Comparative Scaling

Some Key Concepts

Measurement
Assigning numbers or other symbols to
characteristics of objects being measured, according
to predetermined rules.
Concept (or Construct)
A generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes,
occurrences, or processes.
● Relatively concrete constructs
– Age, gender, number of children, education, income
● Relatively abstract constructs
– Brand loyalty, personality, channel power, satisfaction
 Some Key Concepts
Scaling
The generation of a continuum upon which
measured objects are located.
Scale
A quantifying measure – a combination of items
that is progressively arranged according to value or
magnitude.
Purpose is to quantitatively represent an item’s,
person’s, or event’s place in the scaling continuum.
Primary Scales of Measurement

Primary
Scales

Nominal
Scale Ratio
Scale

Ordinal
Scale Interval
Scale
 Primary Scales of Measurement
Nominal
A scale in which the numbers or letters
assigned to objects serve as labels for
identification or classification.
Ordinal
A scale that arranges objects or alternatives
according to their magnitude in an ordered
relationship.
 Primary Scales of Measurement
Interval
A scale that both arranges objects according
to their magnitudes and
Distinguishes the ordered arrangement in
units of equal intervals
I.e., indicate order and measure order (or
distance) in units of equal intervals
 Primary Scales of Measurement

Ratio
A scale that has absolute rather than
relative quantities and an absolute zero
where a given attribute is absent.
Money & weight are good examples of
attributes that possess absolute zeros and
interval properties.
 Primary Scales of Measurement
Scale

Nominal Numbers
Assigned 1 31 88
to Drivers/Cars

Ordinal Rank Order Third Second First

of race finishers Place Place Place

Interval Championship
Points earned 170 175 185

Ratio Time to Finish,

behind winner 5.1 2.3 0.0
 Classifying Scaling Techniques

Comparative Scales
Involve the direct comparison of two
or more objects
Noncomparative Scales
Objects or stimuli are scaled
independently of each other.
 Classifying Scaling Techniques
Scaling
Techniques

Comparative Noncomparative
Scales Scales

Continuous Itemized
Paired Constant Rating Scales
Rating Scales
Comparison Sum
Rank
Order
Likert
Stapel
Semantic
Differential
 Paired Comparison Scaling
Respondent is presented with two objects at a time
Then asked to select one object in the pair
according to some criterion
Data obtained are ordinal in nature
Arranged or ranked in order of magnitude
Easy to do if only a few items are compared.
If number of comparisons is too large, respondents
may become fatigued and no longer carefully
discriminate among them.
 Paired Comparison Scaling: Example
For each pair of professors, please indicate the professor from whom
you prefer to take classes with a 1.

Cunningham Day Parker Thomas

Cunningham 0 0 0

Day 1 1 0

Parker 1 0 0

Thomas 1 1 1 0

# of times
3 1 2 0
preferred
 Rank Order Scaling
Respondents are presented with several
objects simultaneously
Then asked to order or rank them
according to some criterion.
Data obtained are ordinal in nature
Arranged or ranked in order of magnitude
Commonly used to measure preferences
among brands and brand attributes
 Rank Order Scaling
Please rank the instructors listed below in order of preference. For the
instructor you prefer the most, assign a “1”, assign a “2” to the instructor
you prefer the 2nd most, assign a “3” to the instructor that you prefer 3rd
most, and assign a “4” to the instructor that you prefer the least.

Instructor Ranking

Cunningham 1

Day 3

Parker 2

Thomas 4
 Constant Sum Scaling
Respondents are asked to allocate a constant
sum of units among a set of stimulus objects
with respect to some criterion
Units allocated represent the importance
attached to the objects.
Data obtained are interval in nature
Allows for fine discrimination among
alternatives
 Constant Sum Scaling
Listed below are 4 marketing professors, as well as 3 aspects that students
typically find important. For each aspect, please assign a number that reflects
how well you believe each instructor performs on the aspect. Higher numbers
represent higher scores. The total of all the instructors’ scores on an aspect
should equal 100.

Instructor Availability Fairness Easy Tests

Cunningham 30 35 25

Day 30 25 25

Parker 25 25 25

Thomas 15 15 25

Sum Total 100 100 100

Non-Comparative Scaling
Classifying Noncomparative Scaling Techniques

Noncomparative
Rating Scales

Continuous Itemized
Rating Scales Rating Scales

Semantic
Stapel Likert
Differential
 Continuous Rating Scale
Example

Very Very
Poor X Good
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
 The Likert Scale

Extremely popular means for measuring

attitudes.
Respondents indicate their own attitudes by
checking how strongly they agree/disagree with
statements.
Response alternatives:
“strongly agree”, “agree”, “uncertain”, “disagree”,
and “strongly disagree”.
Generally use either a 5- or 7-point scale
 Semantic Differential Scale

A series of numbered (usually seven-point) bipolar

rating scales.
Bipolar adjectives (for example, “good” and
“bad”), anchor both ends (or poles) of the scale.
A weight is assigned to each position on the rating
scale.
Traditionally, scores are 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or +3, +2, +1,
0, -1, -2, -3.
 Semantic Differential Scales for
Measuring Attitudes Toward Cricket
Exciting ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : Calm

Interesting ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : Dull

Simple___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ Complex

 Stapel Scales
Modern versions of the Stapel scale place a
single adjective as a substitute for the
semantic differential when it is difficult to
create pairs of bipolar adjectives.
The advantage and disadvantages of a Stapel
scale, as well as the results, are very similar to
those for a semantic differential.
However, the Stapel scale tends to be easier to
conduct and administer.
 A Stapel Scale
for Measuring a Store’s Image
Department
Store Name
+3
+2
+1
Wide Selection
-1
-2
-3
 Graphic Rating Scales

n A graphic rating scale presents respondents

with a graphic continuum.
 Graphic Rating Scale Stressing
Pictorial Visual Communications

3 2 1
Very Very
Good Poor
Balanced and Unbalanced Scales

Balanced Scale Unbalanced Scale

Surfing the Internet is Surfing the Internet is
____ Extremely Good ____ Extremely Good
____ Very Good ____ Very Good
____ Good ____ Good
____ Bad ____ Somewhat Good
____ Very Bad ____ Bad
____ Extremely Bad ____ Very Bad
 Scale Evaluation
Scale
Evaluation
Validity
Reliability

Content
Test-Retest
Internal Criterion
Consistency
Alternative
Forms Construct
Convergent
Validity
Discriminant
Validity
Nomological
Validity
 Reliability
Extent to which a scale produces consistent results
Test-retest Reliability
Respondents are administered scales at 2 different
times under nearly equivalent conditions
Alternative-form Reliability
2 equivalent forms of a scale are constructed, then
tested with the same respondents at 2 different
times
 Reliability
Internal Consistency Reliability
The consistency with which each item represents
the construct of interest
Used to assess the reliability of a summated scale
Split-half Reliability
● Items constituting the scale divided into 2 halves, and
resulting half scores are correlated
Coefficient alpha (most common test of reliability)
● Average of all possible split-half coefficients resulting from
different splittings of the scale items
 Validity
Extent to which true differences among the objects are
reflected on the characteristic being measured
Content Validity
A.k.a., face validity
Subjective, but systematic evaluation of the representativeness of the
content of a scale for the measuring task at hand
Criterion Validity
Examines whether measurement scale performs as expected in
relation to other variables selected as meaningful criteria
I.e., predicted and actual behavior should be similar
 Construct Validity
Addresses the question of what construct or characteristic
the scale is actually measuring
Convergent Validity
Extent to which scale correlates positively with other measures of
the same construct
Discriminant Validity
Extent to which a measure does not correlate with other constructs
from which it is supposed to differ
Nomological Validity
Extent to which scale correlates in theoretically predicted ways with
measures of different but related constructs
Relationship Between Reliability and
Validity
A scale can be reliable, but not valid
In order for a scale to valid, it must
also be reliable.
In other words,
Reliability is a necessary but insufficient
condition for Validity.
 Reliability and Validity on Target

Old Rifle New Rifle New Rifle Sunglare

Low Reliability High Reliability Reliable but Not
Valid
(Target A) (Target B) (Target C)