Hydrological Sciences Journal Journal des Sciences Hydrologiques, 55(8) 2010

1357

Integrated approach to choosing suitable areas for the realization of

productive wells in rural areas of sub-Saharan Africa
Giorgio Ghiglieri1 & Alberto Carletti2
1

Department of Territorial Engineering, Desertification Research Group (NRD), University of Sassari, Viale Italia, I-07100 Sassari, Italy
ghiglieri@uniss.it
2

Desertification Research Group (NRD), University of Sassari, Viale Italia, I-07100 Sassari, Italy

Received 26 August 2009; accepted 6 August 2010; open for discussion until 1 June 2011
Citation Ghiglieri, G. & Carletti, A. (2010) Integrated approach to choosing suitable areas for the realization of productive wells in rural
areas of sub-Saharan Africa. Hydrol. Sci. J. 55(8), 13571370.

Abstract Comprehensive geological, hydrogeological and hydrogeochemical investigations were carried out in the
south of Hodh El Chargui (southeast Mauritania). Obtaining a hydrogeological conceptual model is crucial for
groundwater resources development and management. This is especially true in developing countries and in the
rural areas of sub-Saharan Africa. The chosen areas are represented by lithologies referring to a long geological time
frame, dating from the Upper Neoproterozoic to the Quaternary age. We developed a methodology in order to
identify sites that were suitable for the realization of productive, protected and correct wells to supply safe water to
the rural community. A multicriteria approach to studying hydrogeology was used in the project area. In order to
identify some main areas in which to carry out pilot interventions, criteria relating to water accessibility and
availability, and to hydrogeological and water quality, were considered. Moreover, during the project, it was
possible to transfer know-how and hand over responsibilities to the local population and bodies.
Key words groundwater; access to water; developing countries; Mauritania

Approche intgre pour le choix de zones pertinentes pour la ralisation de puits de production dans les
rgions rurales de lAfrique sub-Saharienne
Rsum Des tudes gologiques, hydrogologiques et hydrogochimiques compltes ont t menes dans le sud du
Hodh El Chargui (sud-est de la Mauritanie). Lobtention dun modle hydrogologique conceptuel est cruciale pour
le dveloppement et la gestion des ressources en eaux souterraines. Cela est particulirement vrai dans les pays en
dveloppement et dans les rgions rurales de lAfrique sub-Saharienne. Les rgions choisies sont caractrises par
des lithologies qui renvoient une longue priode gologique, du Noprotrozoque Suprieur au Quaternaire.
Nous avons dvelopp une mthodologie afin didentifier des sites pertinents pour la ralisation de puits productifs,
protgs et corrects qui permettraient dalimenter les communauts rurales en eau de qualit. Une approche
multicritres a t utilise dans la rgion dtude pour tudier lhydrogologie. Afin didentifier quelques zones
prioritaires au sein desquelles conduire des interventions pilotes, des critres lis laccessibilit et la disponibilit
de leau, ainsi quaux qualits hydrogologiques et de leau, ont t considrs. En outre, durant le projet, il a t
possible de transfrer le savoir-faire et les responsabilits aux populations et institutions locales.
Mots clefs eaux souterraines, accs leau; lenvironnement aride; Mauritanie

INTRODUCTION

As highlighted by MacDonald et al. (2008), At least

44% of the population in sub-Saharan Africa (some
320 million people) do not have access to clean, reliable water supplies (JMP, 2004). The majority of those
without access (approx. 85%) live in rural areas where
the consequent poverty and ill-health disproportionately affect women and children (JMP, 2004). In
response, the international community has set the
ISSN 0262-6667 print/ISSN 2150-3435 online
2010 IAHS Press
doi: 10.1080/02626667.2010.527845
http://www.informaworld.com

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which commit the UN membership to halve the proportion of
people who are unable to reach, or afford, safe drinking water by the year 2015 (United Nations, 2000).
Another objective is to provide a quantity of at least 20
litres per day per person to 60% of the population.
Accessibility to drinking water is a fundamental right
that is still lacking for a large part of the worlds
population (UNEP, 1994). Further, MacDonald et al.
(2008) stated: Across large swathes of Africa, South

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G. Ghiglieri & A. Carletti

America and Asia, groundwater provides the only

realistic water supply option for meeting dispersed
rural demand. There are many reasons for this: it is
generally found close to where it is needed, the natural
quality is usually good and it is resistant to even
prolonged droughts. Alternative water resources can
be unreliable and expensive to develop (Foster et al.,
2000).
In an attempt to address this problem, the present
work was carried out within the ACP-EU Water
Facility Programme, through the HEFEM Project
(HEFEM: appui aux municipalits rurales pour la
scurisation et la gestion de leau) (http://www.projet
-hefem.org:8080/servlet/ae5Mau). The general objective was to guarantee easier access to water for the
inhabitants of 13 rural municipalities of the provinces
of Nema and Timbedgha, in the south of Hodh El
Chargui, southeast Mauritania.
The area had not previously been the object of
systematic hydrogeological studies. A multicriteria
approach to studying hydrogeology was used in the
project area. In order to identify the main areas in
which to carry out pilot interventions, water accessibility and availability, as well as hydrogeological and
water quality criteria, were considered. Furthermore,
during the project, it was possible to transfer knowhow and hand over responsibilities to the local population and bodies.
The paper draws on an extensive literature review
based primarily on the published literature; however,
in some cases it also draws on grey literature
(papers, books, theses, conference proceedings, etc.)
where the data are considered to be of good quality and
where this provides clearer information. A representative literature set was acquired through this process,
although, as noted within the text, in some areas the
available literature and evidence is sparse.
2 CONCEPT AND SCOPE OF THE
METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH
Lack of water is certainly one of the biggest problems
afflicting the population of Mauritania, as well as the
countries in sub-Saharan Africa, in general. Cobbing
& Davies (2008) stated, It is now broadly accepted
that if the MDG targets are to be met, groundwater
will have a central role to play (see for instance
MacDonald et al., 2005; Pietersen, 2005). However,
there are some risks inherent in proceeding with large
increases in groundwater use without a scientific
approach to, and sustainable management of,

groundwater development. Frequently, many rural

water supply projects suffer from very little hydrogeological input. Instead, they are seen only in terms of
engineering problems: e.g. drilling, pump installation,
tanks and taps.
Thompson et al. (2000) wrote: The benefits and
costs of providing a safe, convenient and reliable
water supply to people in the developing world has
been the subject of a vast and wide-ranging research
effort over the last four decades. Research has focused
on various aspects: the relationship between water
and disease; the efficacy of water supply projects in
improving health; the causes and consequences of
differential access to, and control of, water resources
(particularly with regard to gender and wealth); and
the financing of water supply infrastructures. Despite
this plethora of literature and research, relatively little
is known about a number of key aspects relating to a
simple, useful, scientific-based procedure that could
be applied in developing countries when planning
interventions aimed at improving access to safe
water. Of all the regions of the world, the research
gap is most acute for sub-Saharan Africa, a region
whose population has the least access to improved
water supplies (Cosgrove & Rijsberman, 2000;
MacDonald et al., 2005; Pietersen, 2005).
Concerning the methodology of work, Cobbing &
Davies (2008) highlighted: Accurate and appropriate
data collection during project implementation, together
with data interpretation and knowledge dissemination
can prevent past mistakes being repeated and, moreover, reduce the ultimate cost of water supply schemes
from both a human and a financial point of view, and
Fonjong et al. (2004) stated, Furthermore, projects of
this type must take into consideration the sources and
levels of income and other socio-economic aspects of
the community, its population and its system of management, before proposing any technical solutions. In
fact, in achieving clean water for all, indigenous knowledge and community participation have a determinant
role to play. This is because most topbottom
approaches to water schemes have shown limits in
providing safe water to communities. Such failures in
water provision and distribution should be considered
as a clarion call to encourage community involvement
in all water supply schemes. It is also an indication of
the need to promote community-based initiatives involving the rural population in the planning, designing,
implementation and management of their water
resources in accordance with local situations and
needs.

Groundwater research on Mauritania (sub-Saharan Africa)

1359

Fig. 1 Integrated criteria flowchart.

In order to identify suitable sites for the realization of productive, protected and correct wells to supply safe water to the rural community in the study area,
the authors developed a methodology by means of
integrated criteria. In Fig. 1 the proposed methodology
is shown in a flowchart. Criteria have been grouped
into three categories:

Water access criteria (water availability);

Hydrogeological criteria; and
Water quality criteria.

The guidelines of the World Health Organization

(WHO, 2006) define minimum standards for water
quality by establishing concentration level limits for
a set of organic and inorganic chemical parameters.
Moreover, the guidelines contain a classification based
on accessibility, expressed in terms of time and distance to be covered to reach the nearest water supply
point, and on the quantity of water being distributed or

used (Table 1). With regard to this last point, the

minimum standard that has to be guaranteed in the
developing countries corresponds to the basic access
category (distance of less than 1 km and water availability of 20 litres per day per person).
The hydrogeological criteria, aimed at identifying
potentially exploitable aquifers, has also taken into
account some technical factors available in situ
(Ghiglieri et al., 2010). Given that in these rural areas
neither equipment for deep drilling nor electric distribution lines are available, the most strategically exploitable aquifers are shallow ones. MacDonald et al.
(2008) reports that in southern Africa sand rivers are
an important source of water for rural areas. Research
into the occurrence of groundwater in sand rivers has
been undertaken in Botswana (Wikner, 1980; Davies
et al., 1998), Namibia (Jacobson et al., 1995) and
Zimbabwe (Owen, 1989). However, their exploitation
is limited by the vulnerability of these aquifers to

Table 1 Requirements for water service levels and health implications (WHO, 2006).
Service level

Access measure (distance or time)

No access Quantity collected

often below 5 L per capita
per day
Basic access Average quantity
unlikely to exceed 20 L per
capita per day

More than 1000 m or 30 min total

collection time

Needs met

Consumption cannot be assured.

Hygiene not possible (unless practised at the
source)
Between 100 and 1000 m or 530 min Consumption should be assured.
total collection time
Handwashing and basic food hygiene possible;
laundry and bathing difficult to assure unless
carried out at source
Intermediate access Average
Water delivered through one tap on
Consumption assured. All basic personal and food
quantity about 50 L per capita
plot or within 100 or 5 min total
hygiene assured; laundry and bathing should also
per day
collection time
be assured
Water supplied through multiple
Consumption: all needs met. Hygiene: all needs
Optimum access Average
taps continuously
should be met
quantity 100 L per capita
per day
Source: Howard & Bartram, 2003.

Level of
health
concern
Very high
High

Low
Very low

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G. Ghiglieri & A. Carletti

pollution: they are easily exposed to any possible

anthropogenic or animal contamination sources.
Furthermore, in rural areas there are widespread
phenomena of pollution due to bad management and
lack of maintenance of water supply structures. GyauBoakye et al. (2008) states that, in rural areas of subSaharan Africa and particularly in Ghana, the water
in many hand-dug wells tends to be muddy and polluted due to a high nitrate content (3060 mg/L) and
abundant coliform.
The authors used a classification in order to determine the quality of the groundwater. The basic groundwater quality assessment was carried out through a
classification that was proposed in various scientific
works (Civita & De Maio, 2000; Barbieri et al., 2005;
Ghiglieri et al., 2006, 2009; De Maio et al., 2007;
Civita et al., 2009), and acknowledged by European
and Italian law (DPR 236/88, 1988; EC, 2000; DPR 31/
01, 2001), as well as by the World Health Organization
(WHO, 2006). This classification considers the destination use of the water, distinguishing between water
intended for human consumption and that intended
for irrigation purposes (Barbieri et al., 2005; Ghiglieri
et al., 2006; Civita et al., 2007, 2009).
The classification takes into account a number of
chemical and physical parameters, and undesirable
substances: depending on whether concentrations are
higher or lower than the guide values and than maximum admissible concentrations (values that do not
exceed the recommended limit), it assigns an assessment of usability (from optimum to very bad). Thus,
for each intended use, these different parameters indicate respective values which identify various classes
of water. Indeed, a classification based on parameters
that can vary over time, depending on natural or

anthropogenic factors, represents a snapshot of the

qualitative state at the precise moment that sampling
was carried out. Therefore, in order to study the evolution through time and space of the qualitative states of
the groundwater, a programme of monitoring is of
prime importance.
The parameters taken into consideration, regarding the basic quality of waters destined for human
consumption, are split into two groups:

Group 1 includes the chemical-physical parameters: hardness, TH (French degree of hardness,

10 mg CaCO3/L), electrical conductivity (EC) at
20 C (S/cm), chlorides, sulphates and nitrates
(in mg/L).
Group 2 includes the undesirable substances
NH4+, Fe2+ and Mn22+(in mg/L).

The values used to indicate the limits of the different

classes were calculated starting from the Guideline Value
(GV) and the Maximum Admissible Concentration
(MAC) indicated by DPR 236/88 and EC (2000)
(Ghiglieri et al., 2006; Civita et al., 2007, 2009).
Basic quality is identified by combining the two
classes determined, in both groups, by the parameter
included in the worst one. The possible combinations
of the six quality classes, three for each group (A1, B1,
C1, A2, B2 and C2), give rise to nine final basic
quality classes.
Table 2 shows the intervals of values which identify the quality classes: optimum (A), intermediate (B)
and poor (C), relative to each group. To each of these, a
quality assessment is given, as shown in Table 3.
The hydrogeological and water quality criteria
must be used to identify suitable sites in which to
realize productive, protected wells. Indeed, it is

Table 2 Classification of groundwater quality.

Class

A
B
C

Group 1:
Chemical-physical parameters:

Group 2:
Undesirable substances:

Assessment

TH

EC (20 C)
(S/cm)

Cl(mg/L)

SO42(mg/L)

NO3(mg/L)

NH4+
(mg/L)

Fe2+
(mg/L)

Mn2+
(mg/L)

15a30d
30d50
>50

<1000d
1000d2000
>2000

<50
50200c
>200c

<50e
50e250c
>250c

<10d
10d50c
>50c

<0.05b
0.05b0.5c
>0.5c

<0.05b
0.05b0.2c
>0.2c

<0.02b
0.02b0.05c
>0.05c

TH: French degrees of hardness (10 mg CaCO3/L); EC: electrical conductivity.

a
Minimum recommended value (EEC, 2000; DPR 236/88; DPR 31/01).
b
Guideline value (GV) (EC, 2000; DPR 236/88; DPR 31/01).
c
Maximum Admissible Concentration (MAC) (EEC, 2000; DPR 236/88; DPR 31/01).
d
Intermediate indicative value between MAC and GV (EEC, 2000; DPR 236/88; DPR 31/01).
e
Value double that of GV.

Optimum
Intermediate
Poor

Groundwater research on Mauritania (sub-Saharan Africa)

Table 3 Assessment of basic groundwater quality for

human consumption.
Class

Assessment of use

A1A2
B1A2
C1A2
A1B2
B1B2
C1B2
A1C2
B1C2
C1C2

Optimum
Good
Acceptable
Mediocre
Low

normally recommended that new boreholes and protected dug-wells are sited upstream, as opposed to in
the direction of the groundwater flow, and away from
pit latrines and refuse dumps in order to avoid
pollution.
Once the list of suitable areas has been defined, it
must then be submitted for approval to the Territorial
Communities and to the various Municipal Authorities,
in order to reach an agreement. In fact, in making
the above-mentioned decisions and interventions,
technical results are not sufficient, since social and
economic factors play a relevant role and, thus, local
authorities and communities must first approve the
development plans (Foster et al., 2000; MacDonald
et al., 2005; Cobbing & Davies, 2008).
3

STUDY AREA

3.1 Location, morphology, climate settings

The study area (Fig. 2(a)), corresponding to the
Moughataa (Provinces) of Nema and Timbedgha, is
situated in the southeast of Mauritania and lies entirely
within the Wilaya (Region) of Hodh El Chargui. In this
area, the most populated apart from the capital
Nouakchott, there are 281 600 inhabitants, 35 700 of
whom are nomads (ONS, 2002). The two Moughataa
are situated in the southern part of the Wilaya and
occupy a surface of 20 000 km2 extending as far as
the border with Mali. This area is divided into 13
municipalities, nine of which belong to Nema, while
the other four belong to Timbedgha. In these rural
areas, there are small villages inhabited by both nomadic and settled people whose main activities are growing cereals and rearing livestock, including sheep,
goats, cattle and camels.
The region of south Hodh forms a large depression delimited by the Afoll Mountains to the west and
by the cliffs of Dhar to the east. Dhar is a plateau

1361

extending eastwards as far as the border with Mali.

The morphology of the region, excluding Dhar where
the topographic heights reach 420 m a.m.s.l., is quite
flat, with heights varying between 250 and 180 m a.m.
s.l. As a whole, the area is strongly sanded up. When
going from north to south, the aeolian semi-active
dune fields, which are sometimes thicker than 100 m,
diminish in thickness (less than 20 m). They resemble
fixed dune fields extending in an ENEWSW direction that progressively leave their place to the emerging rocky basement.
The zone is ploughed by many wadi which, during the dry season, resemble quite sanded-up and dry
riverbeds called Batha. Very often, these are subject to
an enlargement of the riverbed and to the erosion of the
banks caused by occasional intensive precipitation and
by degraded vegetation cover.
The area shows a typical Sahelian climate: during
the year, a long dry season (OctoberJune) follows a
very short humid season (winter) lasting from July
until September. The influence of monsoons during
the winter is significant, because, although the rains
they bring are very irregular, these are often violent
and catastrophic. Precipitation is generally scarce: this
is especially noticeable when moving northwards.
Temperatures are high on average (over 30 C) and
the frequency of dry and warm winds, from the north
and northeast, favour evapotranspiration. The mean
annual rainfall, as reported by the Nema station and
calculated over 56 years (19502006), averages
264 mm. The mean annual maximum and minimum
temperature is respectively 36.8 and 24.6 C. These
climatic factors contribute to an extremely limited
groundwater recharge.
3.2 Geological setting
The general geological descriptions (Fig. 2(c)) are
based on the official cartography of the Government
of Mauritania (Lahondere et al., 2005), while the
hydrogeological setting results from the work carried
out in the context of this research. Lithologies refer to a
long geological time frame, dating from the Upper
Neoproterozoic to the Quaternary age.
The study area is within the southwestern edge of
the Taoudeni basin, a wide geological entity (about
1 500 000 km2), corresponding to the sedimentary
Neoproterozoic and Paleozoic, and covering a large
part of the West African Craton. The rocks that make
up the ancient basement in the area are part of the
Groupe de Tniagouri (Upper Neoproterozoic). This

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G. Ghiglieri & A. Carletti

Fig. 2 (a) Study area; (b) well location; and (c) geological (source: Lahondere et al., 2005) and hydrogeological map.

is divided into three different units: the Formation

dOurkem, at the base, constituted by dolostones
with barytine, which are generally between 2 and
15 m thick; the Formation de Bouly made of chert
and thin bedded pelites, with thicknesses reaching
100 m; the Formation dOuld Yenje, at the top, composed of purple pelites and shales (with thicknesses of
between 100 and 500 m). In the south and southeast of
Nema, important massive bodies outcrop: they constitute large laccoliths, formed by gabbro and dolorite
rocks that were injected between the pelitic formations
during the Lower Jurassic.
From these, a number of veins, mainly aligned in
an ENEWSW direction, cross the Hodh Depression;
these are often hidden by aeolian sandy deposits. In the
east of Nema, Cretaceous sandstones rest, in angular
discordance, on the pelitic basement and on dolorites;
these constitute the plateau of Dhar. These formations
are covered, in slight angular discordance, by the
Ferricrete: a Tertiary ferruginous duricrust (a few
metres thick).
Quaternary superficial formations are mainly
represented by: the aeolian sandy deposits that
cover a large portion of the study area and appear
both as ancient steady dune cordons and still active
dunes; the khabha and sebkha deposits formed by the
build-up in depressed zones of thin materials transported by streaming water and to which evaporation
deposits can be associated; the old palaeo-valley

alluvial sediments; and the actual wadi alluvial

sediments.
3.3 Hydrogeological setting
At present, due to the complex hydrogeological frame
and to the broad expanse of the study area, it is difficult
to accurately define all of the different hydrogeological parameters like aquifer geometry, storage capacity,
permeability, recharge areas, etc.
The hydrogeological setting has been described
and reclassified by combining an existing terrain
arrangement (Lahondere et al., 2005), and an existing
hydrogeological large-scale study of Mauritania
(Friedel, 2008) with the new hydrogeological and
hydrogeochemical surveys carried out within this work.
A conceptual hydrogeological model, on a regional scale, was reconstructed. The lithostratigraphic
formations can be grouped into three main hydrogeological units (HU):
Upper Neoproterozoic Hydrogeologic Unit
This includes in a single complex the formations of
the Groupe de Tniagouri (Hods pelites aquifer). In
the study area it can reach up to a hundred metres in
thickness. The aquifer has a fractured permeability
depending on the degree of the fracture system (joints
and faults) that serve as good conduits for groundwater
circulation on a regional scale.

Groundwater research on Mauritania (sub-Saharan Africa)

Mesozoic Hydrogeologic Unit This is divided

into the Dolorites complex (Jurassic) and the
Sandstones complex of the Dhar of Nema
(Cretaceous). The aquifer hosted in the dolorites can
reach considerable thicknesses connected with the
main laccoliths, while dolorites in the shape of dykes
have lower thicknesses. Permeability, when present, is
of fractured media type and the network of fracture
frequency is tied to the fissured zone and faulting
states. The Cretaceous formations which constitute
the Dhar Plateau can be grouped together in a single
hydrogeological complex characterized by secondary
permeability. The aquifer has a lateral boundary condition in the East of the study area, due to the thickness
reduction (up to a few metres) of sandstones and to the
presence of the sub-emerging pelitic basement.
Quaternary Hydrogeologic Unit This formation
contains aeolian sandy deposits, outcropping mainly
in the western area, and ancient and recent alluvial
deposits, emerging in the wadis. The average porosity
and permeability (hydraulic conductivity) is good.
Alluvial deposits constitute some aquifers with limited
extension and they are recharged both by surface infiltration (which is extremely sensitive to climatic fluctuations), and laterally from groundwater circulating
in neighbouring aquifers. Some aquifers (often perched)
are hosted in the aeolian deposits. In the more northern
regions (Aouker), these formations have remarkable
thicknesses, reaching up to 100 metres. By contrast,
in the study area thicknesses are considerably
reduced (less than 20 m) and disappear progressively
towards the southeast, where the impermeable basement crops out.
4

METHODS OF INVESTIGATION

With the aim of obtaining hydrogeological data, two

field surveys were carried out in the area. The first,
which also included surveys outside the limits of the
two Moughataa, was particularly time-consuming
(about 6 months) and difficult in terms of accessibility
and logistics: in all, 533 water points were surveyed
(Fig. 2(b)). Every water point was identified with an
alphanumeric code and the following general data
were collected for each one: elevation, geographic
coordinates, piezometric level and hydrogeological
characteristics; constructive and technical data of the
wells were obtained, a global positioning system
(GPS) being used to locate each feature. Analyses of
groundwater samples, including pH, Eh, dissolved

1363

oxygen, electric conductivity, and temperature were

carried out in situ. For each water point a monographic
data sheet was edited; afterwards data were organized
in a digital database and in a GIS support, using
ArcView 9.2 and the open source software gvSIG.
Once the water point census was completed, the
hydrogeological information was pre-processed in
terms of well depth, hydraulic head (deeper pelites
aquifers always have a greater hydraulic head), the
conditions of the wells, piezometric contour lines and
EC values. This, in combination with the hydrogeological information (i.e. extension and thickness of the
sequences), allowed us to associate each well with its
aquifer and define the most convenient and efficient
monitoring network. This was also selected taking into
account a representative geographic spatial distribution, the water access criteria (see Section 5.3) and the
accessibility to water points.
The second field survey, lasting about 2 months,
was conducted on the monitoring network by the selection of 99 representative wells (Fig. 2(c)). In all of these
the following characteristics were collected: piezometric
level and in situ analyses of a groundwater sample (pH,
Eh, dissolved oxygen, electric conductivity, temperatures). Moreover, 40 samples were collected for laboratory analysis: the sampling locations were chosen in
such a way as to represent the different hydrogeological
settings encountered in the study area (Fig. 2(c)).
The hydraulic head values were computed by
subtracting the observed water levels from co-located
elevations and spatialized using geostatistical interpolation techniques.
For chemical determination, samples were collected in 100-mL bottles and filtered through 1.20
and 0.45 m membrane filters. The samples were
collected directly into plastic bottles at the wellhead,
with care taken to prevent air entrapment. Samples
were preserved under cool conditions prior to laboratory analysis. The collected samples were analysed, to
test for major elements, in the head office of the project
in Mauritania in a purposely equipped laboratory. The
chemical determination, following a standard procedure, was carried out as follows:

Temperature, pH and electrical conductivity at

25 C (S/cm) were measured in situ with a portable pH-conductivity metre (mod. HI 98130
HANNA Instruments).
Bicarbonates through basic acid titration, with HCl
0.1N with indicator mixed methyl red bromecresol
green.

1364

G. Ghiglieri & A. Carletti

Total hardness, calcium hardness, chlorides, ammonia, nitrites, nitrates, fluorides, phosphates, manganese, zinc and boron using spectrophotometer
(multiparametric photometer Aqualytic PC Multi)
through colorimetric reaction techniques.
Sulphates using spectrophotometer (multiparametric photometer Aqualytic PC Multi) using turbidity techniques.
Potassium with kit Visocolor-Eco using turbidity
techniques.
Magnesium through the difference between total
hardness and calcium hardness (APHA et al., 1992).
Sodium using flame photometry (CIBA
CORNING, Mod. 410).

The precision of chemical analyses ranges from

0.6 to 8% and was better than 5% on average. The
physical characteristics and the chemical analyses of
all groundwater samples, corresponding to the April
2007 campaign, are presented in Table 4 where concentrations are expressed in mg/L.
Moreover, water samples were collected to determine microbiologic analyses. The evaluation of total
coliform, Escherichia coli and Enterococcus was
effected in terms of their presence or absence using
the DST (Defined Substrate Technology): for total
coliform and Escherichia coli, with Colilert kit and
incubation at 35 C  0.5 C for 24 h and for
Enterococcus, with Enterolert kit and incubation at
41 C  0.5 C for 24 h. For both Escherichia coli
and Enterococcus, the results were read under ultraviolet light (366 nm).
5

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In the context of this work, the elaborations concern

exclusively the pelites aquifer (Upper Neoproterozoic
Hydrogeologic Unit) and dolorites aquifer (Mesozoic
Hydrogeologic Unit). At present, no significant data
are available for the other two HUs.
5.1 Regional groundwater circulation and
flowpaths
In order to reconstruct the regional groundwater flows
the piezometric data corresponding to the April 2007
survey were elaborated.
Figure 2(c) presents the piezometric contour lines
and the main groundwater flow directions. The piezometric contour lines concerning the southeast of the

study area are related to the dolorites aquifer, whereas,

due to its extension, the pelites aquifer has been
divided into four representative geographic areas.
The groundwater flow direction lines in both
aquifers, generally, converge into the valleys where
the main wadis have settled: this fact gives rise to an
important lateral recharge process for the aquifers
hosted in the alluvial and sandy deposits. North of
the city of Timbedgha, groundwater flow related to
the pelites aquifer is in an ENEWSW direction.
5.2 Groundwater geochemistry and water
quality indicators
Plots of major ion concentrations in groundwater samples from the aquifers are presented in a Piper diagram
(Fig. 3(a)). Most of the samples are included in the
central sector of the diagram: the distribution shows
non-dominant hydrochemical water types. The principal feature emerging from the whole data set regarding
the pelites aquifer (Upper Neoproterozoic) is that we
can identify mineralization processes in the groundwater. The end members (fresh and mineralized
groundwater) for the pelites aquifer (Fig. 3(a)
and (b)) are identified considering the TDI (total dissolved ions) values (Asnachinda, 1997; Mayer, 1999),
which range from 292.77 to 3167.52 mg/L (Table 4).
As shown in Fig. 3(b), the fresh groundwater samples
(403018p1 and 603035p1) are located in the east and
southwest of the study area respectively, corresponding to the recharge areas of the pelites aquifer. In
contrast, the mineralized groundwater samples
(410025p1, 602006p1 and 602034p2) are detected
downstream with respect to groundwater flow direction. This underlines the fact that the chemical composition of waters is derived from geochemical evolution
processes related to waterrock interactions.
In Fig. 4, assessment classes according to basic
quality classes for human consumption related to 40
groundwater samples are represented and expressed in
percentage.
Only certain chemical parameters have influenced
the classification: subsequently these were expressed
through the degradation index (DI) (Ghiglieri et al.,
2006). This index, which is calculated for the parameters nitrates (NO3), nitrites (NO2) and fluorides (F-),
is obtained from the ratio between the measured concentration and the threshold concentration foreseen by
WHO guidelines (WHO, 2006). The strength of this
index is that it clearly shows the degree of water

700551
695269
687933
704549
703987
704562
709539
710556
706612
695231
678985
688675
676961
692822
646791
662706
658278
677861
666703
682917
671747
682877
658617
635991
655194
616939
626106
663498
639830
612388
621826
605689
570624
612532
604878
609799
598702
587995
581775
595134

403008P1
403010P1
403014P1
403016P1
403017P1
403018P1
404003P1
404027P1
404030P1
405001P2
405009P1
405010P1
405016P1
405021P1
406019P1
406041P1
406051P1
407009P1
407014P1
407015P1
407021P1
407022P1
408001P1
408004P1
408011P1
409006P1
409007P1
410024P1
410025P1
602006P1
602010P1
602013P1
602034P2
603035P1
603041P1
603042P2
604011P1
605008P2
605037P3
605044P5

UN
UN
UN
UN
UN
UN
M
UN
M
M
UN
M
M
M
UN
UN
UN
UN
UN
UN
UN
UN
UN
UN
UN
UN
UN
UN
UN
UN
UN
Q
UN
UN
UN
Q
UN
UN
UN
Q

31.6
27.2
32.7
32.3
33.3
33.3
33.3
29.9
30.5
32.4
35.3
35.6
36.2
31.2
32.9
31.7
n.a.
33.6
33.3
31.4
34.2
29.7
35.2
34.7
33.4
33.6
32.9
31.2
32.1
33.1
34.0
33.1
32.1
34.1
32.0
32.1
33.5
33.8
32.7
n.a.

HU T

7.5
7.4
7.4
7.3
7.4
7.6
7.4
7.7
8.4
7.6
7.8
8.3
7.8
8.2
7.3
7.5
n.a.
7.6
8.1
7.4
7.1
7.4
7.7
7.6
7.4
7.9
7.1
7.2
7.2
7.4
8.1
7.2
8.0
7.5
7.1
7.2
7.2
7.1
8.0
n.a.

830
1040
870
860
1230
370
1490
1040
570
660
790
670
920
1100
890
1070
1100
1160
860
1000
950
700
1360
1210
660
1240
1910
1300
3900
2300
870
830
1140
720
990
770
1950
1380
850
740

pH EC
3.44
1.72
3.23
1.31
1.92
3.14
3.04
1.63
4.18
3.12
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
3.85
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
3.17
3.59
1.82
2.33
3.25
2.93
2.40
2.78
3.88
2.57
2.31
2.92
2.35
3.70
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
2.33
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.

DO
67.00
71.00
68.00
65.00
116.00
41.00
97.00
68.00
55.00
65.00
<50.00
<50.00
<50.00
45.00
<50.00
124.00
126.00
71.00
83.00
66.00
66.00
63.00
106.00
<50.00
84.00
48.00
142.00
64.00
141.00
96.00
59.00
64.00
58.00
74.00
87.00
62.00
n.a.
213.00
<50.00
51.00

Ca
39.50
5.51
72.88
50.42
38.92
16.90
86.86
99.59
47.60
41.60
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
83.50
n.a.
2.50
6.15
38.20
43.80
23.11
57.10
12.79
37.70
n.a.
34.04
13.40
98.42
45.60
84.46
58.33
66.20
24.32
61.95
37.68
20.08
20.68
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
27.35

Mg
64.32
127.26
39.04
60.83
112.09
30.00
149.94
33.81
13.50
29.00
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
88.00
n.a.
117.48
121.99
142.00
59.00
117.31
72.18
83.09
167.72
n.a.
26.90
240.00
231.14
140.00
708.41
312.03
45.22
87.23
111.05
40.50
104.27
83.33
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
83.64

Na

HCO3
329.49
219.66
366.10
366.10
292.88
170.85
146.44
536.95
268.47
224.54
317.29
195.25
366.10
378.31
341.70
292.88
317.29
512.54
390.51
361.22
390.51
268.47
292.88
451.53
366.10
353.90
407.59
510.10
317.29
353.90
170.85
341.70
122.03
219.66
329.49
292.88
n.a.
244.07
268.47
244.07

K
<2.00
<2.00
<2.00
<2.00
9.00
2.20
<2.00
<2.00
2.95
2.65
<2.00
<2.00
<2.00
4.20
4.00
3.20
<2.00
5.35
5.65
18.00
<2.00
<2.00
<2.00
<2.00
<2.00
8.30
16.00
5.95
5.80
2.10
<2.00
<2.00
5.20
<2.00
2.60
2.30
n.a.
2.50
3.90
<2.00

SO4

NO3

NO2

NH3

31.00 110.00 29.68 0.15 <0.02

52.00 150.00 94.80 0.03 <0.02
41.00
57.00 50.95 0.08 0.07
50.00
46.00 52.72 0.53 0.21
112.00
73.00 265.80 0.18 <0.02
1.40
28.00 15.95 0.19 0.05
146.00 120.00 478.44 0.17 0.07
25.00
70.00 48.73 0.04 0.26
11.00
28.00 37.66 0.07 <0.02
23.50
24.00 96.13 0.11 <0.02
21.00
50.00 30.12 0.16 0.12
27.00
55.00 87.71 0.07 0.07
32.00
90.00 40.31 0.09 0.13
67.00
95.00 126.26 0.09 0.20
28.00
75.00 34.55 0.17 0.12
89.00
55.00 48.29 0.06 0.12
36.50
85.00 80.63 0.31 0.31
44.00
65.00 64.68 <0.01 0.11
43.00
29.00 43.86 0.09 0.06
53.00
60.00 77.08 0.25 <0.02
17.00
90.00 62.46 0.10 0.06
27.50
20.00 88.16 <0.01 <0.02
32.00 305.00 124.04 0.03 0.18
39.00
95.00 96.53 0.08 0.11
8.50
25.00 23.48 <0.01 0.11
55.00 250.00 50.50 0.12 0.06
171.00 470.00 55.38 0.11 0.12
103.00
90.00 83.28 0.10 0.06
385.00 1520.00 43.86 0.14 0.05
455.00 130.00 40.27 0.21 0.18
88.00
90.00 34.55 0.18 0.20
38.00
18.00 28.80 0.16 0.17
69.50 375.00 45.19 0.05 0.15
8.00
65.00 103.66 0.19 0.16
38.50
50.00 79.74 <0.03 0.13
25.50
60.00 71.77 0.39 0.20
n.a.
n.a.
469.58 1.37 n.a.
32.00 235.00 274.66 0.04 0.12
48.00 115.00 22.59 0.08 0.15
10.00
50.00 99.68 0.15 0.17

Cl
0.31
0.40
0.35
0.63
0.77
0.48
0.36
1.42
0.24
0.19
0.25
0.35
0.32
0.49
0.45
0.54
0.19
0.20
0.22
0.65
0.14
0.25
2.19
1.78
0.98
0.32
0.30
0.18
0.11
0.88
0.40
0.40
0.28
0.38
0.12
0.41
n.a.
0.38
0.22
0.20

0.65
1.02
0.48
0.56
0.59
1.49
0.57
0.74
0.49
0.56
0.73
0.34
0.45
0.32
0.34
0.68
0.47
0.91
0.90
0.45
0.90
0.51
1.48
0.61
0.11
2.15
1.41
1.02
0.85
0.44
0.46
0.83
0.42
0.29
0.43
0.33
n.a.
0.29
0.41
0.54

PO4 F
0.32
0.32
0.29
0.93
<0.20
<0.20
0.36
<0.20
<0.20
<0.20
<0.20
<0.20
<0.20
<0.20
0.31
<0.20
0.41
0.41
<0.20
<0.20
0.99
<0.20
<0.20
<0.20
<0.20
<0.20
2.59
1.62
4.00
0.45
1.22
<0.20
0.37
<0.20
0.45
<0.20
n.a.
<0.20
<0.20
<0.20

Mn
0.33
0.03
0.13
0.22
0.19
0.21
0.30
0.17
0.20
0.21
0.23
0.12
0.32
0.14
0.05
0.11
0.33
0.15
0.10
0.28
0.17
0.11
0.15
0.22
0.19
0.22
0.25
0.13
0.41
0.25
0.29
0.17
0.29
0.16
0.21
0.20
n.a.
0.17
0.15
0.22

Zn
645.09
629.25
647.42
643.43
755.64
292.77
750.07
837.98
427.54
411.38
n.a.
n.a
n.a
762.25
n.a
685.57
696.95
879.87
655.33
700.29
697.15
477.74
947.33
n.a
547.93
971.47
1540.93
961.76
3167.52
1409.77
524.02
576.98
804.29
448.02
633.28
548.22
n.a
n.a
n.a
469.34

TDI

Ca Mg Na HCO3 SO4
Na Ca HCO3 SO4
Mg Ca HCO3
Mg Ca Na HCO3
Ca Na Mg HCO3 Cl
Ca Mg Na HCO3
Mg Na Ca Cl
Mg Ca HCO3
Mg Ca HCO3
Mg Ca HCO3
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
Mg Na HCO3
n.a.
Ca Na HCO3 Cl
Ca Na HCO3
Na Ca Mg HCO3
Ca Mg Na HCO3
Na Ca HCO3
Mg Ca Na HCO3
Na Ca HCO3
Na Ca Mg SO4 HCO3
n.a.
Ca Mg HCO3
Na HCO3 SO4
Na Mg Ca SO4 HCO3 Cl
Na Mg Ca HCO3 Cl
Na SO4 Cl
Na Mg Ca Cl HCO3
Mg Ca Na HCO3 Cl SO4
Na Ca Mg HCO3
Mg Na Ca SO4
Ca Mg Na HCO3
Na Ca HCO3
Na Ca Mg HCO3
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
Na Ca Mg HCO3

Facies

HU, hydrogeological unit (Q: Quaternary; M: Mesozoic; UN: Upper Neoproterozoic): DO, dissolved oxygen: cations and anions are in mg/L: temperature (T) is in  C: EC, electrical conductivity at 25 C in S/cm: TDI, total
dissolved ions (in mg/L): n.a., not available.
The concentrations below WHO guideline values are indicated in bold for the following parameters: NO3 (50 mg/L), NO2 (0.2 mg/L), Mn (0.4 mg/L) and Zn (3 mg/L).

1808876
1830622
1819142
1824743
1822845
1821661
1816159
1804358
1803115
1799787
1784375
1790094
1793672
1795727
1784945
1802384
1789106
1820812
1806672
1827797
1804970
1818098
1822037
1803900
1827857
1825764
1830753
1839152
1829354
1807440
1815586
1831448
1829677
1742716
1741481
1753548
1716379
1757748
1740786
1744331

UTM E UTM N

ID

Table 4 Hydrochemical parameters for the groundwater sampled in the second survey.

Groundwater research on Mauritania (sub-Saharan Africa)

1365

1366

G. Ghiglieri & A. Carletti

Fig. 3 (a) Major ion composition of the groundwater samples plotted on a Piper diagram; and (b) Pelites aquifer: end-members
location and main groundwater flowpaths.

Fig. 4 Groundwater samples, according to basic quality classes for human consumption, expressed in percentage.

pollution in relation to a particular parameter. When

DI is less than 1, it indicates the absence of pollution;
DI > 1 denotes the presence of degradation: the higher
the index value, the higher the degradation. The range
of variability of this ratio has been divided into four
quality classes, depending on whether the index is
within the limits (zero or reduced pollution) or beyond
them (significant and relevant pollution) as they are
foreseen by WHO.
A quite general type of pollution caused by
nitrates is evident (Table 5 and Fig. 5): about 70% of
sampled wells show a significant DI (1 < DI  5) or
relevant (DI > 5), namely a concentration of nitrates
which is higher than 250 mg/L. As far as nitrites are

Table 5 Classification of the groundwater Dl for the nitrates

parameter.
Sampled wells

Degradation index (DI) for NO3

0
16
20
4

0
0.011
1.015
>5

DI null
DI reduced
DI significant
DI relevant

concerned, a degradation situation characterised by

lower impact resulted, as only 15% of wells show a
DI higher than 1. In the case of fluorides, with the

Groundwater research on Mauritania (sub-Saharan Africa)

1367

Fig. 5 The distribution of the suitable areas for the realization of safe productive wells.

exception of one well in the municipality of Noual,

there is no degradation caused by this parameter.
The results of the microbiological analyses highlighted a serious problem due to bacterial pollution of
faecal origin: all water samples analysed show the
presence of total coliform, Escherichia coli and
Enterococcus. Moreover, Table 6 shows quite a strong
relationship between well type (protected or unprotected), use (civil, cattle, mixed) and groundwater
pollution from nitrate and coliform bacteria.
It is clear that the poor quality of groundwaters
depends mainly on widespread pollution due to

human and animal pressures, and on the lack of

proper conservation techniques and efficient management of the wells. In rural areas of developing
countries this kind of pollution is very common.
Abstraction points (wells, boreholes, etc.) may themselves act as conduits for pollution of the aquifers that
they penetrate. Poor construction, with inadequate sanitary seals, is a common problem resulting in the contamination of groundwater by polluted surface water,
especially at the onset of the rains. Moreover, contamination may be introduced through open unprotected wells.

1368

G. Ghiglieri & A. Carletti

Table 6 Relationship between wells type, use and contamination.

Use

Well type:
Unprotected:

Civil
Civil, cattle
Cattle
All uses
No use
Total

Protected:

NO3
(50 mg/L)

NO3
(>50 mg/L)

Total
Coliform
(Pres.)

E. coli
(Pres.)

Enteroc.
(Pres.)

NO3
(50 mg/L)

NO3
(>50 mg/L)

Total
Coliform
(Pres.)

E. coli
(Pres.)

Enteroc.
(Pres.)

2
6
0
1
0
9

1
11
2
0
1
15

3
17
2
1
1
24

3
17
2
1
1
24

3
17
2
1
1
24

1
5
1
0
0
7

1
6
2
0
0
9

2
11
3
0
0
16

2
11
3
0
0
16

2
11
3
0
0
16

5.3 Selection criteria of the suitable intervention

areas: deciding which well site is best

the following classification, based on need index,

was proposed:

As far as water access criteria are concerned, the starting point was the Mauritanian Governments official
document relating to the Plan dInvestissement
Rgional en hydraulique rurale et semi-urbaine pour
la Wilaya du Hodh El Chargui (Ministre des Affaires
Economiques et du Developpement, 2004), which
contains a list, organised according to a classification,
of sites (villages) in need of priority interventions
given their lack or insufficiency of water availability.
Subsequently these data have been updated and integrated with those obtained within this work; therefore,
villages have been divided into two domains:

Rural domain: villages with a residential population of between 150 and 500 inhabitants; and
Semi-urban domain: villages with more than 500
inhabitants.

Each site was given an evaluation depending on the

presence of at least one modern well (hand-dug well
lined with concrete rings) or drilled-well (protected
wells), equipped with a hand-pump that could guarantee water supply equal to 20 litres per day per person.
In addition, the efficiency and productivity of the wells
was considered.
With reference to Table 1, from this first analysis it can be seen that all villages were included
in basic access (79) and no access (115) categories. In the next phase, only sites classified as
no access were considered: a more detailed evaluation was carried out in order to determine priority
conditions within this category. Through the parameter distance (d), buffers of 1 and 2 km from the
centre of villages were determined: subsequently

Very high needs, d > 2 km: when the nearest well

is farther than 2 km from the village;
High needs, 1 < d < 2 km: when there is a well
within a distance between 1 and 2 km;
Low needs, d < 1 km (only one well): when there
is only one well within 1 km of the village;
Very low needs, d < 1 km (more wells): when there
is more than one well within 1 km of the village.

In the sites of both semi-urban and rural domains, the

most represented class is very low needs (equal to 43.7
and 43.5% respectively). The worst situation, very
high needs, is present in 35% of the rural domain and
in 6% of the semi-urban domain. Figure 5 shows the
synoptic representation.
As far as hydrogeological criteria are concerned,
the most strategically exploitable aquifers in the study
area are those hosted in shallow unconsolidated sediments related to Quaternary HUs. They outcrop along
the present day river valleys, often wadi valleys, and
since they are shallow, can be exploited with hand-dug
wells using locally made hand-pumps. These aquifers
have a limited three-dimensional extension, but
although they receive a reduced zenithal recharge
from precipitation, they are laterally fed by aquifers
hosted in the basement or in the doloritic formations
(see also Fig. 2(c)). Moreover, rural water supply does
not require large quantities of recharge, and a simple
mass balance indicates that recharge of 10 mm per
annum would support community boreholes (5 m3/d
or 1.7 L/s) with hand-pumps at a spacing of 500 m
across Africa (MacDonald et al., 2008).
Given this condition, the hydrogeological and
water quality criteria always aimed to place potential

Groundwater research on Mauritania (sub-Saharan Africa)

sites for the construction of new wells upstream from

pollution sources (i.e. the villages, which are totally
lacking in wastewater disposal systems), rather than in
the direction of the groundwater flow. The distribution
of the suitable areas, in which to realize productive
wells, was determined through the simultaneous application of the selection criteria described above (Fig. 5).
Once the list of suitable areas was defined, it
was submitted for approval to the Territorial
Communities of Nema and Timbedgha and to the
various Municipal Authorities, in order to reach an
agreement.
6

CONCLUSIONS

The region, which includes the 13 rural municipalities

of the Moughataa of Nema and Timbedgha (southeast
Mauritania), is a very large area covering about
20 000 km2.
This area, which had never been the object of
technical investigations aimed at defining a conceptual
hydrogeological model, turned out to be very complex
from both a geological and a hydrogeological point of
view. On the basis of the few data already available,
obtained from the bibliography, and of the new data
that were collected during the field surveys, a regionalscale hydrogeological conceptual model was outlined.
The data processing has allowed the assessment of
regional groundwater flows, the definition of the
groundwater quality and the determination of the
most critical areas due to the scarce availability of
water resources.
All of this effort was a preliminary task for the
formulation of a multidisciplinary methodology (geological, hydrogeological, hydrochemical, socioeconomic criteria) aimed at specifying technical solutions that were compatible with local conditions,
regarding the definition of suitable areas in which to
realize safe productive wells.
In the study area, the most strategically exploitable aquifers were those hosted in shallow unconsolidated sediments related to the Quaternary
Hydrogeologic Unit. Furthermore, in order to obtain
better operative suggestions, particularly in fractured
aquifers, the suitable areas identified should be associated with an evaluation based on the findings of a
geophysical survey using the vertical electrical sounding technique.
The choice of suitable areas was defined also
taking into account the high degree of aquifer
pollution.

1369

To date, 10 safe and productive wells have been

constructed, of which four are in Nema and six in
Timbedgha rural provinces.
In order to ensure the most efficient management,
all data have been digitized, geo-referenced and then
processed through advanced GIS technologies, thus
allowing complete and easy data input/export in the
most widely used formats (vectorial, raster and
alphanumeric).
The methodology developed during the project
and all the above data represent the basis for taking
several decisions and planning interventions aimed at
improving the access to safe water in the other villages.
Furthermore, the methodological approach can be successfully exported to other rural areas, particularly in
arid or semi-arid areas of developing countries. It is vital
that a scientific approach to groundwater development
is more widely adopted and incorporated at the planning stage of new projects (Cobbing & Davies, 2008).
Acknowledgements Thisworkwascarriedoutwithinthe
Water Facility Programme HEFEM Project (http://www.
projet-hefem.org:8080/servlet/ae5Mau) with financial
contributions from ACP-EU (Contract no. 9RPR 39-37)
andtheDesertificationResearchGroup(NRD),University
of Sassari, Italy.
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