be the expected

distance the current photon travels

R x=

ln ( rand )
k

Where rand=Uniform (0,1)

We can see that

R x follows the same probability distribution as the above

Whenever a beam of light hits a surface, a part of it is reflected back and the rest is absorbed.
This ratio is called the albedo of the surface. When we are simulating an individual photon
the probability that it is reflected is the same as this albedo
When we have a non-uniform media, we can divide the media into many zones containing
uniform properties and simulate the same physics

3.5 Code Description

The code itself is implemented to be used as a toolbox providing interfaces to various needed
functions. This toolbox can be used to easily model the required problem and analyze the
system.
I chose python as my preferred environment, as it provided with rapid prototyping and for its
excellent community revolving around scientific computing. I have used the numpy and
matplotlib libraries for the core methods.

The code contains 3 main modules

Geometry -> providing all the necessary classes/functions to deal with shapes/ random spatial
distributions

Models -> Models providing interfaces to the physics of the problem, and some other helper
classes to ease the modelling of a system containing many zones
Monte Carlo -> Mathematical framework providing the functions for random sampling,
simulations and some visualization of the results

Geometry
Any system needs to be modelled with shapes, currently we are providing the asic shapes of a
rectangle and a circle. Any union/intersection of these shapes can be taken and used to model
the geometry of the system

Models
World -- [Zones]
Zone -- [Shape, [albedo, absK, energy], type]
Photon - [Physics, Interactions]

Monte Carlo
Produces random photons based on the energy zones and probability distributions, collects
results and helps in visualization

3.5 Results
Simulations For various Cases are presented below as Solved by Python Code
Developed Using Monte Carlo Method.

3.5.1 Variable Geometry

2000 Photon generated out of Which 187 are absorbed at surface for a given
absorK(0.03) ) and Albedo (0.4.Heat Source at Centre.16 Seconds To Simulate.

Heat Map Of Above problem. Bright is more heat.

9000 Photon generated out of Which 791 are absorbed at surface for a given
absorK(0.03) and Albedo (0.4).Heat Source at Centre.80 Seconds To Simulate.

Heat Map of Above problem. Bright is more heat.

Inserting Two Different Heat Sources at Two Different Places With Equal Heat
strength.9000 Photons are generated. Took 89 seconds and 1994/9000 are
absorbed at wall for 0.4 albedo and o.oo3 absK.

Heat Map of above Figure .Red and Bright signifies higher temperatures.

For 20000 Photons and Different Heat Strengths for Heat Sources (Rec>Circle).

Heat Map For Above Problem.

This Way We can solve for any kind of Geometry at any Strength, at any Places
.Some more examples of variable geometries are Given Below.

40000 Simulations at 10 minutes for Different heat Strengths. [Rec>Circles]

Heat Map For Above Figure.

3.5.2 Property Changes

Changing Properties (extinction coefficient, absorption Coefficient) of
Participating medium, heat Sources (assigning absorption coefficient even to
them).
We can show results for any geometry but I Fixed a geometry and varied other
Media and Surface Properties.

3.5 Number of Photons Required?

Now We have Real Working Model For Radiative Heat Transfer Problem For a
enclosure which can also handle heat Sources, all we have to do is give inputs to
our model which provide approximate solutions to real world systems. One of the
biggest Challenge in giving scaled up inputs is deciding how number of photon
packets needs to be employed. In Paper written by howell

3.6 Error Analysis

References

Appendices