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Aesthetic redirects here. For the EP by From First to the recognition, appreciation or criticism of art or an art
Last, see Aesthetic (EP).
work.
Philosophical aesthetics has not only to speak about art
and to produce judgments about art works, but has also
to give a denition of what art is. Art is an autonomous
entity for philosophy, because art deals with the senses (i.
e. the etymology of aesthetics) and art is as such free of
any moral or political purpose. Hence, there are two different conceptions of art in aesthetics: art as knowledge
or art as action, but aesthetics is neither epistemology nor
ethics.[12]
Etymology
For some, aesthetics is considered a synonym for the philosophy of art since Hegel, while others insist that there
is a signicant distinction between these closely related
elds. In practice, aesthetic judgement refers to the sensory contemplation or appreciation of an object (not nec- Western aesthetics usually refers to Greek philosophers
essarily an art object), while artistic judgement refers to as the earliest source of formal aesthetic considerations.
1
3
Wilde famously toured the United States in 1882. He
travelled across the United States spreading the idea of
Aesthetics in a speech called The English Renaissance.
In his speech he proposed that Beauty and Aesthetics was
not languid but energetic. By beautifying the outward
aspects of life, one would beautify the inner ones. The
English Renaissance was, he said, like the Italian Renaissance before it, a sort of rebirth of the spirit of man.[14]
For Francis Hutcheson beauty is disclosed by an inner
mental sense, but is a subjective fact rather than an objective one. Analytic theorists like Henry Home, Lord
Kames, William Hogarth, and Edmund Burke hoped to
reduce beauty to some list of attributes. Hogarth, for example, thinks that beauty consists of (1) tness of the
parts to some design; (2) variety in as many ways as possible; (3) uniformity, regularity or symmetry, which is
only beautiful when it helps to preserve the character of
tness; (4) simplicity or distinctness, which gives pleasure
not in itself, but through its enabling the eye to enjoy variety with ease; (5) intricacy, which provides employment
for our active energies, leading the eye on a wanton kind
of chase"; and (6) quantity or magnitude, which draws
our attention and produces admiration and awe. Later
analytic aestheticians strove to link beauty to some scientic theory of psychology (such as James Mill) or biology
(such as Herbert Spencer).
During the rst half of the twentieth century, a signicant shift to general aesthetic theory took place which attempted to apply aesthetic theory between various forms
of art, including the literary arts and the visual arts, to
each other. This resulted in the rise of the New Criticism school and debate concerning the intentional fallacy.
At issue was the question of whether the aesthetic intentions of the artist in creating the work of art, whatever
its specic form, should be associated with the criticism
and evaluation of the nal product of the work of art, or,
if the work of art should be evaluated on its own merits
independent of the intentions of the artist.
In 1946, William K. Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsley published a classic and controversial New Critical essay entitled "The Intentional Fallacy", in which they argued
strongly against the relevance of an authors intention, or
intended meaning in the analysis of a literary work. For
Wimsatt and Beardsley, the words on the page were all
that mattered; importation of meanings from outside the
text was considered irrelevant, and potentially distracting.
In another essay, "The Aective Fallacy, which served
as a kind of sister essay to The Intentional Fallacy Example of the Dada aesthetic, Marcel Duchamp's Fountain
Wimsatt and Beardsley also discounted the readers per- 1917
sonal/emotional reaction to a literary work as a valid
means of analyzing a text. This fallacy would later be Early-twentieth-century artists, poets and composers
4
challenged existing notions of beauty, broadening the
scope of art and aesthetics. In 1941, Eli Siegel, American philosopher and poet, founded Aesthetic Realism, the
philosophy that reality itself is aesthetic, and that The
world, art, and self explain each other: each is the aesthetic oneness of opposites.[18][19]
Various attempts have been made to dene Post-Modern
Aesthetics. The challenge to the assumption that beauty
was central to art and aesthetics, thought to be original, is
actually continuous with older aesthetic theory; Aristotle
was the rst in the Western tradition to classify beauty
into types as in his theory of drama, and Kant made a distinction between beauty and the sublime. What was new
was a refusal to credit the higher status of certain types,
where the taxonomy implied a preference for tragedy and
the sublime to comedy and the Rococo.
Initial image of a Mandelbrot set zoom sequence with continuously colored environment
5
from the elds of cognitive psychology or neuroscience the poem Ode on a Grecian Urn by John Keats, or by the
(neuroaesthetics[39] ).
Hindu motto Satyam Shivam Sundaram (Satya (Truth)
In the 1970s, Abraham Moles and Frieder Nake were is Shiva (God), and Shiva is Sundaram (Beautiful)). The
among the rst to analyze links between aesthetics, fact that judgments of beauty and judgments of truth both
are inuenced by processing uency, which is the ease
information processing, and information theory.[40][41]
with which information can be processed, has been preIn the 1990s, Jrgen Schmidhuber described an sented as an explanation for why beauty is sometimes
algorithmic theory of beauty which takes the subjectivity equated with truth.[51] Indeed, recent research found that
of the observer into account and postulates: among people use beauty as an indication for truth in matheseveral observations classied as comparable by a given matical pattern tasks.[52] However, scientists including
subjective observer, the aesthetically most pleasing the mathematician David Orrell[53] and physicist Marcelo
one is the one with the shortest description, given Gleiser[54] have argued that the emphasis on aesthetic crithe observers previous knowledge and his particular teria such as symmetry is equally capable of leading scimethod for encoding the data.[42][43] This is closely entists astray.
related to the principles of algorithmic information
theory and minimum description length. One of his
examples: mathematicians enjoy simple proofs with a
short description in their formal language. Another very 9 Computational inference of aesconcrete example describes an aesthetically pleasing
thetics
human face whose proportions can be described by
very few bits of information,[44][45] drawing inspiration
Since about 2005, computer scientists have attempted to
from less detailed 15th century proportion studies by
develop automated methods to infer aesthetic quality of
Leonardo da Vinci and Albrecht Drer. Schmidhubers
images.[55][56][57][58] Typically, these approaches follow
theory explicitly distinguishes between whats beautiful
a machine learning approach, where large numbers of
and whats interesting, stating that interestingness cormanually rated photographs are used to teach a comresponds to the rst derivative of subjectively perceived
puter about what visual properties are of relevance to aesbeauty. Here the premise is that any observer continually
thetic quality. The Acquine engine, developed at Penn
tries to improve the predictability and compressibility
State University, rates natural photographs uploaded by
of the observations by discovering regularities such as
users.[59]
repetitions and symmetries and fractal self-similarity.
Whenever the observers learning process (which may Notable in this area is Michael Leyton, professor of psybe a predictive neural network; see also Neuroesthetics) chology at Rutgers University. Leyton is the president of
leads to improved data compression such that the the International Society for Mathematical and Computaobservation sequence can be described by fewer bits tional Aesthetics and the International Society for Group
than before, the temporary interestingness of the data Theory in Cognitive Science and has developed a genercorresponds to the number of saved bits. This compres- ative theory of shape.
sion progress is proportional to the observers internal There have also been relatively successful attempts with
reward, also called curiosity reward. A reinforcement regard to chess and music.[60] A relation between Max
learning algorithm is used to maximize future expected Bense's mathematical formulation of aesthetics in terms
reward by learning to execute action sequences that cause of redundancy and complexity and theories of musiadditional interesting input data with yet unknown but cal anticipation was oered using the notion of Informalearnable predictability or regularity. The principles can tion Rate.[61]
be implemented on articial agents which then exhibit a
form of articial curiosity.[46][47][48][49]
10 Evolutionary aesthetics
8
13 AESTHETIC JUDGMENT
11
Applied aesthetics
12
Aesthetic ethics
13
Aesthetic judgment
13.3
What is art"?
7
ing it requires a description of the entire phenomenon, as
Wittgenstein argued in his lectures on aesthetics. Likewise there has been long debate on how perception of
beauty in the natural world, especially perception of the
human form as beautiful, is supposed to relate to perceiving beauty in art or artefacts. This goes back at least to
Kant, with some echoes even in St. Bonaventure.
13.2
What is art"?
Harmony of colors
Are dierent art forms beautiful, disgusting, or boring in the same way? How best to dene the term art is a subject of con-
13 AESTHETIC JUDGMENT
municate an idea.
artistic function in another context (helping us to appreEven as late as 1912 it was normal in the West to assume ciate the beauty of the human gure). '
that all art aims at beauty, and thus that anything that Marxist attempts to dene art focus on its place in the
wasn't trying to be beautiful couldn't count as art. The mode of production, such as in Walter Benjamin's escubists, dadaists, Stravinsky, and many later art move- say The Author as Producer,[82] and/or its political role in
ments struggled against this conception that beauty was class struggle.[83] Revising some concepts of the Marxist
central to the denition of art, with such success that, philosopher Louis Althusser, Gary Tedman denes art in
according to Danto, Beauty had disappeared not only terms of social reproduction of the relations of producfrom the advanced art of the 1960s but from the ad- tion on the aesthetic level.[84]
vanced philosophy of art of that decade as well.[77] See also: Classicatory disputes about art
Perhaps some notion like expression (in Croces theories) or counter-environment (in McLuhans theory)
can replace the previous role of beauty. Brian Massumi
brought back beauty into consideration together with
13.4 What should art be like?
expression.[80] Another view, as important to the philosophy of art as beauty, is that of the sublime, elabMany goals have been argued for art, and aestheticians
orated upon in the twentieth century by the postmodern
often argue that some goal or another is superior in some
philosopher Jean-Franois Lyotard. A further approach,
way. Clement Greenberg, for instance, argued in 1960
elaborated by Andr Malraux in works such as The Voices
that each artistic medium should seek that which makes it
of Silence, is that art is fundamentally a response to
unique among the possible mediums and then purify itself
a metaphysical question ('Art', he writes, 'is an 'antiof anything other than expression of its own uniqueness as
destiny'). Malraux argues that, while art has sometimes
a form.[85] The Dadaist Tristan Tzara on the other hand
been oriented towards beauty and the sublime (princisaw the function of art in 1918 as the destruction of a
pally in post-Renaissance European art) these qualities,
mad social order. We must sweep and clean. Arm the
as the wider history of art demonstrates, are by no means
cleanliness of the individual after the state of madness,
[81]
essential to it.
aggressive complete madness of a world abandoned to the
Perhaps (as in Kennicks theory) no denition of art is hands of bandits.[86] Formal goals, creative goals, selfpossible anymore. Perhaps art should be thought of as expression, political goals, spiritual goals, philosophical
a cluster of related concepts in a Wittgensteinian fashion goals, and even more perceptual or aesthetic goals have
(as in Weitz or Beuys). Another approach is to say that all been popular pictures of what art should be like.
art is basically a sociological category, that whatever
art schools and museums and artists dene as art is considered art regardless of formal denitions. This insti- 13.5 The value of art
tutional denition of art (see also Institutional Critique)
has been championed by George Dickie. Most people Tolstoy dened art as the following: Art is a human
did not consider the depiction of a store-bought urinal activity consisting in this, that one man consciously, by
or Brillo Box to be art until Marcel Duchamp and Andy means of certain external signs, hands on to others feelWarhol (respectively) placed them in the context of art ings he has lived through, and that other people are in(i.e., the art gallery), which then provided the association fected by these feelings and also experience them. Howof these objects with the associations that dene art.
ever, this denition is merely a starting point for his theProceduralists often suggest that it is the process by which
a work of art is created or viewed that makes it art, not
any inherent feature of an object, or how well received it
is by the institutions of the art world after its introduction
to society at large. If a poet writes down several lines,
intending them as a poem, the very procedure by which
it is written makes it a poem. Whereas if a journalist
writes exactly the same set of words, intending them as
shorthand notes to help him write a longer article later,
these would not be a poem. Leo Tolstoy, on the other
hand, claims in his What is art? (1897) that what decides
whether or not something is art is how it is experienced by
its audience, not by the intention of its creator. Functionalists like Monroe Beardsley argue that whether or not a
piece counts as art depends on what function it plays in a
particular context; the same Greek vase may play a nonartistic function in one context (carrying wine), and an
9
value of allowing catharsis. In any case, the value of art
may determine the suitability of an art form. Do they differ signicantly in their values, or (if not) in their ability
to achieve the unitary value of art?
But to approach the question of the value of art systematically, one ought to ask: for whom? For the artist? For
the audience? For society at large, and/or for individuals
beyond the audience? Is the value of art dierent in
each of these dierent contexts?
Working on the intended value of art tends to help dene
the relations between art and other acts. Art clearly does
have spiritual goals in many contexts, but what exactly is
the dierence between religious art and religion per se?
The truth is complex; art is both useless in a functional
sense, and also the most important human activity.
It might be objected, however, that there are too many exceptions to Duttons categories. For example, the installations of the contemporary artist Thomas Hirschhorn deliberately eschew technical virtuosity. People can appreciate a Renaissance Madonna for aesthetic reasons, but
such objects often had (and sometimes still have) specic
devotional functions. Rules of composition that might
be read into Duchamp's Fountain or John Cage's 433 do
not locate the works in a recognizable style (or certainly
not a style recognizable at the time of the works realisation). Moreover, some of Duttons categories seem too
broad: a physicist might entertain hypothetical worlds in
his/her imagination in the course of formulating a theory. Another problem is that Duttons categories seek
to universalise traditional European notions of aesthetics and art forgetting that, as Andr Malraux and others
have pointed out, there have been large numbers of cultures in which such ideas (including the idea art itself)
were non-existent.[91]
10
16
16.1
form of religious instruction. While the date of composition varies wildly among scholars, ranging from the
era of Plato and Aristotle to the seventh century CE. The
Ntyashstra presents the aesthetic concepts of rasas and
their associated bhvas in Chapters Six and Seven respectively, which appear to be independent of the work as a
whole. Eight rasas and associated bhvas are named and
their enjoyment is likened to savoring a meal: rasa is the
enjoyment of avors that arise from the proper preparation of ingredients and the quality of ingredients. What
rasa actually is, in a theoretical sense, is not discussed
and given the Ntyashstra's pithy wording it is unlikely
the exact understanding of the original author(s) will be
known.
16.4
Arab aesthetics
16.3
African aesthetics
The Great Mosque's signature trio of minarets overlooks the central market of Djenn. Unique Malian aesthetic
16.4
Arab aesthetics
11
the demands placed on the secular world to conform to
religious precepts. Islamic art frequently adopts secular
elements and elements that are frowned upon, if not forbidden, by some Islamic theologians.[94] Although the often cited opposition in Islam to the depiction of human
and animal forms holds true for religious art and architecture, in the secular sphere, such representations have
ourished in nearly all Islamic cultures.
The Islamic resistance to the representation of living beings ultimately stems from the belief that the creation
of living forms is unique to God, and it is for this reason that the role of images and image makers has been
controversial. The strongest statements on the subject of
gural depiction are made in the Hadith (Traditions of
the Prophet), where painters are challenged to breathe
life into their creations and threatened with punishment
on the Day of Judgment. The Qur'an is less specic
but condemns idolatry and uses the Arabic term musawwir (maker of forms, or artist) as an epithet for
God. Partially as a result of this religious sentiment, gures in painting were often stylized and, in some cases,
the destruction of gurative artworks occurred. Iconoclasm was previously known in the Byzantine period
and aniconicism was a feature of the Judaic world, thus
placing the Islamic objection to gurative representations
within a larger context. As ornament, however, gures
were largely devoid of any larger signicance and perhaps therefore posed less challenge.[95]
This tendency aected the narrowing eld of artistic
possibility to such forms of art as Arabesque, mosaic,
Islamic calligraphy, and Islamic architecture, as well as
any form of abstraction that can claim the status of nonrepresentational art.
Limited possibilities have been explored by artists as an
outlet to artistic expression, and has been cultivated to
become a positive style and tradition, emphasizing the
decorative function of art, or its religious functions via
non-representational forms such as Geometric patterns,
oral patterns, and arabesques.
Human portrayals can be found in early Islamic cultures
with varying degrees of acceptance by religious authorities. Human representation for the purpose of worship
is uniformly considered idolatry as forbidden in Sharia
law.[96][97]
The calligraphic arts grew out of an eort to devote oneself to the study of the Quran. By patiently transcribing
each word of the text, the writer was made to contemplate the meaning of it. As time passed, these calligraphic
works began to be prized as works of art, growing increasingly elaborate in the illumination and stylizing of
the text. These illuminations were applied to other works
besides the Quran, and it became a respected art form in
and of itself.
Arab art for the last 1400 years has taken place under the
context of Islam and is sometimes referred to as Islamic
art, although many Arab artists throughout time have not
been Muslim. The term Islamic refers not only to the
religion, but to any form of art created by people in an
Islamic culture or in an Islamic context, whether the artist
is Islamic or not. Not all Muslims are in agreement on Arabic is written from right to left, like other Semitic
the use of art in religious observance, the proper place scripts, and consists of 17 characters, which, with the
of art in society, or the relation between secular art and addition of dots placed above or below certain of them,
12
18
provide the 28 letters of the Arabic alphabet. Short vowels are not included in the alphabet, being indicated by
signs placed above or below the consonant or long vowel
that they follow. Certain characters may be joined to
their neighbors, others to the preceding one only, and
others to the succeeding one only. The written letters
undergo a slight external change according to their position within a word. When they stand alone or occur
at the end of a word, they ordinarily terminate in a bold
stroke; when they appear in the middle of a word, they
are ordinarily joined to the letter following by a small,
upward curved stroke. With the exception of six letters,
which can be joined only to the preceding ones, the initial and medial letters are much abbreviated, while the
nal form consists of the initial form with a triumphant
ourish. The essential part of the characters, however,
remains unchanged.[98]
REFERENCES
17
See also
Art movement
Art periods
[19] Siegel, Eli (1955). Is Beauty the Making One of Opposites?". Journal of Aesthetics & Art Criticism.
Formal analysis
Mise en scne
Style (visual arts)
18
References
[21] Grosswiler, Paul (2010). Transforming McLuhan: Cultural, Critical, and Postmodern Perspectives. Peter Lang
Publishing. p. 13. ISBN 9781433110672. Retrieved 10
March 2015.
[22] 'Kalliphobia in Contemporary Art' in Art Journal v. 63
no. 2 (Summer 2004) p. 2435
[23] Derek Allan, Art and the Human Adventure, Andr Malrauxs Theory of Art (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2009)
[24] Massumi, Brian, (ed.), A Shock to Thought. Expression
after Deleuze and Guattari. London & NY: Routeledge,
2002. ISBN 0-415-23804-8
[25] Lyotard, Jean-Franoise, What is Postmodernism?, in The
Postmodern Condition, Minnesota and Manchester, 1984.
[26] Lyotard, Jean-Franoise, Scriptures: Diracted Traces,
in Theory, Culture and Society, Volume 21, Number 1,
2004.
[27] Freud, Sigmund, The Uncanny (1919). Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Work of Sigmund
Freud, 17:234-36. London: The Hogarth Press
[28] Merleau-Ponty, Maurice (1964), The Visible and the Invisible. Northwestern University Press. ISBN 0-81010457-1
[29] Lacan, Jacques, The Ethics of Psychoanalysis (The Seminar of Jacques Lacan Book VII), NY: W. W. Norton &
Company, 1992.
[30] Guy Sircello, A New Theory of Beauty. Princeton Essays
on the Arts, 1. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press,
1975.
13
[48] J. Schmidhuber. Developmental robotics, optimal articial curiosity, creativity, music, and the ne arts. Connection Science, 18(2):173187, 2006
[49] Schmidhubers theory of beauty and curiosity in a German TV show (in German). Br-online.de.
[50] Why Beauty Is Truth: The History of Symmetry, Ian
Stewart, 2008
[51] Reber, R, Schwarz, N, Winkielman, P: Processing uency and aesthetic pleasure: Is beauty in the perceivers
processing experience?", Personality and Social Psychology Review, 8(4):364-382
[52] Reber, R, Brun, M, Mitterndorfer, K: The use of heuristics in intuitive mathematical judgment, Psychonomic
Bulletin & Review, 15(6):11741178
[53] Orrell, David (2012). Truth or Beauty: Science and the
Quest for Order. New Haven: Yale University Press.
ISBN 978-0300186611.
[54] Gleiser, Marcelo (2010). A Tear at the Edge of Creation:
A Radical New Vision for Life in an Imperfect Universe.
Free Press. ISBN 978-1-4391-0832-1.
[55] Datta, R.; Joshi, D.; Li, J.; Wang, J. (2006). Studying
aesthetics in photographic images using a computational
approach. Europ. Conf. on Computer Vision. Springer.
[56] Wong, L.-K.; Low, K.-L. (2009). Saliency-enhanced image aesthetic classication. Int. Conf. on Image Processing. IEEE.
[57] Wu, Y.; Bauckhage, C.; Thurau, C. (2010). The good,
the bad, and the ugly: predicting aesthetic image labels.
Int. Conf. on Pattern Recognition. IEEE.
[58] Faria, J., Bagley, S., Rueger, S., Breckon, T.P. (2013).
Challenges of Finding Aesthetically Pleasing Images.
Proc. International Workshop on Image and Audio Analysis for Multimedia Interactive Services (PDF). IEEE. Retrieved 19 June 2013.
[59] Aesthetic Quality Inference Engine - Instant Impersonal
Assessment of Photos. Penn State University. Archived
from the original on 9 May 2009. Retrieved 21 June 2009.
[60] Manaris, B., Roos, P., Penousal, M., Krehbiel, D., Pellicoro, L. and Romero, J.; A Corpus-Based Hybrid Approach to Music Analysis and Composition; Proceedings
of 22nd Conference on Articial Intelligence (AAAI-07);
Vancouver, BC; 839-845 2007.
[61] Dubnov, S.; Musical Information Dynamics as Models of
Auditory Anticipation; in Machine Audition: Principles,
Algorithms and Systems, Ed. W. Weng, IGI Global publication, 2010.
[62] Shimura, Arthur P.; Palmer, Stephen E. (January 2012).
Aesthetic Science: Connecting Minds, Brains, and Experience. Oxford University Press. p. 279.
[63] Giannini AJ (December 1993).
Tangential symbols: using visual symbolization to teach pharmacological principles of drug addiction to international audiences. Journal of clinical pharmacology 33 (12): 1139
46. doi:10.1002/j.1552-4604.1993.tb03913.x. PMID
7510314.
14
19 FURTHER READING
[68] http://www.infoagepub.com/products/content/
p478d75b79b1ea.php
[69] http://eprints.qut.edu.au/12263/
[95] http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/figs/hd_figs.htm
[98] http://www.calligraphyislamic.com/
IntroIslamicCalligraphy.html
[74] Consider Clement Greenbergs arguments in On Modernist Painting (1961), reprinted in Aesthetics: A Reader
in Philosophy of Arts.
19 Further reading
Mario Perniola, 20th Century Aesthetics. Towards A Theory of Feeling, translated by Massimo
Verdicchio, London-New Delhi-New York-Sydney,
Bloomsbury, 2013, ISBN 978-1-4411-1850-9.
Chung-yuan, Chang (19631970). Creativity and
Taoism, A Study of Chinese Philosophy, Art, and Poetry. New York: Harper Torchbooks. ISBN 0-06131968-6.
Handbook of Phenomenological Aesthetics. Edited
by Hans Rainer Sepp and Lester Embree. (Series: Contributions To Phenomenology, Vol. 59)
Springer, Dordrecht / Heidelberg / London / New
York 2010. ISBN 978-90-481-2470-1
Theodor W. Adorno, Aesthetic Theory, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1997.
Ayn Rand, The Romantic Manifesto: A Philosophy
of Literature, New York, NY, New American Library, 1971
Derek Allan, Art and the Human Adventure, Andre
Malrauxs Theory of Art, Rodopi, 2009
Derek Allan. Art and Time, Cambridge Scholars,
2013.
15
Augros, Robert M., Stanciu, George N., The New
Story of Science: mind and the universe, Lake Blu,
Ill.: Regnery Gateway, c1984. ISBN 0-89526-8337 (has signicant material on Art, Science and their
philosophies)
John Bender and Gene Blocker Contemporary Philosophy of Art: Readings in Analytic Aesthetics 1993.
Ren Bergeron. L'Art et sa spiritualit. Qubec,
QC.: ditions du Pelican, 1961.
Christine Buci-Glucksmann (2003), Esthtique de
l'phmre, Galile. (French)
Mario Costa (1999) (in Italian), L'estetica dei media. Avanguardie e tecnologia, Milan: Castelvecchi,
ISBN 88-8210-165-7.
Kelly, Michael (Editor in Chief) (1998) Encyclopedia of Aesthetics. New York, Oxford, Oxford University Press. 4 voll., pp. XVII-521, pp. 555, pp.
536, pp. 572; 2224 total pages; 100 b/w photos;
ISBN 978-0-19-511307-5. Covers philosophical,
historical, sociological, and biographical aspects of
Art and Aesthetics worldwide.
16
Griselda Pollock, Encounters in the Virtual Feminist
Museum: Time, Space and the Archive. Routledge,
2007. ISBN 0-415-41374-5.
Griselda Pollock, Generations and Geographies in
the Visual Arts. Routledge, 1996. ISBN 0-41514128-1.
George Santayana (1896), The Sense of Beauty. Being the Outlines of Aesthetic Theory. New York,
Modern Library, 1955.
Elaine Scarry, On Beauty and Being Just. Princeton,
2001. ISBN 978-0-691-08959-1
Friedrich Schiller, (1795), On the Aesthetic Education of Man. Dover Publications, 2004.
Alan Singer and Allen Dunn (eds.), Literary Aesthetics: A Reader. Blackwell Publishing Limited, 2000.
ISBN 978-0-631-20869-3
Wadysaw Tatarkiewicz, A History of Six Ideas: an
Essay in Aesthetics, The Hague, 1980. ISBN 97890-247-2233-4
Wadysaw Tatarkiewicz, History of Aesthetics, 3
vols. (12, 1970; 3, 1974), The Hague, Mouton.
Markand Thakar Looking for the 'Harp' Quartet:
An Investigation into Musical Beauty. University of
Rochester Press, 2011.
Leo Tolstoy, What Is Art?, Penguin Classics, 1995.
The London Philosophy Study Guide oers many
suggestions on what to read, depending on the students familiarity with the subject: Aesthetics
John M. Valentine, Beginning Aesthetics: An Introduction To The Philosophy of Art. McGraw-Hill,
2006. ISBN 978-0-07-353754-2
von Vacano, Diego, The Art of Power: Machiavelli, Nietzsche and the Making of Aesthetic Political Theory, Lanham MD: Lexington: 2007.
Thomas Wartenberg, The Nature of Art. 2006.
John Whitehead, Grasping for the Wind. 2001.
Ludwig Wittgenstein, Lectures on aesthetics, psychology and religious belief, Oxford, Blackwell,
1966.
Richard Wollheim, Art and its objects, 2nd edn,
1980, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-52129706-0
Sen, R. K., Aesthetic Enjoyment: Its Background in
Philosophy and Medicine, Calcutta: University of
Calcutta, 1966
20
EXTERNAL LINKS
20 External links
Aesthetics at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology
Project
Aesthetics at PhilPapers
Aesthetics entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Medieval Theories of Aesthetics article in the
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Revue online Appareil
Postscript 1980- Some Old Problems in New Perspectives
Aesthetics in Art Education: A Look Toward Implementation
More about Art, culture and Education
An history of aesthetics
The Concept of the Aesthetic
Aesthetics entry in the Routledge Encyclopedia of
Philosophy
Philosophy of Aesthetics entry in the Philosophy
Archive
Washington State Board for Community & Technical Colleges: Introduction to Aesthetics
Art Perception Complete pdf version of art historian
David Cyclebacks book.
17
21
21.1
Aesthetics Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics?oldid=682628606 Contributors: Lee Daniel Crocker, Brion VIBBER, Daniel
C. Boyer, Heron, DennisDaniels, Michael Hardy, Jahsonic, Ixfd64, Kalki, Lament, Minesweeper, Wintran, Ihcoyc, Ellywa, Williamv1138,
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TheRingess, Wooddoo-eng, Slac, FlaBot, Jemilner, Margosbot~enwiki, Loggie, Who, Nivix, RexNL, Gurch, Alexjohnc3, Drumguy8800,
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W, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Barasoaindarra, Lestrade, KnowledgeOfSelf, Pgk, Bomac, Jagged 85, Declare, Brossow, Duprie37, IstvanWolf, Sebesta, Yamaguchi , JFHJr, Mediaphd, Citengam, Ohnoitsjamie, Joustinjustin, Carbon-16, Chris the speller, Persian Poet
Gal, NCurse, Greatgavini, Deli nk, Bazonka, Go for it!, Robth, DHN-bot~enwiki, Colonies Chris, Veggies, Can't sleep, clown will eat
me, Scott3, Greenbreezegrl, Yidisheryid, Alieseraj, Nakon, Jlarson, Hoof Hearted, Richard001, RandomP, BullRangifer, DMacks, Omnipolex, Where, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, Ceoil, SashatoBot, Vildricianus, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Anlace, DA3N, Rigadoun, Gobonobo,
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Don4of4, Ladyxtrust, Abdullais4u, Birkinstein, Teller33, Ethicoaestheticist, Michaeldsuarez, Hanwufu, Yk Yk Yk, Lamro, Jamessmithpage, Pjoef, AlleborgoBot, Symane, Funeral, Munci, Nick Denkens, GirasoleDE, SieBot, Ivan tambuk, Calliopejen1, Tresiden, Interstates,
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Valueyou, Sandris., Hairhorn, Demonhunter698, 1exec1, Jim1138, Piano non troppo, Ulric1313, Stinkypie, Materialscientist, Citation
bot, LilHelpa, FreeRangeFrog, Obersachsebot, Xqbot, Research Method, Nasnema, Abce2, Omnipaedista, Greg Tyler, Backpackadam,
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Boudreauxgg, Racerx11, GoingBatty, Sournick3, Berislav, SabaKahn, Azlan Iqbal, Anirudh Emani, Werieth, Debaryabanerjee, SpngeBobSquarePants, AvicBot, ZroBot, Nisann, T.V. A'hearn, Ebrambot, Babacol, SporkBot, Averaver, Erianna, StasMalyga, Scythia, SemperPirate, Ego White Tray, ChuispastonBot, Psp2010, Fuzzy artist, TYelliot, Nunatan, Miegoreng, Ashindo, Manytexts, Hermeses, Gwenchan, ClueBot NG, MelbourneStar, Ponkje, Bulldog73, Joefromrandb, Roseworthy, CallidusUlixes, Braincricket, Lisatruman, Apsweaver,
ScottSteiner, RiskyMechanics, CaroleHenson, Widr, Camblast, Helpful Pixie Bot, Anonymouswikieditor, Calabe1992, Wbm1058, Avenugopalarao2011, DBigXray, Anagramology, BG19bot, Julianbce, Socialmedian, Cold Season, Mark Arsten, Historicaltruthtroll, MyNameWasTaken, Zyzzbrah, Aaaaaaaaak, Altar, Zeezbrah, Balivernes, UrbanIndianSF, Ruckus666, Theconsequentialist, Brad7777, Polmandc,
Derpderpderp2011, Loriendrew, Lieutenant of Melkor, Hadi Payami, Fuse809, Jlphaneuf, Acadmica Orientlis, WebFlower1, Bigggny,
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GentleDjinn, Jamesx12345, Shanec057, Doktorcan, Mohiuddin6644, CsDix, Eyesnore, Star767, Cherubinirules, Malraux123, Tony1092,
Melody Lavender, Ypress20, Scott Cameron Reed, FireySixtySeven, Aubreybardo, Liz, Anne 235, Leonardo the Florentine, Fortuna
Imperatrix Mundi, Onm3, Ninjabeard, Monkbot, LawrencePrincipe, Seattledoctor, Anjusth, Qzekrom, KatieSeech, Pineapplecat212, Jeunine, Whalestate, BeautyIsTruthTruthBeauty, KasparBot, MetlifeWP, Everynone, Redky, AeAnBr, The Quixotic Potato, Kawaiienthusiast, Idekanymoree and Anonymous: 771
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