Topics for individual studies

1. Citoplasm
2. Nucleus
3. Nucleolus
4. Endoplasmic reticulum: rough and smooth
5. Golgi complex (apparatus)
6. Vacuoles: central, digestive, contractile
7. Lysosome
8. Peroxisome
9. Cell junctions: tight, adherens, desmosome, hemidesmosome, gap, plasmodesmata
10. Cell-cell communications: endocrine, paracrine, neuronal, contact-dependent

Cytoplasm
o The cytoplasm is the gel-like substance residing within the cell membrane holding all
the cell's internal sub-structures (called organelles), outside the nucleus.
o The cytoplasm is about 70% to 90% water and usually colourless.
o The inner, granular mass is called the endoplasm and the outer, clear and glassy layer
is called the cell cortex or the ectoplasm.
o Activities within the cytoplasm: metabolic pathways
cell division
o The cytoplasm has three major elements: the cytosol, organelles and inclusions:
Cytosol. The part of the cytoplasm that is not held within organelles.
Organelles are usually membrane-bound, and are structures inside the cell that have
specific functions.
Cytoplasmic inclusions are small particles of insoluble substances suspended in the
cytosol.
NUCLEUS
A membrane-enclosed dense, roughly spherical organelle found in eukaryotic cells.
The viscous liquid within it is called nucleoplasm
Contains multiple long linear DNA molecules in complex with proteins (histones), to
form chromosomes.
The function of the nucleus is to maintain the integrity of these genes and to control the
activities of the cell by regulating gene expression.
The main structures making up the nucleus are:

the nuclear envelope - serve as a barrier to prevent macromolecules from diffusing

freely between the nucleoplasm and the cytoplasm

the outer nuclear membrane is continuous with the membrane of the rough
endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
the inner membrane (nucleoskeleton) is a networks of intermediate filaments and
structure (filaments) of lamin proteins and lamin-associated membrane proteins called nuclear lamina - give strenght and mechanical support to nuclear envelope
Nuclear pores
Nuclear membrane (NM) is impermeable to large molecules - nuclear pores are required
to allow movement of large molecules across the envelope.
NM is perforated with holes called nuclear pores. They cross both of the membranes,
providing aqueous channels through the envelope. Pores are composed of multiple
proteins nucleoporins and are arranged into complex called Nuclear Pore Complex
(NPC).
Functions
The main function of the cell nucleus is:
to control gene expression and
to mediate the replication of DNA during the cell cycle
Nucleolus
It is not surrounded by a membrane, and is sometimes called a suborganelle.
It forms around tandem repeats of DNA coding for ribosomal RNA (rRNA). These regions
are called nucleolar organizer regions (NOR).
The main roles of the nucleolus are to synthesize rRNA and assemble ribosomes.
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an organelle of cells in eukaryotic organisms that
forms an interconnected network of tubules, vesicles, and cisternae.
The three most common varieties: rough endoplasmic reticulum, smooth endoplasmic
reticulum, and sarcoplasmic reticulum.
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
The rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) is involved in the synthesis of proteins and is
also a membrane factory for the cell.
The surface of RER is covered with protein-manufacturing ribosomes giving it a "rough"
appearance.
Although there is no continuous membrane between the RER and the Golgi apparatus,
membrane-bound vesicles carry proteins between these two compartments - from RER
to the Golgi complex cis face.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) is involved in the synthesis of lipids, including oils,
phospholipids and steroids, metabolism of carbohydrates, regulation of calcium
concentration and detoxification of drugs and poisons.
The SER consists of tubules that are located near the cell periphery.
Sarcoplasmic reticulum
The sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR), from the Greek sarx, ("flesh"), is variety of smooth ER
found in smooth and striated muscle. The only structural difference between SR and
SER is the composition of proteins they have:
SR solely regulate calcium levels - stores and pumps calcium ions.
It plays a major role in excitation-contraction coupling in muscles.
Transport of proteins
The ER serves in the facilitation of protein folding and the transport of synthesized
proteins in sacs called transport vesicula.
Correct folding of newly-made proteins is made possible by several ER chaperone
proteins. Only properly-folded proteins are transported from the rough ER to the Golgi
complex.
Golgi complex
The Golgi apparatus packages proteins inside the cell before they are sent to their
destination; it is particularly important in the processing of proteins for secretion.
It is composed of stacks of membrane-bound structures known as cisternae. Each
cisterna comprises a flat, membrane enclosed disc that includes special Golgi enzymes
which modify or help to modify cargo proteins that travel through it
The cisternae stack has four functional regions: the cis-Golgi network, medial-Golgi,
endo-Golgi, and trans-Golgi network.

Each region contains different enzymes which selectively modify the contents
depending on where they reside.
Lysosomes
Lysosomes are cellular organelles that contain acid hydrolase enzymes that break
down waste materials and cellular debris. They can be described as the stomach of the
cell. They are found in animal cells, while their existence in yeasts and plants is
disputed.
The name lysosome means "releasing body" and their enzymes cause "lysis" or
disintegration of certain materials.
The enyzmes contained in lysosomes are examples of the proteins that are
manufactured by the ribosomes, typically in the rough endoplasmic
reticulum. They are then packaged by the Golgi apparatus inside the
membranous vesicles that make up the lysosomes.
Vacuole
A vacuole is a membrane-bound sac that plays roles in intracellular digestion and the
release of cellular waste products. In animal cells, vacuoles are generally small.
Plant cells have big central vacuole.
Main functions :
Control the difference between the osmotic pressure inside and outside of the
cell.
Storage vesicles for nutrients
Storage vesicles for waste products
Turgor presure in plants
Rigidity in the plant
Support of the cell
Mitochondria
are sometimes described as "cellular power plants" because they generate most of the
cell's supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), used as a source of chemical energy
mitochondria are involved in other tasks such as signaling, cellular differentiation, cell
death, as well as the control of the cell cycle and cell growth
The organelle is composed of compartments that carry out specialized functions. These
compartments or regions include the outer membrane, the intermembrane space, the
inner membrane, and the cristae and matrix.
Plastides
Chloroplasts are organelles, specialized subunits, in plant and algal cells. Their main
role is to conduct photosynthesis, where the photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll
captures the energy from sunlight, and stores it in the energy storage molecules ATP
and NADPH while freeing oxygen from water.
Chromoplasts are plastids, heterogeneous organelles responsible for pigment
synthesis and storage in specific photosynthetic eukaryotes.[1] It is thought that like
all other plastids including chloroplasts and leucoplasts they are descended from
symbiotic prokaryotes.[2]
Leucoplasts are a category of plastid and as such are organelles found in plant cells.
They are non-pigmented, in contrast to other plastids such as the chloroplast. Lacking
pigments, leucoplasts are not green. They are colorless, so they are predictably located
in roots and non-photosynthetic tissues of plants. They may become specialized for bulk
storage of starch, lipid or protein and are then known as amyloplasts, elaioplasts, or
proteinoplasts [also called aleuroplast] respectively.