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DRAFT
EVALUATION OF ROCKBURST POTENTIAL
AT THE HANFORD SITE

Prepared for:
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
Division of Waste Management
under Contract 02-85-002

Prepared by:
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.
Suite 210
University Technology Center
1313 5th Street SE
Minneapolis, Minnesota 55414

January 1987

TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.0

INTRODUCTION

2.0

REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND FIELD EXPERIENCE . . . . .

2.1

A Definition of Rockbursting . . . . . . . . .

2.2

The Causes of Rockbursting . . . . . . . . . .

2.3

Review of Rockburst Experience . . . . . . . .

Case Histories. . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3.1.1

Mining . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3.1.2

Tunneling.

2.3.1

2.3.2

3.0

. . . . . . . . . .

Means for Managing Rockbursting

3.2

20

2.3.2.1

Prevention Methods . . . . . .

20

2.3.2.2

Prediction Methods . . . . . .

26

2.3.2.3

Reduction of Damage Effects

from Rockbursting. . . . . . .

30

. . . . . . .

31

. . . . . . . . . . .

37

3.1.1

Seismicity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

37

3.1.2

Borehole Spalling . . . . . . . . . . .

40

3.1.3

Core Disking. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

40

3.1.4

In-Situ Stress Measurements

. . . . . .

42

Geotechnical Classification of Basalt. . . . .

48

GEOLOGIC SETTING OF THE HANFORD SITE.

3.1

. .

19

In-Situ State of Stress.

-ii-

Table of Contents
(continued)
PAGE

4.0

ROCKBURST POTENTIAL AT BWIP . . . . . . . . . . .

4.1

4.2

. . .

50

4.1.1

In-Situ Stresses. . . . . . . . . . .

50

4.1.2

Material Inhomogeneity. . . . . . . .

53

4.1.i

Intact Rock Mass Properties . . . . .

53

4.1.4

Extraction Ratios . . . . . . . . . .

53

4.1.5

Evaluation of Rockburst Potential

54

4.1.6

Summary Rockburst Potential Prior

to Waste Emplacement. . . . . . . . .

60

Instability During the Pre-Closure Heating

Phase.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

60

4.2.1

Discussion.

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

60

4.2.2

Summary of Rockburst Potential After

Waste Emplacement . . . . . . . . . .

61

Preventative Measures for Rockburst Control

at BWIP. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

61

4.3.1

Microseismic Monitoring . . . . . . .

62

4.3.2

Destress Blasting . . . . . . . . . .

62

4.3.3

Opening Design and Rock Support .

. .

63

4.3.4

Effects of Rockbursting on Repository

Performance and Safety. . . . . . . .

63

CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

68

4.3

4.0

General Rockbursting Factors at BWIP .

50

REFERENCES

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

70

1.0

INTRODUCTION

Phenomena associated with high magnitudes of in-situ stress have

been observed at the Hanford reservation since the geotechnical
examinations began in the late 1960s. These stress-related phenomena include disking of core, borewall spalling, and shallow
microseismicity. The in-situ state of stress has been determined
by hydraulic fracturing and has indicated unusually high horizontal magnitudes and, consequently, large values of stress ratio.
The obvious indications of high stress and rock mass failure have
raised concern regarding the stability of openings mined in the
In particular, the possibility of rockbursting durdeep basalts.
ing initial repository construction and, later, during pre-closure
operation has been raised as a major concern at the site.
This paper examines the potential for rockbursting at the Hanford
site and discusses the possible means for prevention and prediction of such problems. The potential performance effects of rockbursting and remedial efforts to ameliorate the problem are also
discussed.
2.0

REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND FIELD EXPERIENCE

2.1

A Definition of Rockbursting

A rockburst is a violent failure of the rock mass around an underground opening which results in the release of kinetic energy.
The rockburst is often accompanied by expulsion of large volumes
of broken rock into the excavation and/or vibration which can
sometimes be felt over areas several kilometers in distance from
the source event.
The energy release and accompanying damage from a rockburst varies
over a wide range-from minor "pops" which can be heard but do no
discernable damage, to major events which are greater than 3
The resulting damage depends greatly on
Richter scale magnitude.
the location of the burst epicenter. If the epicenter of a burst
lies in close proximity to the excavation (e.g., roughly within
several diameters of the opening), the damage which results will
be roughly proportional to the energy released by the rockburst.
Minor pops, for example, may result in spalling of the surface
skin of the excavation. This is not an unusual occurrence in deep
mining and poses no particular safety or performance threat. Major events such as an ML* = 1.0 event in close proximity to the
excavation may result in blocks ejected from roof, face and walls
and could pose a substantial safety and performance threat. Some
major events can occur a fairly great distance from the active

*Richter magnitude

-2-

excavation area and do little, if any, damage to the workings.

will be discussed later, these events are generally associated
with slip along pre-existing faults.

As

The above discussion attempts to point out that the definition of

rockbursting is dependent on the context of the project and the
background of the individuals working at the site. For example,
civil construction engineers engaged in transportation tunneling
refer to small-scale seismic events, even without evidence of damage, as rockbursts. The literature contains many examples of this
type. Mining engineers, on the other hand, generally classify a
rockburst as an event in which observable damage occurred in excess of simple spalling of the opening. This definition is rather
imprecise- many major events which have a bearing on overall mine
stability may not result in damage.
For the purposes of this report, it is easiest to provide a definition which divides mining-induced seismicity into the two following areas:
(1) Rockbursting those events which result in measurable damage to the workings in excess of simple
spalling phenomena; and
(2) Small-Scale Seismic Events those events such as
spalling and low energy noise which cause little or
no damage. These small-scale events are part of the
process of adjustment of the rock mass to induced
stress and may be precursors to rockbursts.
2.2

The Causes of Rockbursting

There appear to be three major causes of rockbursts:

(1) surface instabilities of the rock mass at the face
of the excavation;
(2) propagation of shear fractures in the rock mass
ahead of the working face; and
(3) slip along existing discontinuities such as faults,
bedding surfaces, and interfaces between units.
The first and second forms of rockbursting result in the greatest
damage to workings and most loss of life. This is a result primarily of the close proximity of these events to the excavation.
The actual cause of these bursts is under considerable debate but

---- ---

-3-

are obviously related to the magnitude of in-situ stress (and,

thus, the potential energy available in the rock mass to drive
violent failure) and the presence of features which may localize
the available energy.
Such localizing features may be a highly
brittle high-strength rock in contact with softer rock, dikes,
faults, or properly-oriented joints. Ortlepp (1983) examined the
problem of rockbursting by determining the energy balance in a
rock mass- excavation system as the excavation advances. He presents an analogy to the problem of water filling a dam which is
highly instructive and reprinted here [Ortlepp (1983), pp. 265266]:
The sporadic nature of actual seismic activity may be
easier to,understand if the process is visualized in
terms of the following conceptual analogy. The gravitational potential energy .

. made available by mining

may be considered analogous to a stream flowing into a

reservoir. The reservoir represents the strain energy
content .

. of the nebulous volume of stressed rock

extending beyond the boundary of the fractured rock surrounding the stope. The reservoir is always full to
overflowing just as the region of stressed rock is always so highly strained at its inner margin that it is
on the verge of fracturing.
Just as excess water inflow
would run harmlessly over the spillway of a dam, so surplus potential energy released by mining "overflows" in
the form of surface energy and heat energy. Additional
crushing of already failed rock within the fracture zone
increases the area available to consume surface energy
and frictional movements heat up the rock, which ultimately dissipates heat energy into the ventilating air.
Without any quantitative evaluation, these energy
amounts together make up the . . . terms in the energy
balance . . . .
Similarly, by frictional heating and

producing new surface, the crushing of support consumes

energy . . .
Together these two avenues of energy dissipation make up the energy . . . removed from the system . . . .

The volume of stressed rock, which provides the store of

strain energy, sweeps through the solid mass as it is
continually pushed ahead by the advancing stope face.*

A stope is simply an excavation used for mining

purposes.

-4-

Although impossible in reality, the wall of the reservoir in the analogy may be visualized as slowly migrating through space, encountering weaknesses in the form
of geological discontinuities such as faults or dike
contacts, or other flaws in the rock fabric. Because of
tectonic and induced stresses, some of the weaknesses in
the rock mass may be on the brink of failure, and when
suitably orientated, will suddenly slip and undergo violent shear dislocation. This is analogous to the reservoir suffering a sudden but temporary rupture of its
walls. A small portion of its contents, representing
part of the stored strain energy .

. is released from

that part of the reservoir nearest to the breach.

energy .

The

. . is immediately available as kinetic energy

which is able to do destructive work in the form of

rockburst damage underground. In the reservoir analogy,
the destructive work would take the form of flood damage.
The failed surfaces very soon become "welded" together
again and the reservoir can once more fill up to its
previous level.
It is unlikely that a further failure
will occur during this replenishment period but it is
possible that the next movement could occur again at the
same point of weakness. Repeated "stick-slip" behaviour
is well known in earthquakes and other dislocation phenomena in brittle materials, which implies that temporary "healing" of slip surfaces or ruptures does occur.
Naturally, the slip or violent shear dislocation will
tend to occur in regions of greatest strain energy just
as a wall of uniform strength will fail where the depth
of the reservoir is greatest.
Evidence from South African and United States mines suggests that
geological weaknesses or geometrical features provide the means
for localizing stress in the rock mass.
In South Africa, the influence of faults and dikes has been well documented (Cook,
1966a,b). In the Coeur d'Alene district, the influence of bed
stiffness, faulting and dikes is well known among engineers and
operators. Microseismicity, as determined from mine seismic systems, is often found to occur in linear bands which follow particularly thick and brittle beds of quartzite interbedded with thin
beds with a high argillite content.
Rockbursting in these beds appears to be related to creation or
extension of shear fractures in the immediate walls of the stope.
Spottiswoode and McGarr (1975) performed spectral analyses on similar events in South African Mines and identified them as being

-5-

composed primarily of shear induced wave components. Evidence of

mining induced slip on faults in the Coeur d'Alene district is
very strong. Microseismicity will occur in concentrated bands
opposite stoping areas along faults which strike at small angles
to the stoping direction. Many of the larger events (1.5+ML) appear to be related to slippage along these pre-existing features
as opposed to fracture extension. The Sudbury, Ontario, mines
also show a strong influence of slippage along faults as a major
cause of rockbursting. The vibration resulting from these events
can cause the loose, failed rock surrounding an excavation to be
ejected (or simply fall under the influence of gravity) into the
opening, causing significant damage).
In summary, the causes of rockbursting appear to be related to:
(1) high stress magnitudes (as well as large deviations
in the principal stresses). These large stresses
result in a store of potential energy in the rock
mass which is available to drive rockbursts.
(2) the presence of features which may localize the
energy and result in violent failure. These
features may be a large contrast in stiffness of
beds, dikes, faults, or possible properly-oriented
fractures in a brittle mass.
Concerning (2) above, the frequency and character of jointing appears to affect the occurrence of rockbursting.
If the rock mass
is heavily jointed, particularly with planar joints, energy may be
released in a non-violent fashion through sliding along the
joints. This appears to lessen the frequency of rockbursting, but
it has not been quantified. For example, the rock mass in the
Coeur d'Alene district is heavily jointed-three joint sets are
present with 0.15m (6") to 0.3m (12") spacing, resulting in blocks
formed with dimensions of about 0.3m or less on a side. With this
heavy jointing, rockbursts occur-even though the joints are not
particularly rough. If, however, the joints have been disturbed
significantly (i.e., yielded beyond peak strength), such as occurs
after extensive mining, failure occurs by non-violent sliding on
these joint surfaces. An example of such a case is the complete
extraction of pillars in the deep mines of the Coeur d'Alene district. Here, a "sill" pillar is extracted between a previouslymined area and an advancing stope (Fig. 1-1). Rockbursting will
occur until the pillar has reached a thickness of approximately 6
meters. At this point in time, the pillar material tends to yield
non-violently. The acoustic output of the rock mass at this time
is characterized by frequent, low-energy, low-frequency events related to sliding on fracture surfaces.

-6-

sill

pi

1v

tT

-1L

Fig. 1-1

Formation of Sill Pillar at Advancing Stope

-7-

BWIP contractors (Blake, 1984) and Barton (1986) have argued that
the heavily jointed nature of the basalt (approximately 15 fractures per meter or less, depending on location within the flow) is
one factor precluding a serious rockbursting problem. In fact,
many rock masses having serious rockbursting problems are nearly,
if not as heavily fractured as the basalts at Hanford. The jointing frequency alone cannot lead to a conclusion regarding rockbursting.

-8-

2.3

Review of Rockburst Experience

Rockbursting occurs in mining and tunneling on every continent

where high stresses and hard, brittle rock conditions are encountered. Primary case examples include deep gold mining in
South Africa and India, deep metal mining in Canada and the U.S.,
deep coal mining in Poland and the U.S., and deep tunneling in
Scandinavia, Japan and Europe. Some of the well documented case
examples are discussed here.
2.3.1

Case Histories

The case histories given here are separated between excavation associated with mining and tunneling. The primary difference here
is that mining generally involves multiple (often, irregularlyshaped) excavations with high extraction ratios, whereas tunneling
generally involves single openings.
2.3.1.1

Mining

The bulk of rockbursting history occurs in mining of orebodies at

great depth. Here, several case examples are given to illustrate
the general features of rockbursting.
Rockbursting has occurred in the Coeur
Coeur d'Alene District Curd'Alene mining district of Northern Idaho since the 1920s.
rently, rockbursting represents one of the greatest problems encountered in mining the deep-seated lead-sliver-zinc veins found
here. The rockbursting here occurs primarily in pillars between a
Because
mined-out section of the orebody and an advancing stope.
the bursting at the various mines in this district is similar, the
Star Mine will be used as an example.
The rock mass in the Coeur d'Alene is a quartzite which ranges
from a very hard, brittle quartzite to an impure, argillitic
quartzite. The rock mass is bedded, with bed thickness ranging
from about 150mm to greater than 1 meter. The orebodies are
steeply dipping veins of sulphide ore containing argentiferrous
In some cases, this ore congalena, sphalerite and tetrahedrite.
tains large amounts of quartz. In these instances, bursting can
occur in the orebody itself, but it generally occurs within the
host rock mass. The uniaxial compressive strength of the rock
mass is about 150-200 MPa. The maximum horizontal stress is perpendicular to the orebody and is roughly 70-80 MPa at the 7900
level of the Star Mine; the secondary horizontal stress is paral-

- 9-

lel to the vein and about 50-60 MPa. The vertical stress is
roughly 55 MPa. A stress ratio (oHmax/Ov) of about 1.45 exists.
Levels within the mine are driven on 61-meter vertical intervals
and a haulage lateral is driven parallel to the vein approximately
30m to 61mn in the wall (Fig. 2-1). Crosscuts are driven to intersect the orebody on 61m intervals over its mineable length. At
each crosscut-orebody intersection, stopes are raised and mined
toward the above level, which is mined out and backfilled. Stopes
proceed vertically upward by either blasting the back down through
a series of 1.5m cuts (backstoping) or by mining the stope horizontally by blasting face rounds in each direction from the raise
(breasting). When each face reaches its limit (30m from the
raise), a raise round is shot in the back to create access to the
next mining cut.
In either case (backstoping or breasting), the
mined areas are filled with sandfill after approximately 3m of
vertical advance.
Rockbursting occurs in three primary ways (Fig. 2-2):
(1) explosive failure of the pillars or wall rock adjacent to the pillars as the pillar height is reduced below about 30m;
(2) explosive failure of the pillar which occurs between
advancing stope faces; and
(3) slip along faults which lie in close proximity to
the orebody.
In general, the first type of rockbursting involves the greatest
amount of destruction-often resulting in 500 tons or more of rock
expelled into the stope. These bursts occur from a stope height
of roughly 30m to approximately 55m. The remaining 6m or so of
pillar tends to crush non-violently rather than violently as energy is released through sliding along joint planes or newly created fracture surfaces.
The second form of bursting generally occurs only during the first
one or two mining cuts as the pillar between advancing stopes is
reduced below about 6-7 meters in width. These bursts occur
within the orebody itself and appear to be related to the fact
that the ground is "virgin"-i.e., it has not been exposed to high
or changing stress for long periods of time (which tends to induce
This
fracturing or movement along existing fracture surfaces).
is
actually
destressing",
mining
as
"natural
known
in
process,
yielding occurring in the rock surrounding the openings. Because

-10B.4C<~,C LLE

14iN I'J& L6VP&LI-

~At~~~LEV~.' 2

Fig. 2-1

Schematic of Overhand Cut-and-Fill Mining

-11-

/M'tJED
'P.rk~upST

6TO)PE I

S.ToP f

LociE-i0ti

SoT6P

( L)

DiECf
c rJ

A DVA "CE

L.OTo.J
r
u8uxesw

~~~~~~~STPC2

SpoPS 1

Cb)
ZO Jf OF I JtU6CCD
FAUL-r

~~~ADVA,,ta,

Cc)

Fig.

2-2

Schematic of the Three Types of Rockbursts:

(a) bursting occurring from mining of sill
pillars; (b) bursting as a result of intersection of advancing headings; and (c) unstable slip along faults

SLIP

-12-

the yield zone is quite small for single openings, there tends to
be a confined core of elastic material within the pillar which may
fail violently if sufficient stresses are applied.
The third type of rockbursting is the result of slip along faults
which lie adjacent to the stoping area. The stoping apparently
changes the stress state over areas of the fault sufficient to induce slip over limited areas. This slip results in a seismic wave
which can result in damage within mining areas as a result of reflection of the tensile pulse. Bursts like these at the Star Mine
are often very large, resulting in 3.0 ML or greater events.
A series of photos of rockburst damage is shown in Fig. 2-3. In
(a), the entire left wall has been blown loose and since cleared.
The rockbolts have been left in place, with roughly 1-1/2 meters
of bolt hanging.
In (b), continued spalling and stress relief has
left a hazardous roof with fractured rock. In (c), a rockburst
has resulted in a severe dynamic closure of the roof and floor,
resulting in breakage of the supporting caps.
Elliot Lake The Elliot Lake mining district in Elliot Lake,
Ontario, has recently (over the past five years) encountered a severe rockbursting problem in the room-and-pillar mining of shallow-dipping uranium-bearing reef planes at depths of up to 1,000
meters. As an example of these problems, the description by
Hedley et al (1984) of the Quirke Mine is used.
The uranium-bearing reefs are confined to argillitic members which
are over- and underlain by thick quartzitic bodies (Fig. 2-4).
Reef height varies from 3 to 10 meters. The maximum horizontal
stress occurs along strike and is roughly 30-40 MPa; the secondary
minimum principal stress is approximately 20-25 MPa.
The extraction ratio of the orebody ranged up to 80%. Hedley et
al (1984) has estimated that pillar loads to 60 MPa result due to
this high extraction ratio.
An empirical formulation for pillar
strength resulted in determination of uniaxial compressive
strengths of about 60 to 78 MPa, or nearly the same magnitude as
the induced axial stress.
In 1982, an intense episode of rockbursting occurred over a oneday span. Failure of thin pillars apparently resulted in
excessive stress concentration on the remaining pillars. These
loads resulted in major rockbursts, several of which exceeded 2.0
M;~. Extensive damage occurred, resulting in severe spalling of
pillars and drifts as well as closure of haulage drifts.

(a)

(b)

Fig. 2-3

(c)

Rockburst and Spalling Damage at the Star Mine,

Burke, Idaho

-14-

loo

700

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~UMSE"ONE

200

A~~~~~MI
500

-ACAT

00

700

-GEkTN

Fig.

2-4

Geology of the Rock Mass at the Quirke and

Denison Mine, Elliot Lake

-15-

South African mining perhaps has the worst

South African Mines problems with rockbursting world-wide. Mining occurs along thin
The rock
(about 1m thick) gold reefs which dip at 300 or less.
mass is brittle quartzites, norite or conglomerates. Depth of
mining is in excess of 3,000 meters. The major principal stress
is vertical and roughly equal to the overburden load.
Stoping is accomplished using a longwall face advance. Rockbursts
occur at the intersections of the longwall face with structures
such as faults or dikes as well as the intersections with other
Rockbursts at this great depth are often 2-4 ML.
longwall faces.
The resulting seismic wave often will completely fill the stope
with broken rock or cause the foot and hanging wall to close by
half the stope height. The majority of rockbursts occur 50m or
more ahead of the stope face and 100m or more above the stope
plane (Ortlepp, 1983).
These bursts are generally recognized to be the result of shear
fracture propagation. This mechanism was discussed in detail by
Shear or "burst" fractures were traced by excaOrtlepp (1983).
vating in areas of earlier bursting at the ERPM property. These
fractures contained finely comminuted rock which could be shown to
have propagated through existing solid rock.
The Kolar Gold Field is located in southeast
Kolar Gold Field India and contains mines working at depths of 2,000 meters and
greater. The host rock mass is granitic; the orebody occurs as
disseminated gold in schistose rocks. The ore occurs as nearvertical dipping veins. Mining occurs by overhand cut-and-fill in
a fashion similar to that discussed previously in the Coeur
d'Alene district.
Rockbursting was first reported in the Mysore Committee on RockThe bursts occur in crown pilbursting, which convened in 1928.
stoping
and in waste remnants left
the
overhand
lars created by
are very large and have been
levels
of
rockbursts
behind. Energy
greater than 4 ML. Originally, attempts were made to fill the
stopes with cut granitic blocks as backfill as a means of limiting
the convergence of the stope faces, thereby reducing stress concentration at the face. This procedure met with no success and
has been replaced by standard cemented fills.

-16-

Saskatchewan Potash Mines Mining-induced seismicity has been

monitored around southern Saskatchewan potash mines over the past
10 years. The geologic section through southern Saskatchewan is
composed of flat-lying sedimentary rocks to a depth of approximately 1,800 meters.
Within this sequence is a series of Devonian
carbonate layers approximately 1,000 meters in thickness which
contain a halite-sylvite-anhydrite sequence which varies in thickness to 200 meters. The sylvite contains economic potash.
The potash is mined in a room-and-pillar fashion by mechanical
miners. Room dimensions are typically 6m wide by 3m in height.
Seismicity was first monitored in the mines surrounding Saskatoon
in 1976.
Several 2-4 ML events were recorded around the IMC and
Cory mines, with very little damage reported underground-with the
exception of occasional roof-falls. The seismicity has been related to slip along the relatively hard sandstone beds in the
overlying roof of the beds.
Creep of the pillars occurs as mining
extends, resulting in a time-dependent subsidence of the ground
surface. Gendzwill (1984) reports that interbed shear occurs,
resulting in shear failure of the beds over the active mining
areas (Fig. 2-5). This shear failure results in the seismicity
monitored underground and on the surface.
Coal Outbursts or Bumps A coal outburst is essentially the
equivalent of a rockburst in hard rock mining. The coal outburst
is characterized by a rapid expulsion of coal from a mining face
or pillar into the opening. Gas often accompanies the coal.
There is a resulting cavity left, usually in the upper portion of
the mining face.
Shepard et al. (1981) has discussed the conditions necessary for
coal bumping. First, a minimum depth of 180m appears necessary
for bumps, with a peak occurrence at 750 meters.
Some geologic structural disturbance increases the possibilities
of coal bursting by providing a failure localization mechanism.
In particular, faulting and folds in the seam have been related to
outbursts.
As an example, Shepard, Blackwood and Rixon (1982)
discussed bumping at the West Cliff Colliery in New South Wales.
Here, outbursts have all occurred on strike-slip faults. The mining method is room-and-pillar. As the first panel heading is advanced to within 2 to 5 meters of a fault, the coal and methane
gas is ejected 5m or more into the roadway. In some cases, both
the face and ribs of the roadway are fractured. Shepard et al
(1984) attribute the outbursts to a redistribution of the horizontal stresses between the excavation and fault. This results in an
approximate biaxial stress field ahead of the face which exceeds
the rock mass strength (Fig. 2-6).

ITASCA

Consulting Group, Inc.

9 January 1987

David Tiktinsky - SS623

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
Division of Waste Management
Washington, D.C.
20555

"NRC Technical Assistance

for Design Reviews"
Contract No. NRC-02-85-002
FIN D1016

Dear David:
Enclosed please find the draft report "Evaluation of Rockburst
Potential at the Hanford Site".
This report is submitted under
Task Order No. 003 of NRC Contract NRC-02-85-002.
Please call me
if you have any questions.
Sincerely,

Roger D. Hart
Program Manager

cc:

J. Greeves, Engineering Branch

Office of the Director, NMSS
E. Wiggins, Division of Contracts
tDWM Dod&Wnent.C n tro.
Ro6om-

Encl.

mb/ks

P.O. Box 14806 * Minneapolis, Minnesota 55414 * (612) 623-9599

- 17-

BEFORE MINING

undeformed
I

AFTER MINING

| Mined area

Fig.

2-5

Rockbursting Resulting From Shear

Deformation on Beds Due to Subsidence

-18-

Fig.

2-6

Coal Outburst Resulting from Headings

Advancing into Faulted Coal

-19-

2.3.1.2

Tunneling

Scandinavia Rockbursting in civil construction tunnels in

Scandinavia is a common phenomena. Hanssen and Myvant (1986) describe spalling and rockbursting at hydropower and highway tunnels
in northern Norway. The rock mass in this area consists of Precambrian granitic rocks with a uniaxial compressive strength of 89
MPa. Stress measurements were taken at nine sites. The major
principal stress at depth in tunnels in the Kobbelv area is horizontal at 23 MPa (E-W), with a ratio of horizontal principal
stresses of 1.5. The vertical stress varies normally as a function of depth.
Large stress differences can be obtained, depending on the proximity to the mountain slope. The tunnels have been
driven by TBM and drill-and-blast methods. Tunnels driven normal
to the major horizontal stress exhibit heavy spalling of the roof
and floor as well as bursting of the tunnel face. Tension cracks
often occur in the walls of the tunnels due to the high stress deviation.
Coeur d'Alene District Rockbursting frequently occurs in the
face of advancing single development headings in the Coeur d'Alene
district. The general mining method and geology were described
previously. The rockbursting is usually small in magnitude-0.5
to 1 ML, resulting in fracturing of the face and ejection of rock
blocks from the face, roof and walls. In general, these bursts
will result in 10 tons or less of ejected material. In addition
to the bursting, stress-related phenomena such as spalling of the
face and roof will occur as well as squeezing of blastholes.
Rather severe damage has occurred in some situations where a
single heading intersects a fault. Here, a rockburst can shake
loose blocks from the roof which border the fault for heights of
up to one tunnel diameter. Other factors which affect rockbursting in single headings include intersection of the drift with inhomogeneities such as dikes or an interface of particularly soft
material with a brittle rock mass. The important point to note
here is that rockbursts do occur in the face of isolated headings,
but the magnitude and damage which result are generally much lower
than the major rockburs5ts associated with mining.
Another interesting case example was the rockbursting at the bottom of the Star Mine #4 shaft. Again, the geologic conditions
were described earlier. When sinking the shafts, rockbursts of
magnitude 0.5 to 1.5 ML would occur, centered beneath the advancing heading. The floor of the shaft was lifted roughly 1 meter
and the bottom broken for approximately l-l/2m. The vibration resulting from the burst would also often shake loose materials down
from the walls. From the 7900-8100 levels of the Star Mine, these
bursts occurred with high frequency-about once every 6-lOm of advance.

-20-

2.3.2

Means for Managing Rockbursting

There are two basic methods used by mining companies for managing
rockbursting: prediction and prevention. Each of these methods
has met with only limited success.
2.3.2.1

Prevention Methods

The primary rockburst prevention methods are reduction of the extraction ratio, variance of the excavation sequences (which minimize stress concentration), and destress blasting.
The most certain method of reducing the rockburst frequency is to
reduce the extraction ratio by leaving stabilizing pillars. The
use of stabilizing pillars in deep gold mining at Western Deep
Prior to 1980, mining
Levels is described by Tanton et al (1984).
commenced by longwall extraction of the gold reef. At this time,
it was generally acknowledged that Western Deeps had the most severe rockbursting problem in the South African mining industry.
Strike pillars were of dimensions 20m wide on 133m centers (Fig.
2-7). Figure 2-8 shows the effects of stabilizing pillars. The
total energy release (a) is highly variable and not particularly
meaningful. The total number of events (b), however, has steadily
dropped since the introduction of the pillars, and the rate of
face advance has increased fairly dramatically. The use of pillars, in this case, has decreased the rockburst hazard while allowing the face advance to increase, resulting in approximately
the same total production as before the introduction of pillars.
A second, although less certain, means of controlling rockbursts
is through the optimization of excavation sequencing to minimize
the stress concentration or spatial rate of energy release. Board
and Crouch (1975) give an example of the use of analog models in
planning stope sequencing for overhand cut-and-fill stopes at the
Here, an electrical analog computer is
Star Mine in Burke, Idaho.
used to determine the spatial rate of energy release for three
sequences of a line of overhand stopes. Because, in this case,
the orebody extraction is 100%, small differences in stope
sequence can be important. In this example, three sequences were
examined:
a flat-back stope, a stair-step style, and an V-style
The accompanying energy release rate
of stope advance (Fig. 2-9).
curves illustrate a more constant rate of energy release for the
V-type of advance. This is also seen in practice.

-21-

60m

p:

60m

99
99

*.~~~~~~R~

9.

9.~~~~~~~~~~~~--

.9

REEF DRIVE ABOVE PILLAR

PLAN

24m

ENLARGED SECTION

Fig.

2-7

The Use of Stabilizing Strike Pillars at

Western Deep Levels

-22-

B
Seismic energy frequency

A
Seismic energy
- , . ,. , . , , , ,
Stabilizing pillars introduced
I

.0 200000

~80

, . ,

>

56

40.
100
.S ~

1
N

12000 12

5,

No data

24

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~16
32a<>0 ,,
_

2 4

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34
Time in months
Jan. 1979

Jan. 1979

pillars introduced

11
AStabilizing
i

20.

w)

Face advance
12

5,

6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Time in months

C
Productivity
24

. . ...
Stabilizing pillars introduced

~~~~~~~~~~~~~E64-

72

Stabilizing pillars introduced

10

E- ;9 .Ji

0
E
E127
E

0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1

2 4

6 8 10 12 14 16 1820 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36
Time in months

2 4 6

8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Time in months

Jan. 1979

Jan. 1979

Fig.

55
6

2-8

The Effects of Stabilizing Pillars on Energy

Release and Production at Western Deep Levels

-23(1000 (I)

305 m

m (20011)
m (200It)

a) present system

extracted
, -2

, --

117!

ar

l.tjocl

115 m (49 11)

b) first alternative (center slope first)

I 15m (4911)

c) second alternative (stoirstep sloping)

3 .lo'

E~ 4 z10'.
I.t83.10'
Li

)-

oa
.1

iiU
z
Ui

ifst
..... twit 0lemwtif

tiC

..-

tlu~ slope twit)

ffn
o
__ rcwd

im ..
,wsip

slopng)

,:

..............
r:'

K)U

lo.tO

05:10'

25

50

EXTRACTION. pecwi

Fig. 2-9

Example of the Use of Energy Release Rate for

Three Alternative Methods of Stope Sequencing
(The center stope first provides the optimum
method when assuming 100% extraction ratio.)

-24-

Numerical methods are currently heavily used in an attempt to minimize the rockburst hazard through design optimization. South
African companies rely on boundary element approaches (in particular, displacement discontinuity) and the determinations of the
In the mines
minimum spatial rate of energy release for design.
in the Sudbury, Ontario, district, International Nickel Corporation uses the boundary integral methods, whereas Falconbridge
Nickel uses finite difference and distinct element codes. The
U.S. Bureau of Mimes in Spokane, Washington, performs design studies for the Coeur d'Alene mines using finite element and finite
difference codes. The use of numerical models for correlation to
rockbursting is in its infancy, and it is not presently (nor will
it likely ever be) possible to define with a high degree of certainty if a rockburst will occur under any given circumstances.
Destress blasting is a method by which an attempt is made to
soften the rock mass through blast-induced fracturing or failure
so that subsequent energy can be released by plastic deformation
of the rock mass rather than violently as in the form of a rockburst. Destress blasting is an accepted practice in mines in the
Elliot Lake and Sudbury districts of Canada and in mines in
Sweden.
Some mines in the Coeur d'Alene district in the U.S. use
destress blasting, although several have recently decided not to
use large-scale destress blasting.
There are basically two methods of destress blasting. The first
employs one or more long holes shot with a face round in an advancing heading or stope in an attempt to either "set off" a rockburst which is imminent or to pre-fracture the ground ahead of the
face advance (Fig. 2-10). The utility of this form of destressing
is questionable. We are aware of no study which definitely proves
if a reduction in rockburst potential occurs from this action.
The end result of such destress blasting is usually badly blastdamaged walls which deteriorate rapidly and must be supported
heavily.
The second form of destress blasting is called rock pre-conditionIn this
ing by the U.S. Bureau of Mines (Karwoski et al, 1977).
method, a massive blasting is performed using many closely-spaced
blastholes prior to excavation. Theoretically, excavation may
then proceed in a zone which has been pre-fractured and which will
One paryield non-violently rather than fail by rockbursting.
ticularly successful use of this form of destressing was performed
on the Star Mine 7700 level main vein stopes (Karwoski et al,
1977).
Here, 3"-diameter blastholes were drilled in a radial pattern from the stope crosscuts to destress a 200'x200' block of the
orebody. These holes were shot with a water gel and millisecond
delays prior to any mining. The shot was very heavy, resulting in

-25-

10-mr,1

OStkoec)
U=II=1l II

!I

r3sr'.

I_

..

..

WCLS-Onckes

~~H

XY- C.TOr

Kilogran

Total

-*-

100
b 14

KEY
Dark lines show loaded holes

Fig. 2-10

3
6
0
W
W
I
Scale, metres

Two Methods of Destress Blasting

(The first involves shooting several holes with
the blasting round.
The second involves a massive destress blasting to highly fracture the
rock mass prior to mining.)

-26-

a crushed zone interconnecting the drill holes. Mining proceeded

in this area without rockbursting-however, seismicity immediately
resumed when advancing beyond the destressed zone.
A further attempt at this massive destressing was made on the 7900
level but failed as a result of drilling problems and delays. Ultimately, this form of destress blasting in advance of mining resulted in higher costs than the rockbursting itself and contributed heavily to the closing of this mine.
In conclusion, destress blasting appears to be helpful in prevention of rockbursts but is. sensitive to the magnitude of the destressing and the timing of the shot. Apparently, destress blasting must be shot heavily to have the desired effect-i.e., to induce damage in the rock mass.
2.3.2.2

Prediction Methods

Rockburst prediction is based primarily on the use of microseismic

monitoring methods to locate areas of the rock mass which are approaching failure. As a rock undergoes failure, it emits seismic
energy related to extension of fractures or sliding on existing
ones. The freque ncy of these events lies somewhere in the range
of 10 Hz to 5x10 Hz.
The microseismic method is used to monitor
the acoustical output of the rock mass as it approaches a violent
failure or as it yields non-violently. A discussion of microseismic monitoring in the U.S. can be found in Langstaff (1977), Blake
(1971), and Brady and Leighton (1977).
The methods in use in
South African mines are reviewed by Bawden and Kitzinger (1986).
In general, the existing systems consist of geophones (velocity
gauge or accelerometer) which are mounted to the rock mass at the
A pre-amplitunnel wall or at depth in a borehole (Fig. 2-11).
fier is used at the geophone to boost the signal to the location
of the data acquisition system (several thousand meters). At this
point, the signal can be amplified and/or filtered prior to data
reduction. Most systems employ a comparison device at this stage
to examine the incoming signals against some threshold amplitude.
Once a signal has been received which meets the threshold criterion, a time window is held open for a certain period, during which
the computer waits for additional signals from other geophones to
be received. From these arrival times, a least squares method is
used to locate the coordinate of the event.

II

A to D 96
channel capacity
64 used (Preston)

One vertical component

geophone on surface
(for energy level
_.measurement )

..........
:
.............

::::::-:-.. ::

l".w-""R'-'-R'
l:::::::::. S::- ::::

I:::::::::::::::R:::-:-l '::::::::: :, ::.'.:

I::: :-::::: :- *...
,-.-,:'.:: .-..
a.

..;..-

, .R.

,RR,

::
::::..

lR: ''.--"-R-"''

__

:::::'.:::.:R:::. .:i:

.....
....

.:-:::
.:::::.:

......
. ......

::::.'.::-,::::: :-: :-

W..~

::S:: .-:::::::: :::

:SR:R:::::::::::::R

....:::.-.:...::-::

-3
* .__

a-

Keyboard

mu_.-

I A::::- :; .;:: I
*:"i--....

..
, .

16 - 33 channel capacity

13 x 3 Geospace
13 x 3 Geospace
HSI geophones 4.5 Hz

Shielded.
twisted pairs
.
_-" ....... .
L-.._
Under- Surface
4..

biamplified preamps.grudntaasgfies
~at
from
powered
525V line

Fig.

2-11

L
Lightning protected

HP 1000

Recorder

input
~~~~~~~differential
amplifiers
64 channels used.

500 H'z low pass

System bandwidth
4.5-500 Hz

A Typical Microseismic System In Use at Western Deep Levels

The signal is am(Here, standard velocity gauges are used.
to digitize the
used
are
converters
A-to-D
the
plified and
waveform.)

-28-

In addition to coordinate location, the event energy content may

also be established in real time. Also, some systems possess the
ability to perform spectral analysis in real time; others will record selected waveforms on tape in analog form (or digitally, on
disk) for further spectral processing.
To date, the primary use of the data has been to examine count
It is generally
rate of seismic events as a function of time.
possible to see an increase in seismic activity in the area in
which the rockburst will occur in the days preceding the event.
It is, however, rare that the data can be used to pinpoint the
time of the event to an accuracy such that personnel may be
removed from the area.
An example of such a case is illustrated in Fig. 2-12 (Langstaff,
1977).
Here, a definite microseismic signature in count rate preceded a rockburst at the Star Mine. A dramatic increase in count
rate occurs for roughly 15 minutes, followed by a complete absence
of noise for roughly 30-45 minutes. A 3 ML burst occurred at the
This type of signature, unfortunately,
end of this quiet time.
occurs rarely. There are many examples of large rockbursts which
occurred without warning. Present research is aimed at the use of
accelerometers to provide high frequency data in addition to present broad-band systems. This frequency spectrum and energy contact of this data can then be analyzed for shifts analogous to
those which occur in laboratory testing of brittle rocks.

-29-

ROCK BURST-SEPT. 3,1975

9 MAIN VEIN, 7500 LEVEL
t2 20
z
LiJ

010
6

.5

HOUR

Fig.

2-12

Typical Microseismic Build-Up Prior to

a Major Rockburst at the Star Mine

-30-

2.3.2.3

Reduction of Damage Effects from Rockbursting

Large rockbursts which sometimes occur in mining can displace hundreds to thousands of tons of broken rock into an opening. It is
difficult to provide any type of support which can reduce the damage from this form of bursting. For small bursts (i.e., <0.5-1
ML), rock support can be beneficial in keeping rock blocks pinned
to the back. A common method used in South Africa and Canada is
fully-grouted rebar rockbolts with wire rope lacing and chainlink
fencing (Fig. 2-12). The chainlink fencing will trap blocks from
being ejected from the back while the wire rope lacing gives a
flexible and strong support to the chainlink. Perhaps the best
means of support is shotcrete-particularly wire-reinforced, as
used in Scandinavian countries.

chainlink fencing
(removed to illustrate
cable slings)
7 //bgrouted
bars

0. 8m

Fig. 2-13

Rockbolt Support with Wire Mesh and Rope Lacing

-31-

3.0

GEOLOGIC SETTING OF THE HANFORD SITE

The Hanford Nuclear Reservation is in southeastern Washington

State and is located within the Pasco Basin, a topographic feature
The Pasco Basin is underwithin the Columbia Plateau (Fig. 3-1).
lain by over 50 distinct basalt flows comprising a total depth of
over 3,000 meters (Fig. 3-2).
Of particular interest to the present study is the tectonic setEast-West trending ridges of the Yakima Fold
ting of the Basin.
Belt bound the Pasco Basin on the north and south, plunging into
the Basin from the west. The Cold Creek Syncline is one of a number of subtle folds which lie sub-parallel to the major east-west
trending ridges. The Cold Creek Syncline appears to be free of
major bedrock structures and has a nearly flat-lying dip (<5).
The eastern margin of the Basin is the north-trending Jackass
monocline, east of which the basalt thins. Within the basin,
thrust and reverse faults are found sub-parallel to the east-west
trending folds. Within the Yakima Fold Belt, steeply-dipping
northwest- and northeast-trending faults are found (Caggiano and
Duncan, 1983).
Within the confines of the Hanford site, a preferred "reference
repository location (RRL)" has been chosen (Fig. 3-3). The
Cohassett flow, at a depth of approximately 900 meters within the
RRL, was chosen as the preferred horizon for repository development.
A typical basalt flow has a highly variable structure both vertically and horizontally. There are, in general, three distinct
the flow top, entablature, and colonnade (Fig.
units to a flow:
3-4). The flow top consists of the vesicular and/or brecciated
crust of the flow which was cooled rather quickly after deposition. The flow top grades into a vesicular zone which, in turn,
grades into the fractured dense interior portions.

-32-

Fig.

3-1

Location of the Pasco Basin and the Hanford Site

-33-

;3

4-

4,

4-4
A

MEMBtR
OR SEOUENCE

-^

SEDIMENT
STR AT IC RAP H V
OR BASALT FlOWS

______________________

II

"CI

0
o1

I1 l4ivI

U I

SURFICIAL UNITS

c
c

" I~

I'-

f
0

:1

a I

I-

%I
I

611

4
0

~I
0.

TOUCHET BEDS

:GRAVELS:

PA SCO

~~~~~~~~~~~~PLIO
PLEISTlOCENE UNIT

= = _

UPPER RINGOLD

0.

MIDDLE RINGOLD

sC

LOWER RINGOLD
BASAL RINGOLD

-1-4-4-P-I

FANGLOMERAT

GOOSE ISLAND FLOW

85

MARTINDALE FLOW
BASIN CITY FLOW

ICt HARBOR MEMBER

LEVEY INTERtED
105

UPPER ELEPHANT MOUNTAIN FLOW

ELEPHANT MOUNTAIN MEMBER

LOWER ELEPHANT MOUNTAIN FLOW

RATTLESNAKE RIDGE INTER8ED

120

UPPER POMONA FLOW

POMONA MEMBER

LOWER POMONA FLOW

SELAH INTERBED
0

UPPER CABLE MOUNTAIN FLOW

fSOUATZEL MEMBER

GABLE MOUNTAIN INTERBED

V)

LOWER GABLE MOUNTAIN FLOW

COLO CREEK INTERBED

CC

a'
c
C

C-

U1

.U
0

.0
to

,3

HUNTZINGER FLOW
WAHEUKt FLOW

UMATILLA MEMBER

SLUIFLOW
UMAILOA FLOW

13 6

EI
0
z

ASOTSN MEMBER
WILBUR CREEK MEMBER

z
0
Z

MABTON INTERBED
PRIEST RAPIDS MEMBER

EOEO FLOW
ROSALIA FLOWS

E
'i.

r0
I

OUINCY INTER8ED

UPPER RDZA FLOW

ROZA MEMBER

LOWER ROZA FLOW

SQUAW CREEK INTtRBED
FRENCHMAN SPRINGS MEMBER
156

APHYRIC FLOWS
PHYRIC FLOWS
_

VANTAGE INTERBED
UNDIFFERENTIATED FLOWS
i

SENTINEL BLUFFS SEOUENCE

'a

UNMEO FLOW

.,;COWASSEftOw

UNDIFFERENTIAIED FLOWS

toV

MTCANON FLOW

r0

:'--'.'

________________TE MUF LOW

0.

LOW Mg FEOW ABOVE UMTANUM

_..

4'

1C
_

SCHWANA SEQUENCE

:UMTANUM

FLOW

HIGH Mg FLOWS BELOW UMTANUM

VERY HIGH Mg FLOW
AT LEAST 30 LOW My FLOWS

|6 I

NOTE:

CANDIDATE REPOSITORY HORIZONS

I
RCPFlOES IF

The position of the Grand Ronde 7 in Borehole RRL-2 is immediately

above the McCoy Canyon flow.

Fig.

3-1

Stratigraphy of the Columbia River Basalt Group

and the Candidate Repository Horizons

-34-

Fig.

3-3

Location of the Reference Repository Location

(RRL) Within the Hanford Site

-35-

TOMKEIEFF 119401

e(I
t

{~{

.e~t7

FLOW TOPCOLONNADE
F

W -X~

I PSEUDOCOLUMNAR
v

~
-

LONC AND DAVIDSON

119811
VESICULAR

-1

SWANSON 119671

SPRY119621

~~~~~

UPPER~~ZONE

dUPPERI

COLONNADE

| > ';

ENTABLATURE

SE

fl

ENTABLATURE
~~~~~~~~~~~~~ENTABLATURE
CURVICOLUMNAR
ZONE

--

~ ~ ~~~~CLNAD
COLONNADE

OONAECOLONNADE
~ILOWERI

BASAL OR
CLNAELOWER

APPROXIMATECONAD
VERTICAL SCALE
METERS

-2

TO 3 m

Fig. 3-4

FEET

PILLOW

PILlO

COMPLEX

ZN

PALACOMTE

Structure of a Typical Basalt Flow

~~RCPS1OS-1 188

-36-

The entablature and colonnade are generally classed as the "dense

interior" by BWIP. The entablature of the flow is heavily fractured, often with fanning or poorly-formed hexagonal columnar
structures. The fracture frequency is variable but ranges from
about 5 to 20 fractures/meter (Long, 1983). The basal colonnade
of a flow generally has a regular hexagonal columnar structure
with near vertical cooling fractures. The columns are cut by subhorizontal, discontinuous cross joints. The joints in the
Cohassett flow are most often healed with secondary mineralization
or indurated clays. These infillings give a fairly high strength
to the joints. Another feature of importance is the interlocking
nature of joints in basalt which should enhance stability.
The
base of the flow generally consists of a thin brecciated layer
less than 1 meter in thickness.
These three flow subdivisions are not present as distinct units in
all flows.
Some flows lack an entablature, whereas others may
have alternating entablature and colonnade. The thickness of the
three zones is also highly variable from flow to flow. The
Cohassett flow consists of alternating entablatures and colonnades
capped by a flow top. The flow is relatively uniform in thickness, with less well developed fanning columns, as seen in outcrop. The following description of the Cohassett flow from outcrop mapping is taken from Long (1983).
The flow is an aphyric to sparsely phyric, dense basalt
flow, with multiple tiers of entablature and colonnade
in the lower half of the flow. Column diameters have an
estimated range from = 1.5m near the base of the flow to
In places, the en= 0.2m in parts of the entablature.
tablature and colonnade tiers are separated by nearly
horizontal platy fracture zones and in other places
platy zones occur within entablature or colonnade (see
Long, 1978). These platy zones undulate in places and
consist of multiple anastomosing fractures rather than a
single planar fracture. Upward from the center of the
flow the basalt becomes locally vesicular, with vesicle
layers developed in an abundantly vesicular zone.
Cooling joints extend undisturbed through the vesicular zone
into the overlying dense basalt. The contact of this
zone with overlying dense basalt is sharp and nearly
planar and can be traced along the exposure at Sentinel
Gap.
The flow is capped by a relatively thin (=6m) reddish, scoriaceous flow top. Vesicles in the zone just
below the oxidated flow top are typically isolated from
one another, and the rock is columnar basalt except for
the vesiculation (i.e., brecciation is not developed).

-37-

It is important to note the structural variability of the

Cohassett flow both vertically and horizontally. The flow has a
tiered structure consisting of variable thickness alternating entablature and colonnade layers. It is highly likely that the repository drifts will cross these intraflow structures many times.
It is also possible that drifting may intersect the interior vesicular zone.
The intact basalt is a highly brittle, elastic, and strong rock.
Table 3-1 summarizes the relevant mechanical properties of the intact Cohassett flow (Sublette, 1986).
3.1

In-Situ State of Stress

Since the beginnings of site investigations at Hanford in the mid1970s, it has been seen that a sizeable percentage of the core retrieved from diamond drill holes is disked. Disking is a phenomenon indicative of high magnitude (and highly deviatoric) horizontal stresses and is normally encountered in deep mining. Further
evidence or high stresses and possible rock instability was seen
from spalled exploration borehole walls as well as from the incidence of extensive shallow seismicity beneath the site. All of
these phenomena prompted an investigation into the field measurement of the principal stresses at depth using the hydraulic fracturing technique.
The stress-related phenomena, field measurements, and data analyOf importance to the
sis have been reviewed by Kim et al (1986).
possibility of rockbursting at the site are four related phenomena: seismicity, borehole spalling, core disking, and the in-situ
measurements themselves.
3.1.1

Seismicity

Seismicity in the Columbia Plateau is commonplace and occurs in

the form of earthquake swarms (Rohay and Davis, 1983). Earthquake
swarms are composed of approximately 100 events of Richter magnitude 1.0 to 3.5 which last a few days to months. The volume of a
typical swarm is approximately 5km on a side. Approximately 75%
of the earthquakes occur at depths less than 4km, 80% of which occur during earthquake swarms (Rohay and Davis, 1983).
The earthquake swarm activity is heaviest along the Saddle Mountain and Frenchman Hills Structures, as well as Wooded Island
along the Cold Creek Syncline at the Columbia River (Fig. 3-5).
These swarms indicate active yield, presumably along fault structures related to regional folding.

I-

Table 1
Relevant Mechanical Properties of the Intact Cohassett Flow
[Sublette, 1986]

G(ratde Ronde Foimation.

Girande Romile Formation extluding

Umtanum ddta

ullitditiim flow unly

Pomona Member of Saddle

Mountains Formation

Rarige

Medn'

Range

Mein'

Range

Mean,

Bulkld~esity(1Jtmi)

241-301

270 005

259-2 85

2.18 005

269-289

2.85 0.03

(irfin dIeJMSIty

2 /8 - 3 10

2 30 008

..

26 3 18

3 00 0 08

20-53

34 t 13

0.1-2.2

0.7 0.4

3 6 2 4

7.0 - 13 7

10 3 2 4

1 0. 8 1

4.8 2.0

54,000-94.500

71,000 20,000

48,900-86,100

64.800 16,000

74.500- 112.400

83.400 8.300

0 15 * 0 32

0 27 005

0 21 *0 27

66.900 - 102.000

80.000 7./00

..

..

70.900 -91,800

82.500 4,200

0.15-032

024 004

..

..

020.032

026 001

Cornmpre.ssioidl wave velocity (m/s)

S.360 * 6.430

5.860 t 310

,,

,,

5.560 .6.290

5.930

! 160

Shear w.ve velocity (mis)

3.080- 3,900

3.420

..

..

3,070-3.510

3,390

90

(4j/(m

Aliprietit pimrtisity(

7l0Idl 1MImlmty (')0

YouJig's mudlulus(statlC)(MPd)
Polssol sratitm (stdtm)
Young's modulus (dynamic) (MPa)
Pulssoliss.Itio(dynidmi)

azilmlilat.-nsile sttength (MKI.)

Compressive strength (Mp)d)
uritoilfiied

02-30
0
4 - 9.7

11

04

180

1 4 23 7

11 9 6 9

81 .369

212

l1 OC

0 24

8 0 24 0

0 04

17 2

5 1

0 22 -0 36

0.25

0 02

9 4- 28.5

19.4 * 3 8

266 -416

356 42

434 -525

490

Culifill d at:

IJUMId
34 5MWi.l
Aiiij tuI mii vi iiaI Ii i.t timni (deg)
(.t T
2U'()
(mitesfiol (MPd)

..

..

..

357 *671

420 ! 90b

,,

..

44
.

45

..

53

..

..

35c

..

59

NOTE. Datd taIeis fruu( SM (978), Duvall t al (1978); FSI (1980a. 1980h); FSI (198 1a. 1981 b); Hulstrom (1982a, 1982b); Miller (1979a. 1979b);
Mill.. .indl Hish)p(1919); Sctimift %tif (1'980); filtler (198/)
*D.ltd Is lIeselted dS 0 rIledil vaIUe I stanidard devidtlOll
"1A iledar legrefiSSIuii .ilyIs onf ildtd at several (trifining levels yields the following relationship:
Comnpressive stieri'jth - 2344
5 7 x (oififimnig stress in MPd)
'A Ilicirt icression of da.t.i .i several rolifiriliri levels yields the following relationship:
( wmipressive stleiijilh * 254 4 * 8 87 x (ronfinirig stress III MPa)
da ,z taiJtrf dssurnihj tlhte M.lui (Uuluinbfailure (riterion

W
CO
00

- 39-

DIPTM

MACGIT0DI

LESS THANI

ONEATIS THAN

40 .4.

lOVS.

0A5141

-4

ANtICLINE

SYNCLIPIE

OCLINI
MON10

s.-40

P&uN0E

3 0 .3.S
L..
..

2.0 .2.1

Fig.

3-5

OIPICIION

FAULTS -DVASHED WMERE INF9PRID; 0O1110 "WHERECOVERED

2.S . 2.0
. 2.0
*.S

NHE At IN# ERE D. DOTTED WM$lPC CaVI RED

49

ED

PALL ON DONAITIEROWN sIoE

-THRUST

FAULT

Seismicity Within the Columbia Basin to 1983

-40-

Focal mechanisms of the earthquakes indicate a horizontal northsouth maximum compression with minimum vertical compression.
Thus, there is an apparent thrust mechanism on east-west striking
faults, which is in agreement with surface mapping in the ridge
structure north and west of the site. There is no measured shallow swarm activity directly within the RRL.
3.1.2

Borehole Spalling

Downhole television and acoustic televiewer surveys of exploration

boreholes have indicated borewall spalling or breakout along the
Borehole spalling
east-west axis of the holes (Paillet, 1985).
occurs when the maximum stresses induced around the borewall results in shear failure of the hole wall at 900 orientations to the
maximum horizontal stress. Because the holes are of small diameter (6" or less), this failure is essentially in intact rock.
The primary conclusion which can be drawn from the presence of
borehole breakout is that high stresses exist in the rock mass
which are sufficient to cause failure of the intact rock around
the hole. To produce such failure with the measured stresses requires friction and/or cohesion values lower in magnitude than
This is
those suggested by Sublette (1986) for intact basalt.
illustrated in the Mohr circle plot of Fig. 3-6.
Two stress
states are plotted: the borehole stresses produced by the measured stresses and the stress state necessary to produce wall
shear failure given the laboratory intact properties (Sublette,
1986).
The latter would require near equal horizontal stresses,
which does not appear to be supported by other evidence such as
disking and fault slippage.
3.1.3

Core Disking

In the mining industry, the phenomenon of core disking has been

recognized as an indicator of high stresses for many years. Core
disking occurs when drilling diamond drill holes into highlystressed rock. The bottom "stub" of the core will split off to
form a disk whose thickness is related to the magnitude of the
stress. Lehnhoff et al (1982) examined the disking problem numerically using a finite element analysis and developed correlations
between disk thickness and shape and the direction, magnitude, and
ratio of the principal stresses. The conclusion of this study was
that the major principal stress is oriented in a north-south direction with ratios of the horizontal principal stresses of 1.2:1
to 1.5:1.

I , I

ar

as
I

J-A

Fig. 3-6

Plot of the Mohr's Circle at the Borehole Wall for Kim et al (1986)
[measured stress values as well as that which could cause failure for
intact properties, suggested by Sublette (1986).
The stress state
required to produce failure from Sublette's values appears unrealistic
from other evidence. The conclusion which may be reached is that lower
valuesof the cohesion and friction in situ are probable.]

-42-

An interesting point regarding the disking is its frequency of occurrence in the Cohassett flow in various drill holes on the site.
The percentage of total core which was disked from the dense interior ranges from 9% in borehole RRL-6 to 64% in RRL-14, with an
average of 30% for all holes in the RRL (Long, 1983). This is in
contrast to other flows with higher glass content-such as the
Umtanum, which showed 73% disked core. Figures 3-7 to 3-9 show
drilling and geophysical logs of the Cohassett flow and the disking observed.
In summary, disked core encountered in mining indicates high levels of rock stress. In general, disking core also indicates the
high probability of ground control problems when mining through
the ground.
3.1.4

In-Situ Stress Measurements

The in-situ stress state has been determined by hydraulic fracturing measurements in the Grande Ronde flows (Kim et al, 1986). The
measurements show unusually high horizontal stresses which do not
vary lithostatically. The above report suggests the following
stresses at the Cohassett Flow:
aHmax = 60 +15/-10 MPa,

north-south

GHmin = 33 +4/-4 MPa,

east-west

avert = 24 MPa

A plot of the measured stress ratios as a function of depth is

shown in Fig. 3-10. The important point to note in this plot is
the high deviation in stresses. The value of aHmax/av averages
2.3 in total but averages 2.540.36 (2 standard Deviations) in the
Cohassett flow. Figure 3-11 shows that the average horizontal to
vertical stress ratio at Hanford is on the upper range for stress
ratio from world-wide measurements. This plot is somewhat misleading, since it plots the average horizontal stresses.
In conclusion, the indications of stress at the Hanford site show
that an unusually high magnitude of horizontal stress and ratio of
horizontal to vertical stresses exists at the RRL. Further, there
is abundant evidence of rock failure in response to these
stresses, including disking, borehole spalling, and microearthquake swarms. These same indications are present in mining districts which experience stress-related ground control problems
such as rockbursting, spalling, and general wall and roof sloughing failures.

I*

COHASSETT FLOW, BOREHOLE RRL-14

NEUTRON-NEUTRON GEOPiHYSICAL LOG
lCOUnISl19
600
1.000
I
I

OEPTH
lltl

tml

DISKING

DEPTH
fill

LITHOLOGY

3.082

3.113.5-.
3.116-

.3138
*3.147.6

TopCONTACT
FLOW TO1 . FLOW TOP *ABCCIA. OLASSY ?IYTRC CtAStS IN ALTIRSO.
DIMt ORAIFID. CLASTIC. PAtACONITIC MATRIX. LARGCE AND A11UIDANE
OPEN AND tlIND VUCS. AIUNOANT VtSOCtTS. SOC~t OPEN FRACIURES
AND FISSURES: AT 3.0 l h. IT CUAOES WFO VUGGY. M1ASSWE1 LIGHT
GRAY. MEDIUM CRAIlED BASALT; FRACTURES ALTERED. AT 3 III h.
FLOW TOP ERICCIA RECURS. MORE OXIOD THAN ABOVE, IT CRACES
INTO VESICULAR BASALT tNOIa AT 3.11B fl
COtONNADO .3.1121
3.11sh tLGHT TO MtOIUM GRAY.r MEDU
CGAIINE.
StLIHrtYrpANfRlTC BASAT. FEWHORIZONTAL TOtG_ AMCt. N1AIUD
FRACTURES. SOMf SCArTEREFtIVtS
vtsatS
COCUMNAAR ENTAIRATURE . MEIOtI GRAY. APhtAMTIC BASAIT;
ftW M4GMANGLE. HAIRLINE FR.ACTURES
COLONNADE . LIGHT To10MDIUMCRAY. DTIISt BASALT
LOST S11t o

3.165.5

COAL At 31421i

ENtABLATURE . MEDIUM TO DARS GRAY. APEANPATICBASALT. WITH

FIttED VRTICAL FRACTURES
(Ii

COLONNADE .LIGHT GRAY. DENSE. P*EAtlEITIC BASALT. SOLt

HIGH ANGLE. OPEN FRACTURES

-3.t93.
-3.203~

ENTABLATURE f NTABLATURE WITH INTE RNAL Vt SECULAl ZONE

AT 3.113 . 3.203 h. UPPER PORTION Of INTABLATURE IS OARSK
CRAY. FINEGRAINlD. DENSf BASALT
VESICULARtONE. COARSE GR AINED. SIGHTLY PhYIPIC. VfSICtALAR
BASALT: SOME SILICA FILLED VESICLES NEAR xOnOM OF ZONE

ENTABLATURf . CAPE GRAY. MEO"uM TO COARSE CRAINEC. FtIANERITIC

BASALT. BECOMESPHASURITIC AND APARC AT 3 3431 t

*3.282 .3.291 \
3.300

COLUMNAR ENTABLATURE . MEDIUM GRAY. DENSE. SLOIHTLY P"RIC

BASALT; FEW tOW ANGLE. POORtY HEALED FRACTUMES
BASAL COLONNADE .MEOIUM TO LOIHT GRAY. SLIGHTLY PIH4YRC.DEtSt
BASALT; MEDIUM TO HOCH ANGLE, FILLED. BUT POORLY tbOURATEO
fFIACTURs
I h Of FLOW BOTTOM RUSBBE

3.3211
_

Fig.

3-7

IBOTTOMCONTACT

-RCill1

......

Core Log from Hole RRL-14, Cohassett Flow, Showing Location of

Disked Core

I slB

___

IIIIIIIII

COHASSETT FLOW. BOREHOLE RRL.6

NEUTRON NEUTRON GEOPHYSICAL LOG
DEPTH

(eountsts)

1.000
I

500
I

IM)

(II)

DISKING
I
I

CZ--

DEPTH
DIII

LITHOLOGY

3.092.5

TOP CONTACT

'3.102-

FLOWTOP *3.02
\\

3.120-

- 950

-3,122
\

* *3.122 f

092 S. 3.102 h uMDoUMCRAY. SLIGHTLY VISICUEAR WELODO GLASSY

FLOW tOP. SOME VISICltS FKILED Of LIMED WITH SKICA
t 102 3122 h . VUGGY BASALT: SO#E( VUGt FlLED OR 11tD WITH SILICA
tPART Of LIMIT C7COLONA^Of

UWPf A COLONNADE IkIGHT GRAY. MACROPHYRIC. SlIGHtlY VUGGY.

DENSE BASALt WITH SCAITREtO LOW TO HMGHANGIItRACIUMI S
I h Of LOST CORE Al 3133t h

- 960

3.160

3. ,1DJ
._

3.169
3.175\
-

970

tIGHT TO MEDIUM CRAY. DtNSE BASALT.

COtUMMAR ITAMKATURt
OCCASIONIL VUGS. LOW TO HIGH ANGLE FRACTURES. IRLEo AND
MOSTLY WILL INOURATED
ENTABLATURE. MEDIUM 1O ODkB GRAY. GLASSY. GENTRALLY DENSE
\ ASALT: LOW TO HIGH ANGLE. FILLED AND PARTLY IDOURATED
,RACTUAES
VESICUIAR ANO VUGCY ZONt; SOME VtSICtES ANO VUGS ARE FILLED
WITHERtSIOOAL CLASS.RELATIVELY COARSE GRAINED

3,200 -

3.201,
ENftALATUNE. MEfOIUM TO DARK CRAY. CLASSY. CGEMEtRAIY DONS
BASALT. LOW 1O MECH ANGLE. FtLLD AND PARTLY INDURATED
FRACTURES. SPARSELY VESICULAR AT TOP Of ZONE

- 980

3.237/

3.240 -

3.280 -

990

1,000

COLONNADE tlIGHT GRAY. MEDIUM. TO COARSE GRAINED DENSE BASALT

WITH LONG COLUMN DEFW4NI. FILLED FRACTURES

3.251

ENTABLATURE . MDUM TO DARK GRAY. GLASSY. SLIGHtLY PHTYRC.

DENSE BASALT WITH FINE GRAINtO GROUNOMASS. LOW TO HIGH
ANGLE. FILLED FRACTURES

-3,281
COtUMNARI ENTAEASURt MEDIUM GRAY. DENSE BASAL I
1O IIGH ANGLE. RLIED FRACEURES

EwE 1(/W

3.300
-

BASAL COtONNADE . MEDIUM TO DARK GRAY. MEDIUM GRAINED

MICROPHYPIC. DENSE BASALT. LOW TO HIGH ANGLE FRACTURES
FILLED BUT POORtY INDURATED. HEAtLD

1.010

3.320 -

I h OF FLOW BOTTOM VESICULATl

3.344

Fig.

3-8

BOTTOM CONTACT

RCPB2EI 1B2B

Core Log From Hole RRL-6, Cohassett Flow, Showing Location of

Disked Core

.rjID1.
I

IF-

F--

F-

F-

[V-

rF

NEUTRON-NEUTRON GEOPHYSICAL LOG

lcountiltl
500
tOft
1.000

F-

DEPTH

r-I-

Ff-

F-

F-

F-

F-

F_

COHASSETT FLOW. IOREHOLE RRL.2

DEPTH
(ml
DISKING
lI
t.

j~~
:

3.107

SL

_950

ENTAStATLUr!
N

14.

3.140-

- 980

_-960T

il

!AAK CRAY. W(ORJMGRAMiSD SASAt 1:

lt!DiKTYIAXITIC
TIXTUME V

TH AtItRAT*I

PROOUCTS W

COtONNADE.tDARK CRAY. COARSE CRAINED SASALt.

SPARSEVtS1C1fS

- 3.147
I

E
tHNTASLATURE
. DARK

GRAY 10tLCKA.

MMo.UU GORAINIS ASAl!

COtONNADO

3.180--970
970

l 1

_ 3.183
COtUMNAR (NTAMAtIURS

-3.200

3.220COtONNADI .Witt -OcVtOtIo COWUMb DEFINING FRACTURES

IINOADiTH DARK lORttH CLAY. SPARS! VKsiCtIS

f~~

_ _~990_
.

Fig.

3-9

F---

3.255

SOTTOIt COITACI

Core Log From Borehole RRL-2, Cohassett Flow, Showing the

Location of Disked Core

U1

-46-

3.0

950 IRRL MEASUREMENTS

IN COHASSETT FLOW
-4 3.2

1.000

1-

BOREHOLE
* DC-12O RRL-2
6 RRL-6

o DC-4
ALL DC-12 MEASUREMENTS
IN UMTANUM FLOW
RRL= REFERENCE REPOSITORY
LOCATION

3.4

1.050
RRL MEASUREMENT
IN GRANDE RONDE 7

I-

a
3.6

1.100 _RRL MEASUREMENTS

IN McCOY CANYON
FLOW

1,1 s50

3.8
RRL MEASUREMENTS
IN UMTANUM FLOW

1,200 _-

aklav

OH/Oh

MEAN
1.81 0.10
0

MEAN
2.30 0.26

4.0
3

STRESS RATIO OHi.,/Oh. OH/Of

Fig.

3-10

A Plot of Stress Ratios As a Function

of Depth From Hydraulic Fracturing
Measurements

-47-

n-~

k -

i
I-

I
o.sI.

1.0j

I
0
n

_-

p -

.
A

g "Vv
0

0 0
0

ALA

-a- - 0

I
V

. y

//T
I

*A

--

V-A

,I

+ 0.3

L-~-- -4-s

-iii'.

k-

1500

+.0.5

4 F

S/

1.78 _ 0.14

1.5

/
I"

6L

2.0 F

I
2 I
I
I
*I

2.5 -

3.0

*0.5

6 C

* AUSTRALIA
A CANADA
_HANFORD SITE - REFERENCE REPOSITORY
LOCATION 1 STANDARD DEVIATION
6 OTHER REGIONS
O SCANDINAVIA
* SOUTHERN AFRICA
y U.S.A.

II

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

STRESS RATIOS k . -

Fig.

3-11

3.0

- 8

I in
3.5w

ov

A Plot of the Ratio of Average Horizontal

to Vertical Stress versus Depth, Including
World-Wide Measurements

-48-

3.2

Geotechnical Classification of Basalt

Barton (1986) has performed a geotechnical classification of the

Cohassett flow using the Q System. He concluded that the extreme
design values of the Q parameter for the colonnade and entablature
are as follows.
Colonnade
Entablature

3<Q<14
O.5<Q<10

(ambient conditions)
(thermal conditions)

0.2<Q<9.3
0.08<Q<6.7

(ambient conditions)
(thermal conditions)

These are illustrated in Fig. 3-12 and represent categories in the

"extremely poor" to "fair" range. Barton concludes that there may
be a "mild rockburst" problem in the colonnade and high stress
(but not rockburst) in the entablature. This is based on the calculation of the "stress reduction factor", which is a function of
It
the uniaxial compressive strength and major principal stress.
is not at all clear that rockbursting is strictly a function of
these two variables; therefore, this classification is untested.

-'--

1-

..

IXCIPTIONALLY

r--- r--

W--r- Ir

ENTABLATURE
COLONNADE
ENTABLATURE
(extreme min.) (design range) (extreme max.)
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-~
I.
*~*--s.f

IXTRIMMLY
POOR

POOR

r-

I---

- V-

F--

VWAY

%II

POOR

POOR

I----

I--

I--

tXC.

VIRY IXT.
COOD
COOD

GOOD

F--

GOOD

EI
I

1.e

to

.. F_

-U

<1

1 1 1i i1i

of% ..

- -I

I I wI1 1

j1

36

to

4-J

4-44.4J4-1--44-J-4--J-JI

to

'

__

U 2 a4J-.Lh

-I4-.-I.JJ.

-.-c:

24

_ S

22

SPAN
(ESR)

4
II-

6.1

i _

UHlIHIIIIG

1111
IItl

LUU = -

I21

>

Iv

l I 1111

NO

1111]

I I1

I III

SUPPORT RMUIRIO
I I I I

:I

I.-

SM

* -.------

4t---

4-_

.I

-J

Cy

....

..

*A4

X}E 11I
02

..

..

.-

COLONNADE
(extreme min.)

ROCK MASS QUALITY

Fig.

3-12

g X

2 4

14

111111111

20~~~~~~t '0a

we

200

400

woo

COLONNADE
ENTABLATURE
(design range) (extreme max.)

=[ROD] X[Jr]

Support Classification Using the Q System [Barton,

1986]

433m
3.3
3.1
2.3

X.0
%D
I

-50-

4.0

ROCKBURST POTENTIAL AT BWIP

As has been discussed, a rockburst can result from several different phenomena, including shear fracture propagation, slip along
existing fault planes, and explosive failure of isolated pillars
or blocks of material. Blake (1984) examined the potential for
rockbursting at BWIP. He concluded that the potential for bursting will be low as a result of the extensive jointing of the rock
mass, resulting in stable yield, as well as the low extraction
ratio. While these are true to a certain extent, the substantial
increase in induced stresses resulting from thermal expansion is
ignored. In addition, the stabilizing effects of the tight healing and interlocking of joints to which great attention is paid by
Barton (1986) and Hoek (in Kim et al, 1986) is ignored in these
discussions. The following sections describe the rockbursting
potential for various component excavations of the repository.
4.1

General Rockbursting Factors at BWIP

The primary driving factors for rockbursting are, in general, high

stresses, brittle rock and some structure(s) to localize deformation. In this section, each of these factors are examined for
BWIP.
4.1.1

In-Situ Stresses

The in-situ stress state at Hanford is at the top end of the measured world-wide range for the particular depth of the Cohassett
flow. Rockbursting appears to require both high magnitude and
high stress deviations to occur. The magnitudes of the horizontal
70 MPa, is easily within the
maximum principal stress, a1m5x
range of comparable areas withRin which rockbursting is commonplace. High stress deviations (i.e., 2.5 or more:1) are also present at BWIP.
The order of magnitude of stress concentrations around the elliptical emplacement rooms prior to thermal loading can be determined
from a simple elastic analysis. Examine the problem of an elliptical hole in a biaxial stress field:

-51-

The solution to the stress concentrations at the roof and wall are
given by Hoek and Brown (1980):

Groof = Pz tk (1 + 2H/W) -

1]

where Pz = 24.2 MPa

k = 1.45-3 (extreme case of GHmax = 72.9 MPa)

H/w = 1/2

Because, in the waste panels, the emplacement rooms are separated

by over three drift diameters, there will be little interaction
and the solution for a single opening is sufficient.
Therefore, GroQf - 46 MPa to 121 MPa, depending on the orientation
of the drift with respect to the principal horizontal stresses.
The upper limit of these stresses approaches the peak design
stress of 151.2 MPa established by RKE/PB (1985).
As a rough estimate of the thermally-induced stresses, RKE/PB
(1985) has determined that adding a far-field horizontal stress
component of 40 MPa will produce an equivalent thermally-induced
peak stress concentration at the roof. Although this estimation
is suspect, it is used here as a simple means of estimating the
total stress to be experienced during the pre-closure period.
Again, using the elastic analyses given earlier, the additional
thermal stress concentration (for the maximum range of in-situ
stresses) is:
Groof (total) = Pz [4.65 (1 + 2*1/2)
- 24.2

1)

* (8.3)

- 200 MPa
This stress level is greater than the design yield criteria (151
MPa) established by RKE/PB (1985).
In the shaft pillar area and the panel entry areas, the drifting
results in a significant number of intersections (Fig. 4-1).
There are many points at which these drifts intersect at relatively close intervals. The stress concentrations at these points
will be very high, although the exact level is unknown due to the
complex, three-dimensional geometry of the drifts.

-52-

fT1PCALTL.

Fig. 4-1

ENM~

Plan View of the Intersections of Panel

Entry (Note that, at some locations, 3
drifts intersect at one location)

-53-

4.1.2

Material Inhomogeneity

A major cause of rockbursting discussed previously is the inhomogeneity of the host rock mass. In particular, rockbursts have
been related to stress concentrations resulting from the intersection of a heading with a fault, dike, beds, or layers of highly
contrasting stiffness or other excavations (Ortlepp, 1983). The
inhomogeneity tends to "localize" failure at a point in the body,
resulting in localized instabilities.
Along horizontal planes within the Cohassett flow, the primary inhomogeneities to be encountered include faults, boundaries with
intraflow structures, and gas tube structures. Faults are not
considered to be of major importance in the RRL (Long, 1983), and
apparently will not be a major factor contributing to rockbursting. The frequency of occurrence of gas tubes or spiracles is reportedly low-in the RRL (Cross, 1985). The Cohassett flow dips at
approximately 50 across the RRL. Due to the tiered flow structure, the repository excavations will undoubtedly cross many intraflow boundaries across the 2KM+ plan dimensions of the repository. The fracture spacing and orientation can change rather dramatically from colonnade to entablature zones in much the same
manner as crossing a boundary between variable stiffness bedding.
In addition, the FEA (Rockwell, 1986) provides the possibility for
excavation within the internal vesicular zone of the Cohassett.
The vesicular zone has a reduced stiffness and strength and could
result in a significant inhomogeneity in stiffness.
4.1.3

Intact Rock Mass Properties

The rock properties discussed earlier indicate that the intact basalt is a high strength, brittle rock characterized by explosive
failure in uniaxial compression.
4.1.4

Extraction Ratios

The extraction ratio for a mining pattern is given by the ratio of

the excavated area to the total area. For the emplacement panels,
the extraction ratio for rib pillars is given by Obert and Duvall
(1968):
At - A
At

-54-

where At = the total plan area, and

Ap is the pillar area.
In fact,
By mining standards, this extraction ratio is very low.
the emplacement drifts (= 7m diameter) are placed on roughly 4diameter centers. Therefore, the emplacement drifts will have
little effect on one another and will act as isolated headings.
There are locations where the local extraction ratio is very high.
For example, at panel entries, up to three drifts intersect, resulting in sharp corners (Fig. 4-1). These drift intersections
will result in a possible rockburst configuration and pose a
greater threat during mining.
4.1.5

Evaluation of Rockburst Potential

It has been shown that many of the factors necessary for rockbursting are present at the Hanford site, including:
(1) high-magnitude stresses;
(2) brittle intact rock mass; and
(3) material inhomogeneity (to some extent).
The greatest questions which remain concern the effects of the
heavily-jointed nature of basalt, the relatively low extraction
ratio, and the effects of thermally-induced stress.
Blake (1984) and Barton (1986) both cite the high frequency in
jointing as a mitigating factor for rockbursting. It is felt that
the role of jointing on the stable release of energy and, thus, a
reduction in the probability of rockbursting is overstated. The
example of rockbursting in heavily fractured quartzites of the
Coeur d'Alene district illustrates that rockbursting can occur in
these cases. In the case of the Coeur d'Alene, yield, apparently
along joints, occurs close into the opening, resulting in a yield
zone around the excavation. Rockbursting appears to occur within
the confined, elastic region outside this zone. Rockbursts are
rarely centered directly at the stope (as located by the mine microseismic system)-but at distances of roughly 6 meters or more
into the wall rock. The resulting damage is primarily the effect
Additionally, the colonnade may
of the reflected seismic wave.
contain sections of relatively massive, brittle rock. Rockbursting appears to be more likely there.

-55-

Low extraction ratio will have an effect on the stress concentrations around the emplacement drifts and, thus, the rockbursting
frequency. The driving of the emplacement drifts is analogous to
single development headings in a mine. As stated previously, the
distance between emplacement drifts ensures minimal interaction
and, therefore, the headings may be treated separately. Previous
calculations showed that the stress concentrations existing around
the room periphery under ambient conditions will be, for the worst
case, quite close to the design yield stress level determined by
RKE/PB (1985). These stresses, however, will likely result in
yield on joint surfaces and probably not a pervasive rockbursting
problem. It is quite probable that spalling and some low magnitude (i.e., <0.5 ML) seismicity will occur during normal drifting
in the entablature and colonnade.
Larger magnitude events can occur at intersections of drifts with
material inhomogeneities. Intersections with faults, the interior
vesicular zone, or the boundary between entablature and colonnade
could provide a localization mechanism for larger (>0.5 ML)
events. Rockbursts of this magnitude are not uncommon in mining
of single development or exploratory headings. For example, in
the Coeur d'Alene district, rockbursts commonly occur when driving
haulage laterals and crosscuts for orebody development. Here, the
in-situ horizontal stresses at 5,000 feet depth are roughly the
same as those within the Cohassett flow. Rockbursts often occur
at intersections with faults or dikes and can displace several
tons of muck from the roof and walls. The roof has been known to
cave for heights of 3 to 5 meters along a fault slip for opening
In fact, Hecla Mining Company now
widths of 3 meters (Fig. 4-2).
performs development blast drilling with drill jumbos rather than
jacklegs-primarily to avoid exposure of the miners to bursting at
the face of headings. Although no major faults have been detected
within the RRL (Long, 1983), the Cold Creek Syncline and associated anticlinal and synclinal structures running through it may
The presence of seismicity
contain associated fault structures.
associated with these structures (Rohay and Davis, 1983) points to
the fact that slip must be occurring on fracture surfaces at
depth. The presence of instability under the current state of
stress indicates that only small disruptions of the stress state
are necessary to induce failure or slip.

-56-

/ X

,-

block fall-out roughly

equal to opening height

fault

The seismic wave resulting from a rockburst can result

in caving of the back for roughly one opening height.
This is often the case where a fault crosses the advancing heading.

Fig. 4-2

Roof Fall Along a Fault Induced by Rockburst

Vibration

-57-

In a related fashion, the shafts (in effect, a single development

heading), will cross many boundaries of variable stiffness such as
the dense basalt-brecciated flow top intersection. Rockbursting
at the drill bit can be expected to occur at these intersections.
Wellbore breakouts will probably occur at east-west shaft locations (900 to GHmax) as the shaft is sunk; the vibrations resulting from rockbursting may dislodge the material, with the possible
problem of wedging behind the bit. The photographs shown in Fig.
4-3 illustrate wall failure while reaming a 3m diameter raisebore
at the Lucky Friday Mine in Mullan, Idaho. The rock is a brittle,
heavily-jointed quartzite under stress conditions similar to the
Cohassett flow.
Finally, excavation intersections will provide perhaps the most
serious rockburst hazard. In the Coeur d'Alene district, intersection of the initial levels of cut-and-fill stopes presents one
of the worst rockburst hazards in the mine. These excavations
were converging single headings in "virgin" (i.e., little excavation in the near vicinity) ground. Due to the small amount of
previous excavation, there had been little yield or self-"destressing" of the rock mass through sliding on existing joints or
propagation of mining-induced fractures around the drift. Consequently, as these drifts converge, the stress concentration can
result in explosive failure of the pillar between headings (Fig.
4-4). This failure occurs when the headings are roughly 2-3 diamIn the panel entry areas, convergence of up to three
eters apart.
drifts often occurs at one location at acute angles. It is quite
possible that rockbursting may occur here during excavation.
These bursts would be characterized by several tons of broken rock
being displaced from the face of the excavation.

-58-

!
;

Borehole Break-out

4?)

reaming bit (lmr)

_q

(ahV

Borehole Break-out
1.

Fig.

4-3

Sidewall Spalling in a Reamed 1-1/2 m4 Raise,

Lucky Friday Mine

W (L "Z

-59-

yield zones around excavations

burst location in
confined pillar core

Yielding around advancing headings will stress relieve

the immediate ground, resulting in bursting in the confined rock mass outside this zone.

Fig.

4-4

Rockbursts Occurring at Intersection of

Advancing Headings

-60-

4.1.6

Summary -

Rockburst Potential Prior to Waste Emplacement

Small magnitude (<0.5 ML) rockbursts appear likely during drift

excavation at the RRL. These events will probably be characterized by dislodging of small blocks of rock not pinned to the back
by bolts or shotcrete as a result of the seismic wave. The face
of headings will also probably spall, resulting in acoustic activity as well as small fragments ejected from the face, back and
walls. These events can be controlled through proper ground support and the use of drilling methods which do not expose miners at
the face.
Larger magnitude events (1<ML<2 ) are possible in two situations:
(1) at the intersection of drifts at panel entries; and
(2) when a drift intersects an inhomogeneity in the rock
mass. An inhomogeneity may be a fault or shear
zone, a distinct geologic contact such as the intersection of colonnade and entablature, or the interior vesicular zone.
The number of panel entries is high (in excess of 50), resulting
in significant opportunities for rockburst.
4.2

Instability During the Pre-Closure Heating Phase

As shown earlier, the compressive stresses induced on the excavation as a result of fuel loading are estimated at about 60-65% of
the pre-existing field stress concentration. The estimated maximum possible stress is in excess of RKE/PB's 1985 design estimate
by roughly 30%, but it is impossible to say whether these stresses
will be large enough to induce violent instability in the rock
mass without further knowledge of in-situ strength properties.
4.2.1

Discussion

The thermally-induced stresses, unlike those which are mining induced, are applied slowly over a long period of time. This slow
load application has some possible benefit in that it may allow
the growth of microfracturing and slip along existing fractures to
occur around the emplacement hole and drift. This mechanism of
energy release, often termed "self-destressing" in the mining industry, is a time-dependent process which is not well understood
in hard, jointed rock masses.

-61-

The interlocking nature of the joints in basalt, which has been

used by BWIP to support their claim of conservatism of the present
rock support design (Barton, 1986; St. John and Kim, 1986) may
also lead to a decrease in the ability of the rock mass to release
energy non-violently through slippage along existing fracture surfaces.
In addition, the application of shotcrete will further inhibit yield via joint slip. The relative importance of these
modes of energy release are not known.
4.2.2

Summary of Rockburst Potential After Waste Emplacement

The probability of rockbursts being induced by the thermal stress

concentrations is unknown. Although the total stress around the
excavation periphery appears to be above the design limit for the
most conservative combination of in-situ stresses, it is unlikely,
in our opinion, that massive, violent instabilities will occur
It is our estimate that
during the pre- or post-closure phases.
the thermal stresses will induce low level seismicity associated
with sliding along existing fracture surfaces around the room periphery. These instabilities can be contained using bolts with
wire mesh and cable slings. There is a greater probability of
small events leading to spalling around the emplacement holes due
to the greater confinement afforded by the small hole diameter.
The effects of thermal loading on the stability of boreholes must
be investigated in the ES shaft. The possible role of the engineered barriers in maintaining mechanical borewall stability must
be determined from these tests. Although more difficult to accomplish in situ, a large-scale thermomechanical investigation of
room stability in the ES could demonstrate the possibility of
thermally-induced rockbursting or violent failure versus nonviolent failure modes. Preliminary ideas regarding such a test
are presented in a previous report (Itasca, 1986).
4.3

Preventative Measures for Rockburst Control at BWIP

The standard predictive and preventative measures for rockburst

control in mining have been discussed earlier. The application of
these procedures to BWIP is discussed here.

-62-

4.3.1

Microseismic Monitoring

A real-time microseismic monitoring system at the BWIP site is essential.

The primary use of the system is to examine the stability of the rock mass through monitoring of the acoustic output.
At the ES site, instrumentation coverage of the headings should be
quite simple using a system with less than ten velocity gauges or
accelerometers (single axis is sufficient).
In the event that the
repository is excavated, coverage of the advance panel emplacement
drifts will be difficult. The difficulty arises from the large
plan area which must be monitored, the mining occurring on one
horizontal plane, and the large amount of extraneous noise generated through drilling and ventilation. Once waste emplacement has
occurred, a passive monitoring of the stability of the facility
should continue over time.
As a result of the planar geometry of geophones, event locations
may be poor. To overcome this problem, mines in South Africa
which have a similar planar array are experimenting with the use
of triaxial velocity gauges or accelerometers and using a P-S wave
arrival time difference to determine event location (Bawden and
Kitzinger, 1986).
Several smaller plan area systems operating independently may prove to be a better arrangement than one large
array. Various methods undoubtedly will be required to identify
the optimum procedure for locating events.
4.3.2 Destress Blasting
One of the most common techniques for alleviating rockbursts in
advancing headings in U.S. and Canadian mines is to initiate destress blast holes in advance of the heading. This procedure was
discussed in some detail earlier. The express purpose of this
blasting is to fracture the rock ahead of the face so that it will
yield non-violently or to initiate the rockburst in the case that
it is imminent. Deliberately blast-fracturing the host rock mass
goes counter to the objectives of the waste management program,
which is to disturb the rock mass as little as possible. For this
reason, destress blasting is not viable.

-63-

4.3.3

Opening Design and Rock Support

It has been established that active rockburst control through destressing is not feasible. The alternative approach is to design
the openings to minimize stress concentration and to provide adequate support of the openings. The present drift design of elliptical shape at the approximate ratio of the in-situ stresses tends
to reduce stress concentration around the opening. The spacing of
emplacement drifts is such that little interaction of drifts will
occur. The only design problem we can foresee is the large number
of drift intersections which occur at panel entries. Here, the
extraction ratio is rather high (5m wide rooms separated by 13m
pillars) with three-drift intersections at 300 angles (Fig. 4-1).
Many isolated remnants of roughly lOOm2 cross section (lOmxlOm)
are left, as well. This design should be re-examined from the
standpoint of reducing the number of drift intersections and eliminating acute angle intersections and small remnants.
The present rock support plan calls for untensioned, grouted bolts
on 0.8m centers plus 5cm fiber reinforced shotcrete in the colonnade and 5cm fiber reinforced shotcrete in the entablature. The
rock support in the colonnade is adequate from the rockbursting
standpoint, but the entablature support should include rockbolting
to the face with chainlink fencing to hold loose material shaken
from the back.
In the event that the chainlink is inadequate,
wire rope lacing can be used in combination with the chainlink to
contain loose material.
4.3.4

Effects of Rockbursting on Repository Performance and

Safety

Depending on the severity of the problem, rockbursting can have

rather serious potential effects on repository performance. The
following discussion describes the possible performance effects
for the various types of rockbursts detailed previously. It must
be noted that several of these types of instability are not likely
at Hanford and, therefore, the performance effects must be considered hypothetical in nature.
In its most severe form, rockbursting occurs as slip along preexisting faults or shear zones. As stated earlier, one reason for
the choice of location of the RRL was to avoid the presence of
faults; therefore, such a mechanism is not considered likely at
Hanford. It is important to note, however, that some form of
fault slippage or dynamic instability is currently taking place at
Hanford, as indicated by the presence of microearthquake swarms.
However, shallow swarm activity apparently does not occur in the
RRL. Dynamic slip occurs only on a portion of the fault plane.

-64-

An example of this process is illustrated in Fig. 4-5. Lemos et

al (1987), using the distinct element code UDEC, examined the
problem of fault instability occurring from excavation of a planar
(longwall) face toward a fault. Slip occurs over a limited section of the fault between points A and B. The resulting dynamic
wave creates a violent velocity "bump" at the surface of the excavation. In actual practice, this dynamic wave results in the
ejection of blocks from the excavation walls. The performance effects are directly related to the area of slip along the fault
since the surfaces of the fault undoubtedly will dilate, enhancing
its permeability.
Rockbursting at the face of an advancing excavation (if it occurs)
will likely be centered in the elastic, confined rock mass beyond
the yielded skin around the excavation (i.e., at one radius or
more). The problem effects of such an event will be to cause the
propagation of a shear fracture out ahead of the excavation for a
In South Africa, "burst" fractures have been
short distance.
traced by mining back along previously-mined panel faces (Ortlepp,
These fractures are characterized by a thickness of 100mm
1983).
or less and are coated by a filling of finely comminuted material.
In the case at Hanford, there would seem to be little reason to
believe that these shear fractures can propagate more than a
diame-ter from the tunnel periphery because the extraction ratio
is low. The performance effects of a number of shear fractures of
limited extent is felt to be of no greater importance than the
fractures already present in the rock mass.
Rockbursts at the face, if sufficiently large (0.5 - 1.0 M ) could
result in caving of blocky material from the roof, particularly if
faults or shears are present. Such ejection of material creates
an obvious safety hazard-not only at the immediate time of the
event but, also, during the barring-down and rebolting procedures.
The performance effects of such an event are probably the same as
if increasing the dimension of the opening-the "damaged" zone
will be extended to a greater radius proportional to the dimension
of the new opening. The joints within the damaged zone will probably open or dilate as a result of the dynamic wave, possibly resulting in more extensive loosened material surrounding the opening.

-65-

non-reflectin
boundaries

ah-2

(ItE-1)

0.0
0-1.0
w
(n

-2.0
Cu

Dynamic Instability
Generated by Fault Slip

Quasi-Static
Excavation

JJ

-2

-3.0
-'L

-4

-5.0'

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5 (^IE-1)

Time (sec)
Fig.

4-5

A Discrete Element Model of the Dynamic Response

of a Fault Under the Influence of an Approaching
Excavation (The velocity of point C on the roof
of the excavation illustrates
the velocity pulse
generated My the dynamic instability
of the fault.)

-66-

One area of possible concern surrounding the caving or expulsion

of material near the face is the possible connection of the dense
interior of the flow to water-bearing structures such as a gas
tube, fault, or brecciated interflow zone. It appears highly unlikely that caving could occur in the emplacement panel excavations to such an extent that it would connect the repository horiThis would require a cave propagation in exzon to a flow top.
cess of 15 feet. This is highly unlikely, even in mining with
large stopes and high extraction ratios. Therefore, interconnection to the flow boundaries should not be considered a major concern. Interconnection to a water-filled gas tube or spiracle is
possible from a theoretical standpoint but, again, these structures appear unlikely in the RRL (Long, 1983).
Initial horizontal station excavation from the shaft may prove
hazardous. The sharp transition in excavation geometry here could
In such a
result in seismicity at or near the brow (Fig. 4-6).
case, caving could occur along the interface of the shaft liner
and may cause disruption of the water chemical seal ring. Additionally, such caving could cause enhanced groundwater pathways to
the repository horizon. BWIP currently plans to remove the liner
from the shaft during decommissioning, providing access to the actual wall for sealing purposes. Therefore, the long-term performance effects of a limited caving do not appear to be serious in
nature.
In conclusion, the possible forms of rockbursting at BWIP would,
in the authors' opinion, have relatively local effects on the
opening themselves and probably not extending more than a diameter
or two into the rock mass. The resulting effects would likely be
blocks ejected from the walls and roof, with some possible caving
along discrete features such as faults or interfaces between flow
boundaries. The performance effects of this damage would appear
to be similar in nature to those arising from an excavation of
roughly the new dimension-i.e., an extended damage zone and possible enhanced permeability around the openings due to vibrationinduced sliding along fracture surfaces. The probability of massive areas of fault slip or propagation of extensive "burst" shear
fractures appears to be small, assuming that no faults exist in
the immediate vicinity of the repository.

-67-

water seal
ring .

,,

shaft
=

_,,,possible burst
statilocation

=it1

stationbrow

station

= ii
IIl

Fig.

4-6

The Brow at the Shaft Station is Particularly

Sensitive to Rockbursting and Must be Excavated Carefully

-68-

4.0

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the rockburst potential at the Hanford site has

shown the following.
1.

Small (<0.5 M ) rockbursts are possible in the face

Spalling in the
of advancing Development drifts.
face of these headings is possible.

2.

Larger (0.5 + ML) rockbursts are possible at the intersection of headings entering the emplacement
drifts. The repository design calls for many intersections of three drifts at acute angles. It is
very possible that rockbursting could occur as these
headings converge.

3.

In the worst case of emplacement drifts oriented

normal to the maximum horizontal stress, the total
room periphery stress (thermal plus in-situ) appears
to be greater than the design criterion established
by RKE/PB (1985).
Although it is difficult to judge
whether or not this will lead to violent seismicity,
it is the opinion of the author that the slow application of the thermal load will probably result in
stable yield along joints rather than violent failure of intact rock around the room periphery. The
sudden application of thermal load around the emplacement boreholes could lead to spalling or dislodgement of blocks along the hole wall. This can
probably be overcome by proper design of the hole
lining.

From a practical standpoint, the pre-waste emplacement rockbursting problem will be examined during excavation of the'ES facility.
It appears necessary that excavation be conducted over a wide plan
area so that the effects of intersections with intraflow structures and material inhomogeneities (e.g., faults) can be examined.
Also, because the effects of the induced thermal stress from waste
emplacement are unknown, a large-scale heated room test which subjects a drift section to expected repository thermal conditions
appears advisable. If rockbursts occur during excavation, it is
essential that the performance effects of the burst be examined.
First, acoustic emission will provide insight to the volume of
rock which has been affected by the burst. This can be determined
by constructing a three-dimensional picture of the microseismic
events monitored before and after (aftershocks) the rockburst.
Other measurements, such as radially-oriented cross-hole permeability measurements may provide a quantitative assessment of the

-69-

effects of bursting on performance. Every event which provides

observable damage must be photographed and detailed prior to
clean-up. Based on these studies, it may prove prudent to avoid
waste emplacement in areas where rockbursts have occurred.
The effects of rockbursting on performance are difficult to assess, since measurements of this type have not been made. It appears that the type of rockburst and the damage that results may
be experienced at Hanford and will be localized to the immediate
vicinity of the affected excavation. The performance effects will
probably be limited to induced fracturing within one to two tunnel
diameters from the drift periphery. Vibration of the rock may
also result in sliding and dilation of the fractures, enhancing
permeability. Greater performance effects may occur if excavations intersect faults, resulting in limited caving vertically
along the fault trace. It is not expected that rockburst-induced
caving will inter-connect the repository horizon with brecciated
interflow zones.
In conclusion, therefore, rockbursting of the magnitude expected
at Hanford is not expected to cause extensive changes in
repository performance.

-70-

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