Drilling methods for shallow

geothermal installations
Burkhard Sanner1 and Olof Andersson2
1

Institute of Applied Geosciences, Justus-Liebig-University

Diezstrasse 15, D-35390 Giessen, Germany

Department of Engineering Geology, Lund University of Technology

P.O.Box 118, S-22100 Lund, Sweden

Introduction
Drilling is a very old technique, for water supply and for exploitation of mineral resources.
Water wells have been drilled in Egypt more than three millenia ago. Fig. 1 shows an example
of a quite sophisticated, hand-operated drill rig used in China to drill several hundred meter
deep in a few month.

Fig. 1:

Chinese percussion boring (after Chugh, 1985)

Today, a variety of mechanised drilling equipment is on the market and in use. The size range is
from small augers for post-holes few meters deep to the deepest borehole on Kola peninsula in
Russia with a depth of more than 12 km. Economic considerations as well as technical
problems restrict the drilling depth for shallow geothermal applications generally to around
100 m. In recent times, also deeper holes have been drilled for borehole heat exchangers (BHE)
with ca. 250 m depth, and holes in the 400-m-range are in preparation in Switzerland.

55

Although a deeper hole provides access to slightly higher temperature, the increasing problems
with insertion of heat exchanger, grouting and static pressure have to be solved.
For vertical ground heat exchangers, a distinction has to be made between two basic ways of
installation:
Direct pressing or ramming of the heat exchanger into the ground (in soft ground only)
Insertion of the heat exchanger in a borehole drilled beforehand
Boreholes can be drilled under almost any subsurface condition From site to site, an optimum
choice for type and installation method is necessary according to the geological situation.

Basic drilling methods

For shallow holes down to app. 100 m, not every drilling method is suitable. Hytti (1987)
presents a diagram showing the optimal drilling methods in respect to hole diameter and rock
strength (Fig. 2).
Hard rock
Top hammer

DTH

Rotary crushing
Rotary cutting
Soft rock

20

100

60

140

180

220

260

300

340

Borehole diameter [mm]

1

9 10 11 12 13 14

Borehole diameter [inches]

Fig. 2:

Applicable drilling methods (revised after Hytti, 1987)

Table 1 lists recommended drilling methods for the various ground conditions. Drilling rates of
app. 10 m per hour are realistic when using rotary drilling with drag bits in soft/medium and
Down-the-hole- (DTH) or Top-Hammer in hard and very hard rock. The advantage of DTH in
hard rock can be seen in data from drilling for Schwalbach GCHP Reserach Station: In the
same quarzitic rock, app. 5 m apart, and with the same very light drill rig (~2 metric tons), a
50-m-borehole could be completed using rotary drilling with rock- and button-bit in about 5
days; with DTH, the 50 m were completed after 4hours.
A further restriction applies to the rotary method. Rotary drilling is widely used and can be
adopted to almost every drilling problem, but drilling velocity normaly is not very high and can
become extremly low in unfavourable conditions. Rotary cutting with drag bits in soft and
medium rock can be effective even with light rigs, but rotary crushing with rock- or roller bits
and even more with button bits requires heavy load on the bit to crush the rock when rolling
over the teeth (fig. 3). In deep holes as in oil well drilling, the drill string alone brings enough
load onto the bit; for shallow holes, the required load often exceeds the weight of a light
drilling rig, in spite of using heavy tubing. The optimum load increases with borehole diameter;
56

Cambefort (1964) recommends 700-900 kg/in in soft and 1400-1800 kg/in in hard rock. For a
standard 115 mm (4") borehole, suitable for most of the European BHE, in hard rock a load of
6.3 to 8.1 metric tons would result. Even in this optimum condition, the drilling rate in hard
rock is only 1-2 m per hour, and can decrease to some 10 cm/h when the load is too small.
Thus, for shallow holes in hard rock conventional rotary drilling is not a good choice.
Table 1:

Drilling methods

Soil/Rock-type

Method

Remarks

soil, sand/gravel

auger

sometimes temporary casing required

rotary

temporary casing or mud additives

required

auger

mostly best choice

rotary

temporary casing or mud additives

required

rotary

roller bit, sometimes mud additives

required

DTH 1

large compressor required

rotary

with rock bit or hard-metal insert button

bit, very slow

DTH 2

large compressor required

top hammer

special equipment, depth range ca.

70 m

ODEX 2 or similar

in combination with DTH

soil, silty/clayey

rock, medium hard

rock, hard to very hard

rock under overburden

Fig. 3:

1
2

rock bit (left) and tungsten-carbid button bit (right), from Chugh (1985)

Down-the-Hole-Hammer
Overburden Drilling Equipment; ODEX is a trademark of Atlas Copco

57

With the hammer techniques, drilling in hard rock is very fast and cost-effective. Problems
arise, if intercalations of soft and instable layers are present. For unconsolidated overburden,
the ODEX 3-method offers a way to install a casing down to the bedrock while drilling and to
proceed drilling in the hard formation with normal DTH-equipment. If the overburden is too
thick, or if instable rock is found at considerable depth, the DTH with pneumatic flushing of the
cuttings can not be used. In rotary drilling, were a fluid (normally water) is used for flushing the
hole, special drilling muds can stabilize the borehole wall. In table 2, some common mud
additives are listed.
Tab. 2:

Additives for drilling mud in rotary drilling

Name

Properties

Remarks

bentonite

thixotropic, stabilises the hole

possible clogging of aquifers

CMC (cellulose)

stabilises the borehole wall,

reduces water losses

growth of bacteria

polyacrylamide

minimises water losses to the

formation

baryte, ilmenite etc.

weighting materials, stabilise the

hole, keep pressured water down

foam generators

facilitates flushing out of cuttings

possible problems with BHE

installation

Two phenomena are used to stabilize the hole with the listed additives. Bentonite and cellulose-products have thixotropic properties, i.e. they build up stable aggregates when stagnant but
are fluid in motion. Heavy minerals as baryte (BaSO4), ilmenite (FeTiO3) or hematite (Fe2O3)
increase the density of the drilling mud, can counteract the formation pressure and thus stabilize
the borehole. They are also used if groundwater under artesian pressure is present. However,
thick or heavy muds make insertion of the heat exchanger pipes difficult.
The economy of drilling shallow holes is completely different than that of deep oil- or gas
wells. Very easy methods, as the tractor-mounted auger (fig. 4) described by Reuss et al.
(1990), can be used by a farmer for installing BHE with no external cost; and even drilling with
hammer equipment is far from cost and time required for deep holes. Light, mobile rigs,
suitable for both rotary and DTH, ensure cost-effective drilling (fig. 5).
Equations for calculating drilling cost have been discussed in the literature. Armstead (1983)
cites two equations, and Schulz & Jobmann (1989) establish an equation for Germany (here
converted into US-$):
C = 95,000 . 1.153D
US geothermal wells
D
.
C = 52,000 1.0998
US oil and gas wells
(0,01
.
D)
C = 112,000 . D . e
German geothermal wells
with

C:
D:

Total cost for drilling in US-$

Depth of hole in hundreds of meters

All three equations fit well the data for holes deeper than 500 m, but overestimate cost for
shallow holes. A 100-m-hole would cost US-$ 109535, 57189 and 113125 resp., following
3

Overburden Drilling Equipment; ODEX is a trademark of Atlas Copco

58

these equations. The realistic drilling cost including BHE and grouting in Europe are from 3550 US-$/m (40-55 /m) for holes from 50-100 depth, resulting in 3500 to 5000 US-$ (40005500 ) for the 100-m-hole. Only in very unfavourable geologic conditions, where temporary
casing etc. may be required, the cost will be higher.

Fig. 4:

Auger principle (left, Atlas Copco) and light auger mounted on agricultural
tractor (photo
from Beck et al., 1993)

Fig. 5:

Drilling rig optimised for BHE installation, mounted on all-terrain vehicle

(Unimog)

59

BHE fields with a number of boreholes should yield netterr economy. So it is not unexpected
that Garlick (1986) reports US-$ 311,134 for 324 holes each 52 m deep, which means only US$ 18.5 per meter. Rammed or pressed steel earth probes in soft ground cost 22 - 40 US-$ per
meter, and for the SIG-system Engvall (1986) calculated 1,640,000 SKr for a 100,000 m3
ground heat store with 54,750 m earth probe length, which would be less than 6 US-$ per
meter. With the simple auger shown in fig. 4, Beck et al. (1993) achieved total cost for drilling,
installation, ground connections, backfilling in a BHE field with 103 boreholes of 8-12 m depth
of 27400 US-$ (30900 ), that is 26,4 US-$/m (30 /m).

Drilling for exploration purposes

The methods for drilling and data collection vary between countries, but are basically the same
as those used for other exploration purposes, like in water well industry, foundation drilling
and in the mining industry. The importance of geological exploration for shallow geothermal
applications is discussed by Andersson et al. (1997).
Exploration boreholes for shallow geothermal purposes would in most cases be performed by
conventional rotary drilling. During drilling, samples of the drilled formations (cuttings) can be
separated from the drilling fluid. These samples give a basic information for the geological
description. By measuring the rate of penetration as a function of rotation speed and thrust or
weigth on the drillbit, the relative hardness of the penetrated formations can be described. This
information is of value for property descriptions. Furthermore, losses (or gain) of drilling fluid
indicates permeable layers or fractures. By measurement of level and amount of losses,
important hydraulic properties can be detected (Andersson, 1981).
In boreholes for groundwater wells, after drilling, and based on the informations gained during
drilling, a screen is properly set in the hole and a testwell is completed. By pumping this well
and observation of groundwater level in the well (and in surrounding wells, if available), the
hydraulic properties of the aquifer can be determined. Basic methods are described e.g. in
Kruseman & De Ridder (1970).
Exploration boreholes for BHE in hard rock (consolidated formations, igneous or metamorphic
rock) would preferably be carried out by the hammer-drilling method (DTH). In this case
compressed air is used to drive the hammer and to flush the hole. Samples of cuttings, separated
from the outlet air, are used to describe lithology (type of rock, mineral composition). Similar
to rotary drilling, rate of penetration can give information about lithological boundaries ,
relative hardness, location of fractures etc. (Andersson, 1981). Because no water is added from
the surface while drilling, this method furthermore allows a continuous recording of water
flowrate out of the borehole, and also water samples for chemical analysis can be taken.
If very exact geological data as well as larger samples for determination of thermal and/or
hydraulic parameters are required, core drilling is the method to choose. For this method, a
hollow pipe with an annular drilling bit ("core barrel") is attached to the drill string, and
cylindrical rock or soil samples can be retrieved. Core drilling for the total length of the borehole is expensive, because the drill string has to be completely removed and inserted again
after each length of core barrel (1-1.5 m), or very specialized tools (wire-line core barrel)
have to be used.

60

Groundwater well drilling and completion

Groundwater wells are drilled by the drilling methods mentioned before. For large diameter
wells, the reverse rotary method is well suited. While in normal rotary the fluid is pumped
downwards inside the drill pipe and rises through the annulus, the sense of motion here is
reversed. This allows for reliable removal of drill cuttings through the pipe and helps to keep
the borehole wall stable.
There are two basic ways for construction of a well:
Natural completion (lost filter completion)
Gravel pack
For natural completion, the formation has to be sand and gravel with suitable grain-size distribution. The well screen is inserted, and then through strong pumping fine material is removed,
thus forming a kind of natural gravel filter around the screen. If the formation does not exhibit
the composition required for natural completion, a gravel pack (or sand pack) has to be
installed in the annulus around the screen, to avoid continuing production of fine material.
For a ground source heat pump, the type of well (production or injection) is always the same. In
aquifer storage, wells may have to be operated as production well half of the year and as
injection well for the other half (fig. 6).
Cover
Valve
Motorvalve

Concrete

Overburden

Standpipe
Pipe
grouting
(e.g. clay)
GW-level (ca.)
riser pipe
injection pipe
grouting
controlelectrodes
well screen
submersible pump

Aquifer

gravel filter
control electrode

Bedrock

Fig. 6:

Well for ATES-applications (production and injection)

Methods for direct installation of ground heat exchangers in soft ground

In unconsolidated sediments, ground heat exchangers can be pressed or driven into the ground.
Table 3 shows the most important techniques.
The major advantages of direct pressing or ramming the heat exchanger in place are:
61

 No problems with stability of borehole walls

Good contact to the ground, no grouting required
Complete installation in one single step
For an economic configuration of ground heat exchangers, steel pipes can be driven radially
from one point as shown in Fig. 7. In this fan-shaped assemblage, the heads of the pipes are
close together and connection to a manifold is easy.
Tab. 3:

Installation methods for soft ground

Soil type

Method

heat exchanger

Remarks

sand/gravel

ramming/driving

coaxial

only possible with steel

pipes, corrosion problems

water jetting

coaxial

steel pipes (corrosion)

ramming/pressing

coaxial

steel pipes (corrosion)

driving with SGI 4 tool

single-U

plastic tubes, with lost tool

silt/clay

The driven pipe remains in the ground and acts as outer wall of the heat exchanger. Because the
pipe has to withstand the pressing-/ramming forces, the choice of materials is limited. Steel as
heat exchanger material has good thermal properties, is cheap and common in construction
work. A major drawback is the lacking resistivity to corrosion by groundwater and soil
humidity, which makes active electric corrosion protection necessary. In tests in a groundwater
well over two years (Sanner & Knoblich, 1991b), steel proved to be badly eroded after some
decades, and the risk for leakage is high within few years (Tab. 4). The use of stainless steel,
which shows very good anticorrosive properties, is limited due to the very high price. The
values in Tab. 4 have been measured in ground water with low chloride content; chloride ions
can initiate pit-hole corrosion even in stainless steel.
Tab. 4:

Some results of In-Situ Corrosion Test in Schwalbach

Material

Mass loss per

year (average)

extrapolated time for loss

of half of the sample mass

Steel St37, tube

2.15 %

32 years

Copper, tube

1.74 %

40 years

0.0 %

---

Inox-steel, corrugated tube

To avoid problems with corrosion, some methods for using plastic pipes have been investigated. A summary of installation techniques is given in Bouma & Koppenol (1983). In Sweden,
a method had been developed around 1990 (Engvall, 1986; Lehtmets, 1991), which also is
shown in Fig. 7. A 32 mm (1") polyethylene pipe is pressed down into soft ground by using a
guidance tool. Engvall (1986) reports tests with the first design of the tool. In clayey subsoil, in
general a depth similar to that attainable with a standard penetrometer can be achieved. The
data in Tab. 5 summarise the logs of these tests.
Although the depth for direct installation of ground heat exchangers is limited to some 10 m, the
easy, fast and cheap methods are well suited for cost-effective installation under certain
4

Swedish Geotechnical Institute, Linkping, Sweden

62

conditions. The thickness of unconsolidated sediments must exceed at least 10 m, and no large
boulders or coarse gravel should be in the sediment. In other places, drilling is unavoidable for
heat exchanger installation.
force
reel with
PE-pipe
ditch
ground

ground

installation tool
of SGI, Sweden

ramming of steel tubes

Fig. 7:

Pressing and ramming in soft ground

Tab. 5:

Field tests for plastic pipe installation rig (after data from Engvall, 1986)

Location
(Sweden)
Kista

Depth [m]
0-1
1-10
10-14
14-20

Soil material
dry crust
clay
silt, clayey
silt

Consist.
index Ic

Pressing
force [kN]

Remarks

1.0
0.25-0.75
1.0
>1.0

18
9-18
18-22
22-26

pre-perforation

rig anchored

Upplands
Vsby

0-1.5
1.5-5.5
5.5-11
11-14.5

dry crust
clay
clay
clay

>1.0
0.5-0.75
1.0
>1.0

18
10-13
13-19
19-20

pre-perforation

Uppsala

0-1
1-2.5
2.5-8.5

dry crust
org. clay
org. clay

>1.0
0.75-1.0
>1.0

22
11
13-26

pre-perforation
pre-perforation
rig anchored

Drilling for borehole heat exchangers

In table 1 possible drilling and installation methods for vertical ground heat exchangers are
listed. As can be seen from that table, for the same rock or soil types often more than one
suitable method exists. Beside the auger method, where the material from inside the borehole is
brought to the surface mechanically, all methods listed use flushing of the borehole. Water or
compressed air (in DTH) is used to remove the cuttings in a constant flow.
Problems can arise when inserting the heat exchanger pipes into the completed borehole. In
stable rocks, with clear water as drilling fluid, the heat exchanger (filled with water) slides into
the borehole under its own weight. Contrary to common perception, hard, stable rocks are very
63

well suited for BHEs, with fast DTH-drilling, now stability problems and easy installation.
These rocks, in particular if they contain a good amount of quartz, also exhibit very good
thermal conductivity.
If the borehole is filled with thick mud, and if the mud cannot be flushed out in order to keep the
hole stable, additional techniques have to be used to get the pipes into the hole. It is of little use
to push hard on the part of the pipes still out of the hole, as this would result in bending the
pipes, pushing them towards the borehole wall, and increase friction (not to mention the danger
of damaging a plastic pipe). A force has to be applied to the bottom of the pipes:
hanging a weight to the bottom part of the heat exchanger or tying one just above the bottom
part
applying pressure to the bottom part by a steel rod running between the pipes and fitting into
a receptable on the bottom part of the heat exchanger
applying pressure to the bottom part by using the drill pipes fitting to a rim around the bottom
part of the heat exchanger
Helpful is a reel-like device to hold the pipes while inserting (fig. 8 and 9). This method today
is standard in particular in Switzerland, where reels for 400 m deep double-U-tube-BHE and
tremie pipe have been built in 2001.
Reel with BHE pipes

Device to
straighten the
BHE pipes
Ground

Fig. 8:

Device for BHE insertion (as suggested by Hess, 1987)

Special problems for drilling in large, dense BHE-fields

In large BHE fields, several problems have to be dealt with. To allow completing of more than
100 BHE in a relatively short time, several drilling rigs have to be on site simultanuosly. The
available space, the supply of water, BHE pipes and grout, and the disposal of drilling mud all
have to be planned diligently in advance. Fig. 10 shows the drilling for the largest central BHE
field in the world at Richard Stockton College in New Jersey, USA. Up to four drilling rigs
were in use, and the connections in the field have impressive dimensions. Table 6 lists some of
the most interesting examples of large BHE fields.

64

Fig. 9:

Reel with single-U-pipe in use for the Richard Stockton College wellfield
(photo RSC)

Fig. 10:

Drilling on the Richard Stockton college wellfield (left) and main collecting
pipes (right); photos: RSC

The problem of borehole deviation becomes serious in large plants. No borehole is exactly
straight. With single boreholes, no problem arises, but with a number of boreholes close
together like in an Underground Thermal Energy Storage system (e.g. Neckarsulm in table 6)
Percussive drilling is particularily perceptible to borehole deviation. Sinkala (1987) reported a
field study of borehole deviation in top-hammer blasthole drilling in Northern Scandinavia, and
could prove deviations of up to two meters in less than 20 m depth in rocks with dipping layers
(fig. 11). This ratio of 10 % would mean a deviaton of 10 m for boreholes of 100 m depth and
more!
In order to avoid intersection of boreholes or damage of previously installed BHE, borehole
deviation must be minimised. The only way is to limit the pushing force from the top of the hole,
and to increase the weight directly above the drill bit. That way the drill string is kept straight.

65

Tab. 6:

Examples of large borehole fields

Name

Location

Central Valley School

Buxton ND, USA

120

64 m

7680 m

Lulevrme BTES

Lule, S

120

65 m

7800 m

DFS

Langen, D

154

70 m

10780 m

Max-Planck-Institute

Golm, D

160

100 m

16000 m

Corporate Sqare Bldg.

Terre Haute IN, USA

324

52 m

16848 m

Amorbach

Neckarsulm, D

> 600

30 m

18000 m

Sagamore Hotel

Lake George NY, USA

ca. 400

ca. 65 m

20800 m

Beaumont

Bryn Mawr PA, USA

170

ca. 160 m

27200 m

Whitehorse Village

Edgemont PA, USA

236

ca. 160 m

37760 m

Richard Stockton Coll.

Pomona NJ, USA

400

130 m

52000 m

Fig. 11:

No. of BHE

Depth of BHE

Total length

Typical unilateral deviation of 19 m deep boreholes in rock with dipping

layers; wall of quarry in Bulken, Norway (from Sinkala, 1987)

Grouting of borehole heat exchangers

A good thermal contact between the pipes and the ground is paramount for the performance of
the BHE. In Scandinavia, in hard, crystalline rock the borehole often is just filled with water.
With increasing temperature (e.g. for borehole heat storage), the water shows convection, and
heat transport is increased, as measured during thermal response tests (Gehlin & Hellstrm,
2000).
In most other cases, and in particular if water authorities demand plugging the hole for
groundwater protection, the borehole annulus has to be filled (grouted) with a suitable
material. This grouting material has to be pumpable and is pressed through a tremie pipe to the
bottom of the hole, from where it rises to the borehole mouth. Grouting from bottom to the top
that way is the only method to guarantee perfect filling of the hole. Grouting procedures are
dealt with in the German guideline VDI 4640, part 2 (VDI, 2001). Some data of grouts are
given in table 7. In the end, the BHE looks like shown in fig. 12, and is ready to be laid in a
connecting trench or hooked to a manifold.

66

Since some time, thermally enhanced grouts have been used in USA to improve heat transfer. In
2000 also in Germany two brands of thermally enhanced grouts did hit the market. They use
very fine-grained quartz or graphite to improve thermal conductivity. Reasonable ranges of
thermal conductivity of the finished grout are = 1.6 - 2.0 W/m/K.
Tab. 7:

Properties of BHE grouting materials (after Sanner, 1992, revised)

Material

thermal conductivity [W/m/K]

hydraulic
conductivity

pumpability

impact due
to freezing

sand, water saturated

sand, dry

1.7-2.5
0.3-0.6

good
good

clay
bentonite 1.3 g/cm3

0.9-1.4
0.7

low
very low

poor
good

exists
high

bentonite with sand

1.4-1.8

very low

poor

medium

bentonite/cement
therm. enhanced grout

0.6-1.0
1.6-2.0

very low
very low

good
good

low
low

for comparison:
air
water

Fig. 12:

0.03
0.6

left: BHE field for a school in Northern New Jersey, with single-U-tuber;
right: BHEs for a residential house in Germany, with excess BHE-length to be
coupled without further connection to the manifold at the house

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Geol. Lund Univ., Lund
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geotechnique for UTES. - Proc. MEGASTOCK 97, p. 241-246, Sapporo
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Donauwoerth. - Z. Angew. Geowiss. 9, pp. 79-91, Giessen
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heat exchangers. - Proc. Workshop Ground Source Heat Pumps, Montreal, IEA Heat Pump
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27-29, Sittard
Sanner, B. (1992): Erdgekoppelte Wrmepumpen, Geschichte, Systeme, Auslegung, Installation. - 328 S., Ber. IZW 2/92, Karlsruhe
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Hannover
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1985:24T, 61 p., Lule
Schunnesson, H. (1987): Longhole drilling with the top-hammer technique, its potential application in thermal heat storage. - Proc. DRILLEX 87, p. 151-160, IMM, London
Sinkala, T. (1987): Rock and hole pattern influences on percussion hole deviations: a field
study. - Proc. DRILLEX 87, p. 161-174, IMM, London
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4640, part 2, Beuth Verlag, Berlin

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