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STEEL CONSTRUCTION:
STAINLESS STEEL

Lecture 18.4: Fabrication

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To provide information on the processes used in the fabrication of stainless steel structures.
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 18.1: Introduction to Stainless Steel
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 18.2: Structural Behaviour and Design
Lecture 18.3: Corrosion of Stainless Steel
SUMMARY
The lecture discusses the importance of the maintenance of the corrosion resistance of the
stainless steel during the operations of forming, machining and joining. The main
characteristics of machining and shaping techniques used to fabricate stainless steel
structures are reviewed.

1. INTRODUCTION
Stainless steel is not a difficult material to work with. However, in some respects it is
different from carbon steel and should be treated accordingly. Many fabrication and joining
processes are similar to those used for carbon steel, but the different characteristics of
stainless steel require special attention in a number of areas. It is important that effective
communication is established between the designer and fabricator early in the project to
ensure that appropriate fabrication practices can and will be adopted.
An overriding objective is to maintain the steel's corrosion resistance. It is essential that
precautions are taken, at all stages of storing, handling, forming and welding, to minimise
mechanical or other damage of the surface, i.e. the oxide layer. Although essential, the
precautions are simple and, in general, are a matter of good engineering practice.
It is important to preserve the good surface appearance of stainless steel throughout
fabrication. Not only are surface blemishes unsightly, but they are usually unacceptable
and prove time-consuming and expensive to correct. Whereas surface blemishes will
normally be hidden by paint in carbon steel structures, this will only be rarely so in
stainless steel structures.

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The structural form may be dictated by the availability of materials. It should be
recognised that the available range of hot rolled stainless sections is more limited than for
carbon steel. This limitation results in a greater use of cold-formed and welded members
than is normally encountered. Also, because of brake press length capabilities, only
relatively short lengths are possible. As a result there is an increased use of splices. In
detailing joints, consideration should be given to clearances for bolts near bend radii and to
potential fit up problems arising from weld distortion.
Generally, greater care is required in storing and handling stainless steel than carbon steel
to avoid damaging the surface finish (especially bright annealed or polished finishes) and
to avoid contamination by carbon steel and iron. Storage and handling procedures should
be agreed between the relevant parties to the contract in advance of any fabrication and in
sufficient detail to accommodate any special requirements. The procedures should cover,
for instance, the following items:

The steel should be inspected immediately after delivery for any surface damage.
The steel may have a protective plastic or other coating. This coating should be left
on as long as possible, preferably until all fabrication work is completed.
Storage in salt-laden humid atmospheres should be avoided. Storage racks should
not have carbon steel rubbing surfaces and should, therefore, be protected by
wooden, rubber or plastic battens or sheaths. Sheets and plates are preferably
stacked vertically; horizontally stacked sheets may get walked upon with a risk of
iron contamination and surface damage.
Carbon steel lifting tackle, e.g. chains, hooks and cleats, should be avoided. The use
of isolating materials will prevent iron pick-up. The forks of fork lift trucks should
also be so protected.
Contact with chemicals including undue amounts of oil and grease (which may
stain some finishes) should be avoided.
Ideally, segregated fabrication areas for carbon steel and stainless steel should be
used. Only tools dedicated to stainless steel should be employed. This particularly
applies to grinding wheels and wire brushes. Wire brushes and wire wool should be
of stainless steel and generally in a grade that is equivalent in terms of corrosion
resistance, e.g. do not use ferritic stainless steel brushes on austenitic stainless steel.
As a precaution during fabrication and erection, it is advisable to ensure that any
sharp burrs formed during shearing operations are removed.
Consideration should be given to any requirements needed to protect the finished
fabrication during transportation.

2. MACHINING OF STAINLESS STEEL

2.1 Cutting
Stainless steel is a expensive material compared to some other metals and particular care is
needed therefore in marking out plates and sheets to avoid wastage in cutting. More
wastage may result if the material has a polishing grain (or a unidirectional pattern) which
has to be maintained in the fabrication. The marks made by some pens/crayons are difficult
to remove, or cause staining, if used directly on the surface (rather than on any protective

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film). The marking pens/crayons to be used should be checked that they are satisfactory in
this respect.
Stainless steel may be cut using normal methods, e.g. shearing (Figure 1) and sawing, but
power requirements are greater than for similar thicknesses of carbon steel due to work
hardening. Greater power is needed for the austenitic grades in particular. If possible
cutting (and machining in general) should be carried out when the metal is in the annealed
(softened) state to limit work hardening and tool wear.

For cutting straight lines, shearing by guillotine is widely used. By using open ended
guillotines, a continuous cut greater in length than the shear blades can be achieved
although at the risk of introducing small steps in the cut edge.
Plasma arc techniques are also used and are particularly useful for cutting thick plates and
profiles and where the cut edges are to be machined, e.g. for weld preparation.
Oxyacetylene cutting is not satisfactory for cutting stainless steel unless a powder fluxing
technique is used.

2.2 Drilling and Punching

Holes may be drilled or punched. During drilling, positive cutting must be maintained to
avoid work hardening. For this purpose sharp bits with correct angles of rake and correct

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cutting speeds are required. The use of a round tipped centre punch is not recommended as
this work hardens the surface. A centre drill should be used or, if a centre punch has to be
used, it should be of the triangular pointed type. Punched holes can be made in austenitic
stainless steel up to about 20 mm in thickness. The minimum diameter of hole that can be
punched out is 2 mm greater than the sheet thickness. The minimum distance between
punched holes should be half the hole diameter. Punched holes should be avoided in
corrosive environments due to the presence of the work hardened edge (Figure 2), unless
they are reamed after punching.

2.3 Grinding
Particular account must be taken of the poor conductivity typical of all stainless steels and
especially of the austenitic grades. Otherwise local overheating may occur with consequent
localized warping and work hardening which may cause stress corrosion.
Moreover, on stainless steels which are neither low-carbon nor stabilized, chromium
carbide precipitations may occur with the danger of subsequent intergranular corrosion
should the pieces come into contact with agents which could induce it. (In practice
intergranular corrosion is only a problem in acidic environments where the stainless steel
has been welded.)

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The wheels consist of abrasives with an aluminium oxide and silicon carbide base and have
medium-hard and hard bonds. It is important that abrasives do not contain any iron
components.
Care should be taken not to use wheels for grinding stainless steel which have already been
used for grinding carbon-steel. Otherwise the surface of the stainless steel element will be
contaminated and discoloration may result.

3. SHAPING AND JOINING OPERATIONS

3.1 Cold Forming
Stainless steel is readily shaped by commonly used cold-forming techniques such as
bending, spinning, pressing and deep drawing. For structural applications press brake
bending is the most relevant technique although, for high volume thin gauge products, roll
forming may be more economic.
For these processes to be successful it is recommended that the stainless steel be in the
softened state.
Furthermore it should be remembered that, given the same gauge being worked, greater
force is needed than for forming carbon-steel and lower forming speeds, especially for the
austenitic grades, are needed.
In the case of extreme forming particular care must be paid to lubrication.
3.1.1 Press bending
This method is used for obtaining sections of various shapes. Presses of the type used for
carbon-steel are employed.
The best bending conditions are those when the bending axis of the sheet or strip is
perpendicular to the rolling direction to avoid cracking. However it is always possible to
make bends with the axis parallel to the rolling direction, especially with austenitic grades.
The edges of the ends of the strip and sheet must be flash-free, otherwise cracks may occur,
especially if the bending radius is small in comparison to the gauge. The springback is
greater than that of carbon steel. Thus suitable over-bend angles must be planned to obtain
the required bend angles in the finished piece.
Elastomer matrices are used successfully for folding stainless steel strip and sheet. They
have the advantage over steel ones in that they give maximum protection to the surface
finish and provide a guarantee against contamination.
3.1.2 Roll forming
The forming of the strip is done by a continuous succession of bends around axes parallel
to the rolling direction (the worst condition). Thus it is necessary to grade the angles and

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the radii of curvature suitably depending on the gauge of the strip. It is also advisable to
keep the strip in tension during forming by increasing the diameters of the rollers by about
1% at each roll stand from the entry ones of the exit ones.
Figure 3 shows a correct forming sequence for stainless steel strip. The values of the angles
and the radiuses of curvature, phase by phase, for an austenitic grade are given.

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3.1.3 Bending
For sheet and strip, bending is by three-roll forming, a method similar to that used for
carbon steel, but it should be remembered that the springback is greater, especially for the
austenitic grades.
For cold-rolled or press bent sections, the bend is usually made by stretching and possibly
also using compression (Figure 4) to avoid puckering. Puckering can occur in stainless
steels, which are generally used with thinner gauges than carbon steel. This technique also
allows the springback effects to be reduced.

For tubes, which are also generally used with thinner gauges than the carbon-steel ones,
particular care is required. The most appropriate technique is to use rotating shaper
machines, preferably fitted with a chuck, and possibly articulated for extreme bends.
In the most common case of welded pipes it is advisable, especially for the ferritic grades,
to locate the weld in correspondence with the neutral fibre. The springback is particularly
great for the austenitic grades.
3.1.4 Deep drawing
The blank has an area equal to the sum of the base and side areas of the finished elements,
possibly with the addition of a peripheral section to take account of the size of the flange
required to regulate the material flow (Figure 5). The thickness of the blank depends on
that of the sides of the finished item, bearing in mind that the final thickness can be
reduced by as much as 20-30%.
The shape of the blank is circular when the finished element has cross-sections compatible
with that shape. A polygonal shape is used when the cross-sections are non-circular.
When very deep drawing is required, a suitable heat treatment to soften the material must
be provided to facilitate drawing after the material has reached its limit.

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The junction radiuses and the clearances between punch and die are particularly important
(Figure 6).

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Particular care must be taken over the choice of materials and the finish of the dies, and
also in the lubrication to avoid seizing.

3.2 Welding
It is necessary to be well aware of the differences in the physical properties of stainless
steels and in comparison to carbon steel.
Reference should be made to the specialized literature to determine the correct operating
parameters. In particular, in environments where intergranular corrosion could occur, it is
prudent to select low carbon or stabilized stainless steels when welding thicker material,
the limiting thickness being dependent on welding process and actual environment. All the
welding techniques can be used with the austenitic grades, but there are particular
instructions for welding ferritic and martensitic grades.
Stainless steels can also be welded together with carbon steel to give hybrid structures.
Appropriate techniques should be employed, including strongly alloyed filler metal and
electrodes to compensate for the dilution of the welding pod due to the presence of carbon
steel. When welding is complete, all the carbon steel, including the weld bead, must be
carefully protected with a suitable paint coating. Such hybrid structures must be carefully
designed to avoid the dangers of bi-metallic corrosion.
3.2.1 Fusion welding
These techniques involve the fusion of the edges of the parts to be joined, together with
that of the filler metal.
Normally all austenitic grades can be fusion welded. For other types of stainless steel, it is
necessary to examine each situation and select the most suitable system.
The techniques most commonly used in practice are:

Manual metal-arc welding

Direct current welding tools should be used for preference and reverse polarity employed
to ensure better penetration (Figure 7).
This technique can be used on gauges of not less than 1 to 1,5 mm and does not need
special preparation of the edges up to a gauge of about 4mm. For joints with larger gauges
special edge preparation is needed using an appropriate caulking tool.
The pieces to be welded must be firmly held together, especially the austenitic grades,
since these materials have a high thermal expansion coefficient.

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Tungsten-inert gas welding (TIG)

This technique is a much used welding system for stainless steels, particularly for the
austenitic grades.
The electrode consists of a non-consumable bar of tungsten-thorium alloy and the arc is
protected by a jet of inert gas (argon with the possible addition of hydrogen). It is used
with direct polarity (Figure 7).
It is not necessary to use filler rod for gauges up to 1,5 mm with suitable preparation
(Figure 8), while for larger gauges (up to 5 - 6 mm, which is the practical limit for this
technique) filler metal must be used. The edges must in all cases be well mated and well
fixed together.

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To achieve a proper weld, especially in the case of the thicker gauges, the inert gas
protection must also be applied to the reverse of the weld.

Metal-inert gas welding (MIG)

This technique differs from the previous one in that the electrode consists of a consumable
stainless steel wire wound on a reel. The starting gas is composed of suitable argon-based
mixtures depending on the transfer system for the filler metal during welding.
Basically, the welding systems used are: short arc (and its derivation, pulsed arc) for
gauges less than 2 - 3,5 mm and spray arc for thicker gauges up to about 8 mm. For greater
thicknesses the method is of less interest.

Plasma-arc welding

This is a welding technique which always operates in the presence of inert gas and which,
with the "key-hole" method, allows the weld to be made in a single pass without any
special preparation of the pieces which must be simply mated and held together. The feed
uses direct polarity.
Welding speed is considerably greater than for the other systems mentioned.
The micro-plasma system can be used for gauges between 0,02 mm and 1,5 mm inclusive.
3.2.2 Resistance welding
Fusion of a small part of the materials to be joined is achieved with this technique. Filler
metal is not required and the joint at the junction point is achieved by the Joule effect.
The technique can be used for all types of stainless steels since these steels have significant
electrical resistivity.

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Spot welding
This method can be used for gauges between about 0,4 and 3 mm inclusive.
It should be remembered that it is always necessary with this type of welding to exert more
force on the electrodes than that used, given equal gauges, for carbon steel.
The other parameters do not differ much from those used for carbon steel in the case of
ferritic and martensitic grades. Appropriate parameters are needed for the austenitic grades
(lower current and shorter welding time).

Seam welding

This method allows continuous welding of gauges between about 0,5 to 4 mm.
In this case too the pressure on the electrodes must be greater than that used for carbon
steel, given equal gauges. Suitable welding parameters must be chosen for the austenitic
grades, while the parameters do not differ much from the carbon steel ones for the ferritic
and martensitic grades.
Joints made with this system are tight for both water and gas.

3.3 Bolts, Rivets and Screws

When two stainless steel items are joined it is absolutely necessary to use elements of
stainless steel or of other materials with an equivalent resistance to corrosion.
If bolts, rivets and screws, of carbon steel or other non-noble materials were to be used
they would corrode rapidly due to electrolytic corrosion. The stainless steel structure would
act as a large cathode and the joining element, in this case, would act as a small anode.
When stainless steel items are joined to carbon steel structural elements the carbon steel
element must be well protected by suitable painting. Stainless steel rivets, screws and bolts
must be used and the carbon steel element must be suitably insulated from the stainless
steel element (Figure 9).
Stainless steel rivets, screws and bolts (which act as small cathodes) can be used for
structures made of other less noble materials (which act as large anodes) without any
particular precautions.
It is recommended that bolting material should be in the cold-worked condition, property
class 70 minimum. Bolting materials should not be used in the softened condition because
of the propensity for galling. This propensity is reduced by:

using rolled as opposed to machined threads.

avoiding the use of fine threads and tight fitting thread forms.
lubrication.

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Lock welding of the nut to the bolt should never be allowed as materials are formulated for
strength and not fusion welding.

3.4 Adhesive Bonding

Stainless steels can be bonded to each other or to other materials to make structural joints.
Many types of adhesives can be used (cyanoacrilate resin, epoxy resin, phenolic resin,
polyurethane resin, etc.) depending on the characteristics required from the joint.
It is important to stress that, when using this type of joining technique, the joint must be
properly designed and executed.
It is not possible to use this method for joints designed to be made with welds.

4. INSPECTION
Non-destructive inspection methods to detect surface and/or internal faults in stainless steel
items and manufactured articles are related to some properties of the various types of the
stainless steels.
The following methods can be used on all types of stainless steels:

visual inspection to detect surface faults arising in fabrication.

checks with penetrating liquids (penetrant dye) to detect surface faults,
especially in the welds.

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radiographic and gammagraphic checks to investigate the presence of faults
inside the piece which are not evident on the surface, especially in welds.
ultrasonic checks to detect faults inside the piece or in the welds. Ultrasonic
methods are very sensitive and allow the position of the fault to be identified with
great precision.
Eddy current checks (also known as "induced current"), are generally used
automatically with a high checking speed on stainless steel constructional elements
to detect internal faults or those about to appear on the surface, e.g. in welded
pipes.
The following methods can only be used on ferritic and martensitic steels:

magnetoscopic checks (magnetic particle inspection) to identify faults on the

surface or immediately below the surface. The limitation to these types of stainless
steel is due to the requirement that the component or structure under examination is
ferro-magnetic.

5. FINISHING
The surface finish of stainless steel is an important design criterion and should be clearly
specified according to architectural or functional requirements. The finer the finish, the
greater the cost. Precautions taken during early handling and welding help substantially to
reduce finishing costs. Initial planning is important in reducing costs. For example, if the
tube to tube weld in a handrail or balustrade is hidden inside an upright, there will be a
reduced finishing cost and a significant improvement in the final appearance of the
handrail.
The surface of steel should be restored to its corrosion resisting condition by removing all
scale and contamination. Pickling in an acid bath will loosen any scale, enabling it to be
brushed off with a plastic or stainless steel bristle brush, and it will also dissolve any
embedded iron or carbon steel particles.
Abrasive treatments, such as grinding, finishing, polishing and buffing, produce
unidirectional finishes. Thus the blending of welds may not be easy on plates/sheets with
normal rolled surfaces. A degree of experimentation may be required to determine detailed
procedures for obtaining a suitable finish.
Electrolytic polishing removes a thin surface layer. A range of finishes from dull to a bright
lustre can be produced, depending largely on the initial surface of the material.
There are other finishing processes (electroplating, tumbling, etching, colouring, and
surface blackening). These processes are rarely used for structural stainless steel and so are
not mentioned further here.
It is worth noting again that the surface should be free of contaminants in the assembled
structure. Particular consideration should be given to the possibility of contamination
arising from work on adjacent carbon steelwork, especially from grinding dust. The

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stainless steel should be protected by removable plastic film, or final cleaning after
completion of the structure should be specified.

6. CONCLUDING SUMMARY

Stainless steel structures are not difficult to fabricate but it is necessary to take care
of the product in order to avoid costly restoration of the surface of the steel.
Classical methods of joining can be used for stainless steel elements provided some
particularities of stainless steel which require special attention are taken into
account.
Cold-forming techniques are mainly used for shaping.

7. ADDITIONAL READING
1. Di Caprio, G., Gli acciai inossidabili, Hoepli, 2nd edition, Milano 1981, Los aceros
inoxidables, Ebrisa, 1st edition, Barcelona 1987.
2. Dier, A. F., Design Manual for Structural Stainless Steel, EURO INOX, 1993 (in
press).
3. Lacombe, P., Baroux, B., Beranger, G., Les aciers inoxydables, Les ditions de
physique, Les Ulis 1990.
4. Lula, R. A., Stainless Steel, ASM, Metals Park, Ohio 1986.
5. Peckner, D., and Bernstein, I. M., Handbook of Stainless Steels, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York 1977.
6. Schierhold, P., Nichtrostende Sthle, Verlag Stahleisen MBH, Dsseldorf 1990.