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Ian A. Hiskens
Vennema Professor of Engineering
Professor, Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
Outline
Power system background.
Fundamentals of power system angle and voltage
stability.
Generator controls.
Frequency regulation.
Corrective control versus preventative (N-1)
strategies.
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Summer load
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Hour
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Time-based
charging strategy
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Synchronous machines
All large generators are synchronous machines.
Rotor spins at synchronous speed.
Field winding is on the rotor.
Stator windings deliver electrical power to the grid.
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Machine dynamics
Dynamic models are well documented.
Electrical (flux) relationships are commonly
modelled by a set of four differential equations.
Mechanical dynamics are modeled by the secondorder differential equation:
where
: angle (rad) of the rotor with respect to a stationary
reference.
: moment of inertia.
: mechanical torque from the turbine.
: electrical torque on the rotor.
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Angle dynamics
Through various approximations, the dynamic
behaviour of a synchronous machine can be
written as the swing equation:
where
: deviation in angular velocity from nominal.
: inertia constant.
: damping constant, this is a fictitious term that
may be added to represent a variety of damping
sources, including control loops and loads.
: mechanical and electrical power.
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where
.
Dynamics are similar to a nonlinear pendulum.
Equilibrium conditions,
and
.
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Region of attraction
The equilibrium equation has two solutions,
where
and
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Region of attraction
As
increases, the separation between equilibria
diminishes.
The region of attraction decreases as the loading increases.
Solutions coalesce when
. A bifurcation occurs.
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Multiple equilibria
Real power systems typically have many equilibria.
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where
: common system-wide frequency.
: effective inertia of the entire system.
: effective damping of the entire system.
: total power production across the system.
: total electrical power consumed across the system
(demand plus losses).
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Loss of
2x1300MW
generators
Under-frequency load shedding occurs when the frequency dips to around 59.3 Hz.
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Voltage reduction
The single machine infinite bus example assumes the
generator will maintain a constant terminal voltage.
The reactive power required to support the voltage is limited.
Upon encountering this
limit, the over-excitation
limiter will act to reduce
the terminal voltage.
This reduces the
maximum power
capability.
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Effect of load
Consider the effect of load behavior on stability.
Two cases:
Constant admittance:
Constant power:
Voltage collapse
Voltage collapse occurs when load-end dynamics
attempt to restore power consumption beyond the
capability of the supply system.
Power systems have a finite supply capability.
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Frequency (Hz)
where
is the frequency bias factor.
The ACE signal provides the input to a
PI controller that adjusts governor setpoints at participating generators.
AGC implementation
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Operating reserves
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Forecast
Current
Conditions
Limit
violation
contingency
Level 1
Level 2
Level 3
Setpoints
of
control
resources
Optimal
System
Trajectory
Every 6
hours
Model
update
Every 15
minutes
Operational
Status
Corrective
actions
Continuous
Monitoring
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Coupling of inputs
and dynamic states
is achieved through
algebraic states
that arise from
power balance
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Example
Standard RTS-96 test case.
Generator
Load
Throughput
Storage/Wind
Outage
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Results
Base-case undergoes cascading failure (5 more lines
trip), and voltage collapse occurs around 29 minutes.
Level 3 MPC alleviates temperature overloads, so no
further lines trip.
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Base case
Five lines trip, leading to voltage collapse.
= Line(s) trip
Collapse!
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Respond to outage by
reducing injections.
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Conclusions
Power systems are nonlinear, non-smooth,
differential-algebraic systems.
Hybrid dynamical systems.
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